Download - Lec 8 1 Lab 8: The Endocrine System & Blood rev 3/11 The Endocrine system is a system of glands which release hormones directly into the bloodstream so

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Lab 8: The Endocrine System & Blood rev 3/11

The Endocrine system is a system of glands which release hormones directly into the bloodstream so they can be carried to their target organs or cells– Hormones are chemical “messengers” carried

by the blood to be transported throughout the body

– They communicate with target cells—cells which have hormone receptors

• Target cells are specific for each hormone; if a cell does not have an appropriate hormone receptor, the cell will be unresponsive to the hormone– Target cells can be compared to a radio transmitter; we tune

the radio and pick up the signals of specific stations

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Lab 8-The Endocrine System Blood

Defining features of hormones

1. Come from endocrine glands

2. Circulate in the bloodstream

3. Act only upon specific cells in the body• Endocrine glands release hormones directly into

the bloodstream; they do not need ducts to help with secretion

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Hormones fall into two categories• Non-Steroid or Peptide hormones

– Built from amino acids and closely resemble neurotransmitters

• Steroid hormones– Are structurally related to cholesterol and are

lipid (fat) soluable

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Lab 8-The Endocrine System -Blood

Ways that a gland is stimulated to release hormones:

1. Humoral Control Mechanism– The cells of a gland are sensitive to changes in

circulating levels of chemicals which it regulates

2. The gland may be stimulated directly by the nervous system

– ANS stimulates epinephrine

3. The gland may be controlled by hormones of other glands

– Pituitary hormone stimulates the ovaries

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MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS

(find these glands on the model, NOT on your pig)• Hypothalamus

– Controls pituitary function and release of hormones

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• Pituitary Gland– Is connected to the hypothalamus by a narrow

strip of tissue (called the infidibulum)– Is located right behind the center of the eyes– Often called the master gland because it

secretes 8 different hormones and regulates many of the other endocrine glands

– HOWEVER, the hypothalamus actually controls the function of the pituitary gland

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– The pituitary gland also releases Tropic Hormones, hormones which control other endocrine glands • ACTH-Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

– Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticosteroids (steroid hormones involved in stress related conditions and the metabolism of glucose)

– TSH-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone• Stimulates the gland to produce thyroxine

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Thyroid Gland– Located just below (or inferior to) the larynx at

the front and side of the trachea– Produces thyroxine and calcitonin– Thyroxine contains iodine and helps regulate

the rate of cellular metabolism– Calcitonin helps the body to store calcium in

the bones. This works to lower blood calcium levels.

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Parathyroid Gland– Located in the back of the thyroid gland – Produces PTH Hormone (Parathyroid

Hormone) which1. Removes calcium and phosphate from

bone2. Increases absorption of calcium by the

digestive tract3. Increases production of vitamin D

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Adrenal Glands

• Located just above the kidneys

• Each gland has an outer layer, the adrenal cortex and an inner core, the adrenal medulla– You do not need to know the different tissue layers of the adrenal

glands

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• Adrenal Cortex produces– Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid (mineral

regulating hormone primarily sodium and potassium)

– Glucocorticoids including cortisone, cortisol and corticosterone

– Androgens which have a role in the development of male and female secondary sexual characteristics

• Adrenal Medulla• Produces epinephrine (commonly known as

adrenalin) and norepinephrine,

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Pancreas– Has groups of hormone producing cells called

the Islets of Langerhans

• Pancreas Hormones– Insulin allows other cells to absorb glucose

from the blood and store it as glycogen– Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down

glycogen into glucose so the body can use it for energy

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Gonads– The testes, in males, are located in the

scrotum and produce testosterone– The ovaries, in females, are located in the

pelvic cavity and produce estrogen and progesterone

Thymus Gland– Located near the heart– Plays a major role in the body’s immune

system

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Pineal Gland or Pineal Body– Located in the brain– Secretes melatonin which is believed to

synchronize the day-night cycles of our bodyThe Kidneys

– can also function as an endocrine gland– Produce

• Renin which can increase blood pressure• and Erythropoietin which stimulates RBC

production

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REMINDER, Endocrine Glands:1. You will be given a fetal pig today but we will

begin to dissect it next week. There is too much we must do in today’s lab.

2. You are responsible for locating the pituitary, hypothalamus, and pineal glands on the human brain model.

3. Locate on the human model the endocrine glands listed in the diagram on page 98 of the lab manual (the thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes). Use Table 11.1 to learn about the endocrine glands, its hormones and the function of these hormones.

