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C(AP)E* 2
the biological perspectie
psychologypsychology+ourth edition+ourth edition
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earning -becties
2.1 'hat are the nerous syste/, neurons, and neres, and ho do they relate to oneanother
2.2 (o do neurons use neurotrans/itters to co//unicate ith each other and iththe body
2.3 (o do the brain and spinal cord interact, and hat are so/e /isconceptions aboutthe brain, and hat is neuroplasticity
2.4 (o do the so/atic and autono/ic nerous syste/s allo people and ani/als tointeract ith their surroundings and control the bodys auto/atic +unctions
2.5 (o do the hor/ones released by glands interact ith the nerous syste/ anda++ect behaior
2.6 (o do psychologists study the brain and ho it or3s
2.7 'hat are the di++erent structures o+ the hindbrain and hat do they do
2.8 'hat are the structures o+ the brain that control e/otion, learning, /e/ory, and/otiation
2.9 'hat parts o+ the corte4 control the di++erent senses and the /oe/ent o+ the body
2.10 'hat parts o+ the corte4 are responsible +or higher +or/s o+ thought, such aslanguage
2.11 (o does the le+t side o+ the brain di++er +ro/ the right side
2.12 'hat are so/e potential causes o+ attentionde+icit6hyperactiity disorder
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-erie o+ &erous "yste/
• &erous syste/
7 an e4tensie netor3 o+ specialied cells that
carry in+or/ation to and +ro/ all parts o+ the
body
• &euroscience
7 deals ith the structure and +unction o+
neurons, neres, and nerous tissue 7 relationship to behaior and learning
- 2.1 'hat Are the &erous "yste/, &eurons, and &eres
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"tructure o+ the &euron
• &euron
7 the basic cell that /a3es up the nerous
syste/ and receies and sends /essages
ithin that syste/
- 2.1 'hat Are the &erous "yste/, &eurons, and &eres
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"tructure o+ the &euron
• Parts o+ a neuron
7 dendrites9 branchli3e structures that receie
/essages +ro/ other neurons
7 so/a9 the cell body o+ the neuron, responsible
+or /aintaining the li+e o+ the cell
7 a4on9 long, tubeli3e structure that carries the
neural /essage to other cells
- 2.1 'hat Are the &erous "yste/, &eurons, and &eres
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Figure 2.2 The Structure of the Neuron
)he electron/icrograph on the le+t shos /yelinated a4ons.
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-ther )ypes o+ :rain Cells
• ;lial cells are grey +atty cells that9
7 proide support +or the neurons to gro on
and around
7 delier nutrients to neurons
7 produce /yelin to coat a4ons
- 2.1 'hat Are the &erous "yste/, &eurons, and &eres
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-ther )ypes o+ :rain Cells
•
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;enerating the
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;enerating the
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Figure 2.3 The Neural Imul!e "ction #otential
In the graph belo, oltage readings are shon at a gien place on the neuron oer a period o+ 20 or =0 /illiseconds
>thousandths o+ a second?. At +irst the cell is resting@ it then reaches threshold and an action potential is triggered. A+ter
a brie+ hyperpolariation period, the cell returns to its resting potential.
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Figure 2.3 $continue%& The Neural Imul!e "ction #otential
In the graph belo, oltage readings are shon at a gien place on the neuron oer a period o+ 20 or =0 /illiseconds
>thousandths o+ a second?. At +irst the cell is resting@ it then reaches threshold and an action potential is triggered. A+ter
a brie+ hyperpolariation period, the cell returns to its resting potential.
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Co//unication :eteen &eurons
• "ending the /essage to other cells
• A4on ter/inals9 rounded areas at the end
o+ the branches at the end o+ the a4on
7 responsible +or co//unicating ith other
nere cells
- 2.2 (o &eurons se &eurotrans/itters to Co//unicate
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&euron Co//unication
• "ynaptic esicles9 sac3li3e structures
+ound inside the a4on ter/inal containing
che/icals
7 neurotrans/itter9 che/ical +ound in the
synaptic esicles hich, hen released, has
an e++ect on the ne4t cell
- 2.2 (o &eurons se &eurotrans/itters to Co//unicate
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&euron Co//unication
• synapse6synaptic gap9 /icroscopic +luid+illed
space beteen the rounded areas on the end o+
the a4on ter/inals o+ one cell and the dendrites
or sur+ace o+ the ne4t cell
• receptor sites9 holes in the sur+ace o+ the
dendrites or certain cells o+ the /uscles and
glands, hich are shaped to +it only certain
neurotrans/itters
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Figure 2.4 'euta(e of )oamine
Bopa/ine is re/oed +ro/ the synapse by reupta3e sites. Cocaine acts by bloc3ing dopa/ine reupta3e sites, alloing
dopa/ine to re/ain actie in the synapse longer.
