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Pragmatics l:4.421-451International Pragmatics Association

INDIRECTNESS AND INTERPRETATIONIN AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN'S DISCOURSE

Marcyliena H. Morgan

1. Introduct ion*

The study of the language behavior of African Americans hasresul ted in a t remendous body of research detai l ing var iousaspects of both the l inguist ic and rnetal inguist ic workings ofthe community. Indeed, analyses of Af r ican Amer icancommun ica t i on s t y l es ( c f . Kochman , L972 , 1981 ; Ab rahams , L97O,L976 ) as we I I as desc r i p t i ons o f t he l i ngu i s t i c s t r uc tu re o fAf r ican Amer ican Engl ish (c f . Wol - f ram , L969; Baugh , L979 ;Labov, L972) have net ted a weal th o f in format ion about thecommunity while providing fert i le terr i tory from whichsoc io l ingu is t ic theory has advanced. Concomitant withdescript ions of Afr ican American language behavior have beencons iderab le d iscuss ion and debate on the ro le o f Af r ican ismsin the development o f the language, cu l ture and soc ia l rea l i tyof Af r ican Amer icans. These d iscuss ions have been ongoing fora quarter of a century and focus on whether the language ofthe communi ty largeJ,y resu l ts f rom archaic forms of Engl ish,un iversa l ru l -es o f language change or Af r ican languages. r Arecent addi t ion to the or ig in debate is the argument (Bai leyand Maynor , I9B7 I Labov, 1985) that the language of urbanAfr ican Amer ica is d iverg ing f rom that o f o ther Amer icanEngl ish var ie t ies and th is d ivergence is in the form ofIanguage innovat j .ons which have no apparent h is tor ica l l ink top rev ious A f r i can Amer i can va r i e t i es .2

Though the s tudy of Af r ican Amer ican Engl ish (AAE) hasresu l - ted in deta i led descr ip t ions o f the d ia lect , most o f thedata which cont r ibuted to i ts analys is were gathered f romyoung Af r ican Amer ican mal -es, d t a t i rne when the center o fthe i r par t ic ipat ion in the communi ty was in the urban s t reetsub-cu l ture . A l though Mi tcheLL-Kernan (L97i - ) inc luded womenin the body of her work on Af r ican Amer ican cu l ture and

422 Marcyliena H. Morgan

communicat ion s ty le , i t was near ly twenty years (c f . Morgan,L989 ; Ba i l ey and Mayno r , L987 ) be fo re i n te rgene ra t i ona l da taand womenrs speech were again systemat ica l ly co l lec ted andinc luded in the s tudy of urban language behav ior .Consequent ly , though Af r ican Amer ican speech has been v iv id lydescr ibed, i ts descr ip t ion has suf fered f rom constantcompar i sons t o o the r U .S . d i a l ec t s and a p roc l i v i t y f o r onesmalI segment of the cornmunity adol-escent men involved ins t reet cu l ture . Whi le i t is ind isputab le that in terest ingana l yses o f t he s im i l a r i t i es and d i f f e rences be tween A f r i canAmer ican and other U.S. speech s ty les have emerged (c f .Kochman, L981) , an unfor tunate outcome of th is narrow focushas been the t reatment o f the speech and l ingu is t ic reper to i reof the communi ty as d i f ferent f rom and not connected to o therAf r ican Amer ican s ty les o f in teract ion and norms ofcommunicat ion.3 As a resu l t , the speech communi ty , w i th i tsrequis i te exchanges and negot ia t ions, has not been analyzed asa cu l tura l system wi th an accompanying semiot ic system whichcommunicates ideo logy anq a theory o f rea l i ty (c f . Durant i ,l - 9 B B 1 G e e r t z , L 9 7 3 ; V o t o E i n o v , I 9 7 3 ) .