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Blood

• Blood is actually a liquid body tissue and is classified as a connective tissue because its cells protect the body

• it communicates with all cells of the body– capillaries are one cell thick and connect the

arterial circulation to the venous circulation– because the capillaries are small and thin,

molecules move freely across their walls– this allows for waste products to be exchanged

for nutrients

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• Fluid portion of blood– called plasma– plasma contains several different kinds of

proteins called “formed elements” • Formed Elements of the Blood

– Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are collectively called “formed elements”

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• Red Blood Cells (RBC) or erythrocytes– contain hemoglobin, a protein which carries

oxygen and carbon dioxide– RBC live for approximately 4 months. – As they mature, they expel their nucleus so they

can carry more hemoglobin.– They also assume a biconcave shape. This

shape makes them more flexible and allows more of them to fit into blood vessels to increase the surface area available for gas (O2

and CO2) exchange.

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• Hemoglobin Molecule• Hemoglobin is an oxygen binding protein which

consists of 4 polypeptide chains coiled around a “heme group”

• The “heme group” has an iron atom in its center. This combines easily with oxygen at the lungs AND lets go of the oxygen when reaching body tissues.

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Hematocrit• is a measure of the oxygen carrying capacity of

blood • is obtained by spinning down blood and

measuring the amount of formed elements • RBCs make up nearly 99% of formed elements• Normal hematocrit

– men: 42-52% women: 37-47%

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Anemia– refers to a deficiency in oxygen carrying

capacity of the blood

Types of Anemia• Pernicious Anemia

– body is unable to absorb vitamin B12 from the digestive tract

– the body uses B12 to produce normal RBC

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• Sickle cell Anemia– is an inherited disorder in which the RBC

become sickle or crescent shaped when the oxygen concentration of the blood is low. This shape doesn’t travel easily through blood vessels because the cells clump, get stuck in the vessels and cause a great deal of pain.

– Sickle shaped cells can’t carry a normal amount of oxygen.

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• Iron deficiency anemia occurs when there is insufficient iron ingested.

Polycythemia is a term used to describe an abnormally high RBC count– this increases the thickness of blood and slows

down the flow of blood.

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REMINDER: BLOOD-RBC

• Do not do the hematocrit or blood typing activity. This is no longer performed due to Hepatitis C, not AIDS

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White Blood Cells or LeukocytesOriginate in the red bone marrow• Types of WBC (page 109 of lab manual)

– Neutrophils-most common WBC- approximately 65% of WBC are neutrophils• see in acute infections; are the first WBC to

combat infection• main function is phagocytosis

– Lymphocytes-second most common WBC, about 20%• involved in immune response• manufactures antibodies and eliminates

anything foreign to the body

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– Monocytes-about 8%• active in phagocytosis• elevated in chronic infections

– Eosinophils-less than 5% of WBCs• see in parasitic infections

– Basophils-are rare, less than 1% of WBCs• initiate the inflammatory response

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Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil

Lymphocyte Monocyte

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Figure 4-3: Types of white blood cells

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Recognizing leukocytes/WBC-helpful hints

• Neutrophils: have smaller paramecium shaped nuclei which are multi-lobed; cytoplasmic granules not prominent

• Eosinophils: have a really red (paramecium shaped) nucleus; looks like a strawberry or bug eyes

• Basophils: have lots of large cytoplasmic granules

• Lymphocytes: nucleus is generally spherical; pale blue cytoplasm

• Monocytes: its nucleus is U or kidney shaped; can see cytoplasm around the nucleus

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REMINDER

1. Use the chart on page 109 of the manual and the color charts around the room to help you identify the different types of white blood cells.

2. Activity on page 110 of manual-Do the drawings; they will help you recognize the

differences between the WBC

3. Page 111-complete chart to help you further understand value of WBC

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Platelets• are small cell fragments (not complete

cells) which play an essential role in the process of blood clotting

• platelets are stable as they circulate, but when they encounter a “rough surface” they form a temporary plug and initiate the clotting mechanism

• the body also requires vitamin K for normal blood clotting

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Clotting process• damage to a blood vessel triggers a vasospasm or

constriction of the damaged blood vessel

• platelets in the area swell, become sticky, adhere to the damaged area and produce a plug which will become the clot

• platelets also release chemicals to help in clot formation

Chemicals released:• prothrombin activator converts prothrombin (a plasma

protein) into thrombin

• thrombin converts the fibrinogen molecules, to fibrin which traps blood cells, forms a clot and seals the hole

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• Blood Typing– Each of us has one of 4 types of blood--A, B, AB, O--

along with some specific glycoproteins or antigens• Our cells have surface proteins that the immune system

can recognize as “self” or “non-self”. The immune system will recognize foreign cells as non-self .

• An antigen is a non-self cell protein that causes the immune system to defend itself.