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&euron Co//unication
• &eurons /ust be turned -& and -!!
7 e4citatory neurotrans/itter9 neurotrans/itter
that causes the receiing cell to +ire
7 inhibitory neurotrans/itter9 neurotrans/itter
that causes the receiing cell to stop +iring
- 2.2 (o &eurons se &eurotrans/itters to Co//unicate
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&euron Co//unication
• Che/ical substances can a++ect neuronal
co//unication
7 agonists9 /i/ic or enhance the e++ects o+ a
neurotrans/itter on the receptor sites o+ the
ne4t cell, increasing or decreasing the actiity
o+ that cell
7 antagonists9 bloc3 or reduce a cells responseto the action o+ other che/icals or
neurotrans/itters
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Cleaning up the "ynapse
• reupta3e9 process by hich
neurotrans/itters are ta3en bac3 into the
synaptic esicles
• eny/e9 co/ple4 protein that is
/anu+actured by cells
7 one eny/e speci+ically brea3s up
acetylcholine because /uscle actiity needsto happen rapidly@ reupta3e ould be too slo
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Figure 2.5 An -erie o+ the &erous "yste/
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Central &erous "yste/
• Central nerous syste/ >C&"?9 part o+ the
nerous syste/ consisting o+ the brain
and spinal cord
7 spinal cord9 a long bundle o+ neurons that
carries /essages to and +ro/ the body to the
brain that is responsible +or ery +ast,
li+esaing re+le4es
- 2.= (o the :rain and "pinal Cord Interact
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)he *e+le4 Arc9 )hree )ypes o+ &eurons
• "ensory neuron9 a neuron that carries
in+or/ation +ro/ the senses to the central
nerous syste/
7 also called an a++erent neuron
•
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)he *e+le4 Arc9 )hree )ypes o+ &eurons
• Interneuron9 a neuron +ound in the center
o+ the spinal cord that receies in+or/ation
+ro/ the sensory neurons and sends
co//ands to the /uscles through the/otor neurons
7 interneurons also /a3e up the bul3 o+ the
neurons in the brain
- 2.= (o the :rain and "pinal Cord Interact
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)he *e+le4 Arc9 )hree )ypes o+ &eurons
• &europlasticity9 the ability to constantly
change both the structure and +unction o+
cells in response to e4perience or trau/a
- 2.= (o the :rain and "pinal Cord Interact
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Peripheral &erous "yste/
• Peripheral nerous syste/ >P&"?9 all
neres and neurons that are not contained
in the brain and spinal cord but that run
through the body itsel+ 7 diided into the9
so/atic nerous syste/
autono/ic nerous syste/
- 2. "o/atic and Autono/ic &erous "yste/s
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Figure 2.7 )he Peripheral &erous "yste/
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"o/atic &erous "yste/
• "o/a D bodyF
• "o/atic nerous syste/9 diision o+ the
P&" consisting o+ neres that carry
in+or/ation +ro/ the senses to the C&"
and +ro/ the C&" to the oluntary
/uscles o+ the body
7 sensory pathay9 neres co/ing +ro/ the
sensory organs to the C&" consisting o+
sensory neurons
- 2. "o/atic and Autono/ic &erous "yste/s
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"o/atic &erous "yste/
• "o/atic nerous syste/ >contd?
7 /otor pathay9 neres co/ing +ro/ the C&"
to the oluntary /uscles, consisting o+ /otor
neurons
- 2. "o/atic and Autono/ic &erous "yste/s
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Autono/ic &erous "yste/
• Autono/ic nerous syste/ >A&"?
7 diision o+ the P&" consisting o+ neres that
control all o+ the inoluntary /uscles, organs,
and glands@ sensory pathay neres co/ing+ro/ the sensory organs to the C&"
consisting o+ sensory neurons
- 2. "o/atic and Autono/ic &erous "yste/s
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Autono/ic &erous "yste/
• Autono/ic &erous "yste/ >A&"?
>contd?