Th is paper addresses th is omiss ion by exp lor ing themeta l ingu is t ic dev ices employed in the Af r ican Amer icancommuni ty to represent i ts ident i ty and soc ia l rea l - i ty . Theanalys is was accompl ished through an examinat ion andin tergenerat iona l compar ison of the language behav ior andcommunicat ion s ty le o f three generat ions o f Af r ican Amer icanwomen between the ages of e ighteen and seventy- two res id ing inChicago between L974 and L982.

The s tudy of the l ingu is t ic and communicat ion s ty les o fwomen is cent ra l to the unders tanding of how the communi tyexpresses i ts rea l i ty because women have h is tor ica l ly beenrespons ib le for the language development o f the i r ch i ldren andtherefore the i r communi ty . Moreover , Af r ican Amer ican womenhave func t i oned as heads o f househo lds e i t he r f i nanc ia l l y o ri n r esponse t o po l i t i ca l and soc ia l cond i t i ons wh i ch haverequ i red t he absence o f t he i r men . No t su rp r i s i ng l y , t hesewomen represent a co l - l -ec t ive surv iva l w isdorn which has shapedthe communi ty ts character . They have he lped const ruct andrna in ta in a language and communicat ion system which hasre f l ec ted two opposed and sepa ra te rea l i t i es : t ha t o f ahe lp l ess and hope less sLave and ex -s1ave and t ha t o f arespons ib le and thought fu l human be ing. The emergence of th isdua l r ea l i t y can be t r aced t o s l ave ry ; and t he roo t s f r omwhich th is communicat ion system has grown are p lanted inA f r i c a .

African Ameican women's discourse 423

2. Counter language

In Morgan ( t o appea r ; L989 ) , I desc r i be t he l i f e o f a s l avein t he U .s . as one whe re a l l c i v i l r i gh t s we re den ied as we I Ias the r ight to demonst ra te any of the a t t r ibutes o frespons ib le adul ts : grown men and women were t reated ashe lp less ch i l d ren . As pa r t o f r es i s tance t o t h i s r r s l ave

rea l - i ty t t , dD a l ternat ive rea l i ty developed among s laves whichalLowed them to express a pos i t ive se l f -v iew as men and womencapab le o f r espons ib i l i t y and con t roL . Th i s h i dden , ye t se l f -a f f i rming be l ie f was a consc ious at tempt to prov ideal ternat ives that cou l -d ex is t and thr ive wi th in the conf inesof the soc ia l - rea l i ty o f s lavery . Because there were fews ign i f i can t soc ia l and po l i t i ca l changes a f t e r s l ave ry r s end ,i t was necessary for ex-s laves to cont inue the express ion ofthe dual rea l i ty long af ter the formal ins t i tu t ion o f s laverywas d i sman t l ed .

As B ryce -LaPor te (1971 ) demons t ra tes , t he wo r l d o f t he U .S .s lave and ex-s lave developed in to a c lass ic example o fG o f f m a n r s ( 1 9 6 1 ) ' t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n ' . I t was a wor ldestab l ished to care for persons fe l - t to be incapable andharmless or incapable but un in tended threats to the comnuni ty ;and i t was estab l ished to pursue work- l ike and ins t rumenta lt asks (Go f f r nan , L96Lz4 -5 ) . Acco rd ing t o Go f fman , s i nce t herea l i t y o f a t o ta l i ns t i t u t i on i s de f i ned by t hose ou t s i de i t ,an under l i fe or ant isoc ie ty develops which is counter to therea l i ty o f the ins t i tu t ion and a communicat ion system of tenemerges t o suppo r t t h i s unde r l i f e . Ha l l i day (1978 ) desc r i besth is communicat ion systern as a means of rea l izat ion o f asubject ive rea l i ty which does not mere ly express th is rea l i tybut act ive ly creates and mainta ins i t . The l -anguage is secretand va lues are def ined by what they are not .a

