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Life Span Development
The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development – Chapter 7
June 22, 2004Class #5
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Theories About Early Psychosocial Development
Psychoanalytic Theory Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development Behavioral Theory Cognitive Theory Epigenetic Theory Sociocultural Theory
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Background Information
1881: At age 25, earned MD and went into private practice specializing in neurological disorders Became interested in hidden aspects
of personality when he found himself confronted with patients whose apparent disorders made no neurological sense
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Classic Freudian Setting
What is the classic setting? Why this set-up?
He used hypnosis and then free association Iceberg Theory of the Mind
Our access to what goes on in our mind is very limited
The majority is in our unawareness Freud felt nothing was accidental – dreams,
slips of tongue, slips of pen, etc.
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Freud’s Life 1884: Began to experiment with cocaine
Felt that this “magical substance” relieved depression
Deeply scarred by this “cocaine episode” 1885: He bounces back and gets grant to
study hysteria and hypnosis under Jean Charcot in Paris Major break in his career All of psychology might be different today These five months changed his life and maybe ours
forever
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Freud’s Life 1902: Vienna Wednesday
Psychoanalytic Society Initially took place in
Freud’s apartment Founded officially in 1910
and Alfred Adler became first president
After a dispute with Freud, Adler resigned and Freud took over as president of the Society until 1938
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Agree or be uninvited next week…
Freud saw himself as the leader, teacher, and prophet of this group of intellectuals
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Freud’s Life 1906
Begins correspondence with Carl Jung From “crown prince” to traitor Freud couldn’t deal with Jung’s belief in
mythology and the collective unconscious and ghosts
1913 Breaks all ties with Jung and his followers
1918 Loses entire fortune which was tied up in
Austrian State Bonds
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Freud’s Life 1923
The first signs of Freud’s oral cancer are detected
1920’s Honors, honors,
and more honors 1930
A heart attack forces him to give up smoking (for awhile anyway)
1930’s More honors
1939 Freud dies
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The Psychosexual Stages Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
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Freud’s Oral Stage
About first 12-18 months of life Focus: sucking, biting, etc.
According to Freud, a fixation here causes which problems as an adult?
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Freud’s Anal Stage
Approx. 18 months to three years of age Anal region is focus
Toilet-training, etc.
Fixation causes???
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Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Erikson was a follower of Sigmund Freud who broke with his teacher over the fundamental point of what motivates or drives human behavior… For Freud it was biology or more specifically the
biological instincts of life and aggression For Erikson, who was not trained in biology
and/or the medical sciences the most important force driving human behavior and the development of personality was social interaction
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Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Felt we developed in psychosocial stages… Emphasized developmental change throughout the
human life span In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold
as we go through the life span Each stage consists of a crisis that must be faced According to Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe but
a turning point of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential
The more an individual resolves the crises successfully, the healthier development will be
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair
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Trust vs. Mistrust
Experienced in the first year of life… A sense of trust requires a feeling of
physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future
Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live
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Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1-3 years)… They start to assert their sense of independence,
or autonomy They realize their will Parents need to allow them to do things for
themselves If infants are restrained too much or punished too
harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt
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Behavioral Theory Infant’s emotions and personality
are molded as parents reinforce or punish child’s spontaneous behavior social learning adds to personality
formation social referencing strengthens learning
by observation
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Cognitive Theory
• Individual’s thoughts and values determine perspective on the world
• Working model—set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences
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Epigenetic Theory Each child is born with a genetic predisposition
to develop certain traits that affect emotional development
Temperament—“constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation.” inhibited uninhibited epigenetic—though personality traits not
learned, environment affects their expression
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Temperament and Caregiving
Inhibited vs. Uninhibited responsive care and encouragement can help
inhibited children become less so Match between parent and child
goodness of fit
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Sociocultural Theory Emphasizes the many ways social
context can have impact on infant-caregiver relationship
If social context changes, child can change
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Emotional Development in Infancy
In the first 2 years of emotional development, infants progress from simple reactions to complex patterns of social awareness
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The First Year Newborns’ first discernable emotions
distress contentment
Later emotions (after first weeks) anger fear, expressed clearly by stranger wariness
and separation anxiety
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The Second Year Fear and anger typically decrease Laughing, crying: more discriminating New emotions appear
pride shame embarrassment guilt
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Self-Awareness
Foundation for emotional growth realization of individual distinctions
At about 5 months begin developing a sense of self apart from mother
15-18 months the “Me-self” rouge experiment
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Pride and Shame
Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept early on
Negative comments more likely to lead to less pride or shame
Own pride can be more compelling than parental approval
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Synchrony
Synchrony—coordinated interaction; attunement
Helps infants learn to express own feelings Imitation is pivotal Becomes more elaborate and more frequent
with time Learning through play
playful interactions by both partners important for both to be responsive
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Attachment A deep, affectionate, close, and
enduring relationship that an infant has to his or her caregivers during their first year of life is of utmost importance
This is illustrated in Harry Harlow’s experiments with monkeys at the Primate Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin
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Harlow (1959) In Harlow's initial experiments infant monkeys
were separated from their mothers at six to twelve hours after birth and were raised instead with substitute or 'surrogate' mothers made either of heavy wire or of wood covered with soft terry cloth
In one experiment both types of surrogates were present in the cage, but only one was equipped with a nipple from which the infant could nurse
Some infants received nourishment from the wire mother, and others were fed from the cloth mother
Even when the wire mother was the only source of nourishment, the infant monkey spent a greater amount of time clinging to the cloth surrogate
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Harlow’s Surrogate Mothers
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Unfortunately… The actions of surrogate-raised
monkeys became bizarre later in life… They engaged in stereotyped behavior
patterns such as clutching themselves and rocking constantly back and forth
They exhibited excessive and misdirected aggression
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To make matters worse…
Sex behavior was for all practical purposes destroyed… Sexual posturing was commonly
stereotyped and infantile Frequently when surrogate-raised female
monkey was approached by a normal male monkey, she would sit unmoved, squatting upon the floor…
Harlow referred to this as a posture in which “only her heart was in the right place”
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And worse… When a typical surrogate-raised male
approached an in-estrus female he would clasp the head instead of the hind legs, and then engage in pelvic thrusts
Other surrogate-raised males would grasp the female's body laterally, whereby all sexual efforts were futile
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And still worse…
Later in life, the behavior of these monkeys as mothers themselves – the 'motherless mothers' as Harlow called them – proved to be very inadequate ... These mothers tended to be either indifferent or
abusive toward their babies The indifferent mothers did not nurse, comfort, or
protect their young, but they did not harm them The abusive mothers violently bit or otherwise
injured their infants, to the point that many of them died
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Fortunately… Most infants do have a consistent
caregiver… Usually this is the mother to whom they can
form an attachment By the age of six or seven months infants
show signs of preferring their mother to anyone else
Once this attachment has been formed, even a 30 minute separation can be very stressful to the infant
Later on, infants develop attachments to their fathers as well
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Variations in attachment The amount of closeness and contact
the infant seeks with either parent depends on: The infant
Those who are ill or tired may require more closeness
The parent If a parent is absent or unresponsive then the
infant is likely to need more contact when the parent is around
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Secure Attachment
Sroufe et al. (1983) Studied securely attached infants (12-18
months of age) and then again when were 2-3 years of age…
They found they were more outgoing, responsive, enthusiastic and persistent
Functioning much better than insecurely attached toddlers
The infant’s urge to be close to mother is balanced by urge to explore the environment
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Types of Insecure Attachment
Avoidant Infant tends to avoid or ignore mother when she
approaches or returns after a brief separation Ambivalent
Infant is upset when mother leaves, but acts angry and rejects mother’s efforts at contact after a brief separation
Disorganized Infant’s behavior is inconsistent, disturbed, and
disturbing
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Measuring Attachment Strange Situation—lab procedure to
measure attachment; observed are exploration of the toys (caregiver present) reaction to caregiver’s departure reaction to caregiver’s return disorganized behavior—neither secure nor
insecure attachment—marked by inconsistent behavior of caregiver and infant toward each other
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Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign
Stressed mother (although not always an indicator)
Mother too withdrawn Inconsistent behavior of mother
(conflicting messages sent by her) Insecure attachments repairable
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Social Referencing
Looking to others for cues
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Referencing Mom Look to mother for comfort Mother’s tone and expression can
become guide to how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event
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Fathers play more than mothers Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play Physically active play with fathers may
contribute to development of social skills and emotional expression
Physically active play with fathers helps children master motor skills and develop muscle control
Referencing Dad
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Cultural Differences Fathers, single mothers, grandparents,
and cultures with other family structures still provide needed referencing
Father’s involvement can benefit later development of child raise mother’s self-confidence and two parents working together are better
able to meet infant’s needs than either alone
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Infant Day Care Almost all infants cared for by
people other than parents part of the time
Specifics vary from culture to culture
The older the child and the more money the family has, the more likely possibility of day care
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Family day care Center care Day care generally beneficial High-quality programs include
adequate attention to each infant encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and
language development attention to health and safety well-trained professional caregivers
Infant Day-Care
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Infant Day-Care
Cognitive and biosocial development are more advanced by day care than at home
Poor day care has detrimental effects