7 sy/pathetic diision >+ightor+light syste/?9
part o+ the A&" that is responsible +or reactingto stress+ul eents and bodily arousal
7 parasy/pathetic diision9 part o+ the A&" that
restores the body to nor/al +unctioning a+terarousal and is responsible +or the daytoday
+unctioning o+ the organs and glands
- 2. "o/atic and Autono/ic &erous "yste/s
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Figure 2.8 !unctions o+ the Parasy/pathetic and "y/pathetic Biisions o+ the &erous "yste/
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)he Endocrine ;lands
• Endocrine glands9 glands that secrete
che/icals called hor/ones directly into
the bloodstrea/
7 hor/ones9 che/icals released into the
bloodstrea/ by endocrine glands
- 2.5 (o (or/ones Interact ith the &erous "yste/ and A++ect :ehaior
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Figure 2.9 )he Endocrine ;lands
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)he Endocrine ;lands
• pituitary gland9 gland located in the brain that
secretes hu/an groth hor/one and in+luences
all other hor/onesecreting glands >also 3non
as the master gland ?• pineal gland9 endocrine gland located near the
base o+ the cerebru/ that secretes /elatonin
• thyroid gland9 endocrine gland +ound in the nec3
that regulates /etabolis/
• pancreas9 endocrine gland that controls the leels
o+ sugar in the blood
- 2.5 (o (or/ones Interact ith the &erous "yste/ and A++ect :ehaior
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)he Endocrine ;lands
• gonads9 the se4 glands@ secrete hor/ones thatregulate se4ual deelop/ent and behaior as ell as
reproduction
7 oaries9 the +e/ale gonads
7 testes9 the /ale gonads
• adrenal glands9 endocrine glands located on top o+
each 3idney
7 secrete oer thirty di++erent hor/ones to deal ith stress,
regulate salt inta3e
7 proide a secondary source o+ se4 hor/ones a++ecting the
se4ual changes that occur during adolescence
- 2.5 (o (or/ones Interact ith the &erous "yste/ and A++ect :ehaior
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oo3ing inside the iing :rain
• Clinical "tudies
7 deep lesioning9 insertion o+ a thin, insulated
ire into the brain through hich an electrical
current is sent that destroys the brain cells atthe tip o+ the ire
7 electrical sti/ulation o+ the brain >E":?9
/ilder electrical current that causes neurons
to react as i+ they had receied a /essage
7 hu/an brain da/age
- 2.G "tudy o+ the :rain and (o It 'or3s
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oo3ing inside the iing :rain
• Clinical "tudies
7 transcranial magnetic stimulation >)tBC"?, 7 hu/an brain da/age
- 2.G "tudy o+ the :rain and (o It 'or3s
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Figure 2.12 *a+or Structure! of the ,uman -rain
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)he (indbrain
• )he (indbrain
7 /edulla9 +irst large selling at the top o+ the
spinal cord, +or/ing the loest part o+ the
brain responsible +or li+esustaining +unctions such as
breathing, salloing, and heart rate
7 pons9 larger selling aboe the /edulla that
connects the top o+ the brain to the botto/
plays a part in sleep, drea/ing, le+t7right body
coordination, and arousal
- 2. "tructures and !unctions o+ the :otto/ Part o+ :rain
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)he (indbrain
7 reticular +or/ation >*!?9 area o+ neurons
running through the /iddle o+ the /edulla and
the pons and slightly beyond
responsible +or selectie attention 7 cerebellu/9 part o+ the loer brain located
behind the pons
controls and coordinates inoluntary, rapid, +ine
/otor /oe/ent
- 2. "tructures and !unctions o+ the :otto/ Part o+ :rain
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Figure 2.13 The im/ic S!tem
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"tructures under the Corte4
• i/bic syste/9 a group o+ seeral brain
structures located under the corte4 and
inoled in learning, e/otion, /e/ory, and
/otiation 7 thala/us9 part o+ the li/bic syste/ located in
the center o+ the brain
relays sensory in+or/ation +ro/ the loer part o+ thebrain to the proper areas o+ the corte4
processes so/e sensory in+or/ation be+ore
sending it to its proper area
- 2.8 "tructures that Control E/otion, earning,
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"tructures under the Corte4
• i/bic "yste/ >contd?