As a t o ta l i ns t i t u t i on , U .S . s l ave ry demanded tha t s l avesexhib i t behav ior in the presence of whi tes which suppor ted i tspa te rna l i s t i c and human i t a r i an ra t i ona l i za t i ons . Th i s

" I oop ing " (Go f fman , l - 961 - ) , wh i ch requ i red t ha t bo th ac t i on andat t i tude demonst ra te par t ic ipat ion in the to ta l ins t i tu t ion,was re in forced through a communicat ion s ty le imposed on s laveswhich in terpreted any express ion of ideas, d i rect eye contact ,or s imple quest ions as potent ia l ly aggress ive acts . Wi th inth is repress ive and reg imented comrnunicat ion env i ronment ,s l aves i n t he U .S . deve loped an i n t ra -g roup sys tem o fcommunicat ion unfami l ia r to the i r ens laver . Th is second leve lo f communicat ion, here re fer red to as r rcounter language" , hasto do wi th the development o f a speech economy in which r rways

of speak ing" inher i ted f rom Afr ica were reshaped by theh i s to r i ca l expe r i ence o f A f r i can Amer i cans i n t he U .S .


(Abrahams and szwed, 1983: Lev ine , L977) . rn thecounter languager_ as in many speech comrnuni t ies in Afr ica andAfr ica Arner ica t , the not lon of speaker responsiuir i ty - is

essent ia l and hearers and overheareis have as huchr or more,t tsayt t in determining a speaker r s intent ion as the sender ofthe message.. - For exampre, _ Hunter (Lggz) and saah (LgB4) ,report that in both Hausa and Akan societies respectiveiy, therol-e of the audience in determining intent ionar i ty and speakerresponsibi f i ty in discourse is so important tha-t r iguiai iv-ranguage and spokesmen are used to proiect the speaker from anun in tended in te rpre ta t ion .6 r i sher (Lg76) and Re isman( r974 iL97o) repor t tha t in the car ibbean, address ing renur r=to (or about) a person within his/hel hear ing but through arrsham receivert t is a conmon pract ice.T The

-=p" ix"r , av5ids

respons ib i l i t y fo r the aud ience 's ass ignment o f in ten t iona l i t yby -obviously and strategical- ly providing

"o. t f t i " i l "g =vnu"i '=

a n d s i g n s .rn Afr ica and the car ibbean, indirect communicat ion occurs

in contexts and within norms which al l members of the societyrecognize as. appropr iate or inappropr iate. the norms andstyle of indirect communicat ion iJsume a di f ferent characterin the u .s . because ind i rec t communica t ion has h is to r ica l l yserved counter language funct ions and is therefore nei theipract iced nor tnown by the ent i re society. r t syrnbor izes arear i ty and ideo logy tha t , wh i re par t o f A f r i ca and Af r i caAmerica, is arso 'knee deep, in .e.rner ica. rn" resutt is alanguage system which explbi ts i ts p.r iv i regea posi t ion ofrrahrarenessrr and revel-s in the knowledge that there is one setof people non-Afr ican American whbse rear i ty is based onthe assumption that the society uses one system ofcornmunication and another afi ican Americans whopylposeful ly w3de through that.rnyopic v iew using signs wnicnr r f loa t l i ke a bu t te r f l y and s t ing i iXe a bee. "

-

3. fntent ional i ty and Speaker Responsibi l i ty

cul tures at t r ibute, indeed acknowledge, speech acts in wayswhich communicate the ideology and histor ical movement of thesoc ia l . g roup. cons ider ing- - the cornp lex i ty o f Ln" speechsi tuat ion descr ibed above and the todion that-speakers workwithin layers of meaning and through signs auouf s j -gns (cf .G a t e s , 1 - 9 8 8 ; G e e r t z , L 9 9 3 , L g T L ;