• The immune system builds antibodies-an opposing protein which can kill the non-self cells.

– and causes them to stick together so it can be destroyed. So, the transfused blood clumps or clots within our blood vessels.

– This can be fatal

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• Another antigen found in blood is the Rh antigen--if you have it, your blood is classified as Rh positive. If you do not have this, your blood is classified as Rh negative.

Blood Typing Tests– Based on the interaction between antigens and

antibodies– performed with anti-sera which contain high

concentrations of anti-A and anti-B antibodies• blood samples are mixed with each anti-sera

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– if clumping (similar to clotting) occurs with

anti-A sera, you have type A blood

anti-B sera, you have type B blood– if clumping occurs with both anti-A and anti-B,

you have type AB blood– if no clumping occurs with either anti-A and

anti-B sera, you have type O blood• so, the antibodies you have in your body are the

opposite of your blood type

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Not Agglutinated

Agglutinated

Anti Anti Anti A B Rh

Agglutination Reactions

Blood Type?

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REMINDER1. You need to know the background information but will not

perform the activity for hematocrit and blood type (page 108).

2. Look at the wall charts, table charts, and your lab manual to see erythrocytes and recognize the different leukocytes. Note that RBC do NOT have a nucleus.

3. Your group will get a fetal pig today but we will not have time to begin the dissection. We will start this next week. One fetal pig will be shared by 3-4 people. Make sure that each of you participates in the dissection.

4. When we dissect, tie long hair back so it doesn’t mix with the pig insides when you bend down to look at the pig.

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REMINDER, page 2 of 2:

5. If you don’t remember your microscope skills go back to Chapter 1 for a review if needed.

--Remember to have the microscope light on low. Blood cells are small so can be hard to

see.

6. Most of the cells you will see are RBC (pale pink/orange with no nucleus).

7. When you see a cell with a nucleus, you have found some kind of WBC.

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Blood Types Determine Blood Compatibility

Figure 7.12

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Blood Typing

Blood Type Reaction

Anti-A Serum Anti-B Serum

Antibody Type

Type A Agglutination No

Agglutination

Anti-B antibody

Type B No

Agglutination

Agglutination Anti-A antibody

Type AB Agglutination Agglutination No antibodies against major blood groups

Type O No

Agglutination

No

Agglutination

Anti-A & Anti-B antibodies

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– Anemiacauses vary; can be due to low iron levels, blood loss, poor protein absorption, improper RBC formation

• Polycythemia However, if you live in high altitudes, this condition develops because of the reduced oxygen capacity in the air. It is the body’s attempt to compensate.

• Dots in basophils are cytoplasmic granules. Cytoplasmic granules contain proteins and enzymes to assist in phagocytosis

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The Endocrine System• Test--34 questions, last 10 practical

• had sheep brain with pin in it

• eye, ear model

• model answers: myelin sheath, gray matter, pons, cerebellum, corpus callosum, occipital lobe, tag closest to language center of the brain, pons, arbor vitae, choroid coat, either balance (semicircular canal) or sound vibrations to nervous impulses (cochlea)

• for identification of models, had 2 dots and each version of test had different question

• FEMALE PIG HAS LARGER GENITAL PAPILLAE

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Notes for Carol

– Adrenal Cortex produces• Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid (mineral regulating hormone)

which is primarily responsible for regulating the amounts of sodium and potassium in the body

• Glucocorticoids including cortisone, cortisol and corticosterone– These increase glucose production and – Have anti-inflammatory properties– Suppress the immune system

• Androgens which have a role in the development of male and female secondary sexual characteristics

– Adrenal Medulla• Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, commonly known as

adrenalin, which Dilate the coronary arteries, Increase blood pressure, Increase heart rate, Dilate the bronchi of the lungs

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Epineph and norepin are also neurotransmitters. The distinction between a neurotransmitter and a hormone is how it functions, not its structure. When epi and nor are released into the blood stream and act on target cells they are functioning as hormones

• when these have been removed from plasma the remaining liquid is called serum

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Goes with slide 14

• Aldosterone: primary responsibility is to regulate Na & K levels

• Glucocorticoids: – Increase glucose production– Has anti-inflammatory properties– Suppress immune response

• Adrenalin: dilates coronary arteries, bronchi– Increases BP, heart rate

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• Blood Typing– Each of us has one of 4 types of blood--A, B,

AB, O-- along with some specific glycoproteins or antigens

– If we receive blood that is different from ours, the body recognizes this as foreign and causes the transfused blood to stick together so it can be destroyed

– This can be fatal

Download - Lec 8 1 Lab 8: The Endocrine System & Blood rev 3/11 The Endocrine system is a system of glands which release hormones directly into the bloodstream so

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