7 hypothala/us9 s/all structure in the brain
located belo the thala/us and directly aboe
the pituitary gland responsible +or /otiational behaior such as sleep,
hunger, thirst, and se4
7 hippoca/pus9 cured structure located ithin
each te/poral lobe responsible +or the +or/ation o+ longter/ /e/ories
and the storage o+ /e/ory +or location o+ obects
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"tructures under the Corte4
• i/bic "yste/ >contd? 7 a/ygdala9 brain structure located near the
hippoca/pus
responsible +or +ear responses and the /e/ory o++ear
7 cingulate corte4: the li/bic structure actually+ound in the corte4
plays i/portant roles in cognitie and e/otionalprocessing
- 2.8 "tructures that Control E/otion, earning,
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Corte4
• corte49 outer/ost coering o+ the brain
consisting o+ densely pac3ed neurons
7 responsible +or higher thought processes and
interpretation o+ sensory input
• corticaliation9 rin3ling o+ the corte4
7 allos a /uch larger area o+ cortical cells to
e4ist in the s/all space inside the s3ull
- 2.J Parts o+ Corte4 Controlling "enses and
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Cerebral (e/ispheres
• cerebral he/ispheres9 the to sections o+
the corte4 on the le+t and right sides o+ the
brain
• corpus callosu/9 thic3 band o+ neurons
that connects the right and le+t cerebral
he/ispheres
- 2.J Parts o+ Corte4 Controlling "enses and
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Figure 2.14 The o/e! of the -rain
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!our obes o+ the :rain
• occipital lobe9 section o+ the brain located
at the rear and botto/ o+ each cerebral
he/isphere containing the isual centers
o+ the brain 7 pri/ary isual corte49 processes isual
in+or/ation +ro/ the eyes
7 isual association corte49 identi+ies and/a3es sense o+ isual in+or/ation
- 2.J Parts o+ Corte4 Controlling "enses and
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!our obes o+ the :rain
• parietal lobes
7 sections o+ the brain located at the top and
bac3 o+ each cerebral he/isphere containing
the centers +or touch, taste, and te/peraturesensations
7 so/atosensory corte49 area o+ neurons
running don the +ront o+ the parietal lobes
responsible +or processing in+or/ation +ro/ the
s3in and internal body receptors +or touch,
te/perature, body position, and possibly taste
- 2.J Parts o+ Corte4 Controlling "enses and
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Figure 2.15 The *otor an% Somato!en!or orte
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!our obes o+ the :rain
• te/poral lobes9 areas o+ the corte4 located
ust behind the te/ples containing the
neurons responsible +or the sense o+
hearing and /eaning+ul speech 7 pri/ary auditory corte49 processes auditory
in+or/ation +ro/ the ears
7 auditory association corte49 identi+ies and/a3es sense o+ auditory in+or/ation
- 2.J Parts o+ Corte4 Controlling "enses and
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!our obes o+ the :rain
• +rontal lobes9 areas o+ the corte4 located in
the +ront and top o+ the brain@ responsible
+or higher /ental processes and decision
/a3ing as ell as the production o+ +luentspeech
7 /otor corte49 section o+ the +rontal lobe
located at the bac3@ responsible +or sending/otor co//ands to the /uscles o+ the
so/atic nerous syste/
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Association Areas o+ Corte4
• association areas9 areas ithin each lobe
o+ the corte4 responsible +or the
coordination and interpretation o+
in+or/ation, as ell as higher /entalprocessing
- 2.10 Parts o+ Corte4 *esponsible +or (igher )hought
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Association Areas o+ Corte4
• :rocas aphasia9 condition resulting +ro/
da/age to :rocas area >usually in le+t
+rontal lobe?
7 causes the a++ected person to be unable tospea3 +luently, to /ispronounce ords, and to
spea3 haltingly
- 2.10 Parts o+ Corte4 *esponsible +or (igher )hought
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Association Areas o+ Corte4
• 'ernic3es aphasia9 condition resulting
+ro/ da/age to 'ernic3es area >usually
in le+t te/poral lobe?
7 causes the a++ected person to be unable tounderstand or produce /eaning+ul language
- 2.10 Parts o+ Corte4 *esponsible +or (igher )hought
+ C
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Association Areas o+ Corte4
• spatial neglect9 condition produced by
da/age to the association areas o+ the
right he/isphere
7 results in an inability to recognie obects orbody parts in the le+t isual +ield
- 2.10 Parts o+ Corte4 *esponsible +or (igher )hought
" li : i * h
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"plit:rain *esearch
• Cerebru/9 the upper part o+ the brain
consisting o+ the to he/ispheres and the
structures that connect the/
- 2.11 Bi++erences beteen the e+t and *ight "ides o+ the :rain
" lit : i * h
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"plit:rain *esearch
• "plit:rain *esearch
7 study o+ patients ith seered
corpus callosu/
7 inoles sending /essages toonly one side o+ the brain
7 de/onstrates right and le+t
brain specialiation
- 2.11 Bi++erences beteen the e+t and *ight "ides o+ the :rain
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* lt + " lit : i * h
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*esults o+ "plit:rain *esearch
• le+t side o+ the brain
7 see/s to control language, riting, logical thought,
analysis, and /athe/atical abilities
7 processes in+or/ation seKuentially, and enables one to
spea3
• right side o+ the brain
7 controls e/otional e4pression, spatial perception,
recognition o+ +aces, patterns, /elodies, and e/otions 7 it processes in+or/ation globally and cannot in+luence
speech
- 2.11 Bi++erences beteen the e+t and *ight "ides o+ the :rain
Att ti B +i it6( ti it Bi d
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AttentionBe+icit6(yperactiity Bisorder
• Causes o+ AB(B hae highlighted the
li3elihood o+ /ore than one cause and
/ore than one brain route to AB(B
• Current research is loo3ing at a ariety o+
areas including eniron/ental +actors
such as loleel lead e4posure, genetic
in+luences, the role o+ heredity and +a/ilial+actors, and personality +actors
- 2.12 "o/e Potential Causes o+ AttentionBe+icit6(yperactiity Bisorder