- v o l 0 J i n o v , L g 7 3 ) ' , i t ' i snecessary to discuss how the Afr ican American community

actual ly determines speaker responsibir i ty ana in lent ionai i t iand r r ' . .negot ia tes the lan9 lage user th rough severa l o rders o fmean ing . t t (Gates LgBB r79)

-e

Kochman ( l -98L; l -986) addresses one aspec t o f in ten t ionat i t y


in Af r ican Amer ican cu l ture in h is descr ip t ion o f a t t i tudestoward genera l versus categor ica l re ference and determinateand indeterminate ambigu i ty . He says that for Af r icanAmer icans, the determinat ion o f who is be ing inc luded in areference is the respons ib i l i ty o f r r . . . those whom thes ta te rnen t m igh t conce i vab l y desc r i be (1981 - :90 ) " and no t t hespeake r . He ca l l s t h i s t he r f l f t he shoe f i t s , wea r i t r r r u l e .Kochmanrs concep t i on o f t h i s r u l e , wh i ch ass iqnsrespons ib i f i t y t o t he hea re r ( r ece i ve r ) , does no t r ecogn i zethe d ia l og i c na tu re o f t he speech ac t . The speake r r s ro l e i smore than that o f a mere ins t igator for two reasons. F i rs t ,the speakerrs s ta tus and s tanding in the group is a lways ats take (Sm i the rman , I 977 ) . Second l y , i n t he A f r i can Amer i canspeech communi ty (AASC), misunders tandings of message contentbetween senders and rece ivers are se ldom recognized as suchand wha t i s sa id , and a l - I r easonab le i n te rp re ta t i ons , i sv iewed as what is neant . Speakers , therefore, are rare lyviewed as innocent in terms of intent r ' and what a speaker rnayargue is a misunders tanding, is la rge ly v iewed as the hearers lunders tanding of what the speaker rea l ly means. Th is aspectof communicat ion s ty le is suppor ted by Gwal tney (L979) whoargues that in the AASC, i lThe record, that is , what anyth ingactua l ly is , is in f in i te ly more impor tant than the in tent o fanyth ing (xx ix) . " When he asked h is in for rnants what theythought was the d i f ference between Af r ican Amer icans andw h i t e s , o n e r e p l i e d t h e b i g g e s t d i f f e r e n c e i s r r . . . w e [ A f r i c a nArne r i cans l know when we r re p l ay ing t t ( 105 ) .

Though Kochman (1985) is cor rect when he says thatspeakers can be purposefu l ly ambiguous, even when the speakeris not in tent iona l ly ambiguous the audience can determinein tent iona l i ty and make h i rn /her respons ib le for i t . Th is isposs ib le because counter language does not ex is t apar t f rom thesystem of Amer ican Engl ish. They both compr ise, in a non-h ierarch ica l fash ion, the language and communicat ion system ofthe Af r ican Amer ican speech cornmuni ty . They are one. Thus,whi le a speaker can dec ide to be ambiguous, as Kochmanins i s t s , t he aud ience has r r t he l as t wo rd ' r on i n ten t i ona l i t y .

Th is concept o f in tent iona l i ty then, prec ise ly because i tis par t o f a system which inc ludes the rea l i ty that speakersnay deny in tent iona l i ty , is inext r icab ly t ied to the not ion o frespons ib i l i t y and concomi tan t l y , ' r I f t he shoe f i t s , wea r i t r fworks both ways. You are respons ibLe for what you say as wel las any consequences that may ar ise f rom say ing i t whetheryou know i t or not .

Examples o f how speaker respons ib i l i ty and in tent iona l i tyare taught to ch i ldren in the Af r ican Amer ican communi ty havebeen repo r ted by M i t che I I -Ke rnan ( I 973 ) . Be low i s anin teract ion which occurred at a fami ly v is i t dur ing ny


f i e l dwork .

Two g i r l sOne g i r l

G i r l L

G i r I 2

Mother

G i r l L

Mother

G i r I 1

Mother

G i r l 1

Mother

Gi r l 1-

Mother

G i r I L

Mother

Gi r l l -

G i r I 2

around I or 9 years o ld burs t in to the house.is cry ing Ioudly and ho ld ing up a bru ised arm.

I r m s o r r y . f r m s o r r y . I r m s o r r y . I r m s o r r y ,M i c h e l l e , I r m s o r r y .

( l ook ing a t g i r l l f s mo the r and c r y i ng ) Shepushed me on the ground in the g lass! Shepushed me down! She pushed me down!

(to daughter) Did you push her down?

Y e s . f r m s o r r y m a m a . I r m s o r r y M i c h e l l e . Id i d n r t m e a n t o d o i t .

Y o u r r e s o r r y ?

Y e s .

Did you push her by acc ident or d id you t ry topush her down and she fe I I?

f wan ted he r t o t r i p , bu t no t make he r f a I I .

So you rneant to push her d idnt t you?

Y e s .

So yourre not sor ry that you pushed her areyou?

( Iook ing a t t he f l oo r and speak ing so f t l y ) No .

See, you d id someth ing I to ld you not tod o ! D o n r t s a y y o u r r e s o r r y i f y o u r r e n o t .You d id i t and we have t o see i f M i che l l ewan ts t o f o rg i ve you . I f f have t o se t t l e youa n d M i c h e l l e r s p r o b l e m y o u t I l b o t h c o m e i nhere and s i t down. So i f you two want to p fay,you rd be t t e r se t t l - e i t now .

O . K . , O . K . W e r L l s e t t l e i t . ( a d d r e s s e s g i r l 2 )Michel le , I pushed you and I was wrong. I wasp lay ing t oo ha rd . I d i dn r t mean to hu r t you .

( s o b b i n g s o f t l y ) O . K . J a n i c e , I k n o w . ( t o G i r I

In the Af r ican Amer ican speech communi ty the s ta tement ,r r I rm so r r y . r r , i s se ldom v iewed as an apo logy . Ra the r ,ove rhea re rs and t a rge t s o f r r l rm so r r y . r r o f t en respond w i t hthe re j o i nde r , r r so r r y d i dn t t do i t . You d id . t t I n t he aboveexanple , the mother ins is ts that Gi r l t - admi t that shein tended to push Gi r t 2 and the mother re fuses to a l low Gi r lL to apolog ize for do ing someth ing she in tended to do (pushc i r l 2 ) by i ns i s t i ng t ha t he r daugh te r ( c i r 1 1 ) r ecogn i ze he ror ig ina l in tent ion. In th is case, sor ry is in terpreted ast t d i dn f t mean to r r . An accep tab le apo logy , ds shown above , i sone where the speaker ind icates that s /he actua l ly in tended toper form the i l l -adv ised act and s /he was wrong to do i t .Speakers , even as ch i l ,dren, must take fu l l - respons ib i l i ty forthe meaning of the i r words.

Cornmunication breakdowns may occur when there isd isagreement over which s ty le o f cornmunicat ion,counter language or non-Af r ican Amer ican, is used ra ther thanwhat the speaker s ta tes that s /he in tended to mean. I t isin terest ing that whi le there can be misunders tandings overwhich system is in use, there is no misunders tanding overin tent iona l i ty as such. Hearers se ldom hold speakers who areignorant o f the counter language respons ib le , though they of tenf ind i t unbel ievabLe that a speaker does not takerespons ib i f i t y f o r h i s /he r wo rds . An examp le o f t he t ype o fprob lens which can ar ise when there is d isagreernent over whichr r sys temr t i s i n ope ra t i on appea rs i n a case o f t t s i gn i f y i ng t tr epo r ted by M i t che l l -Ke rnan (197L ) .

Barbara: What are you going to do Saturday? WiLl- yoube over here?

Mother

R :

Ba rba ra :

Mary :


1 rs mo the r ) Now can we go ou t t o p l ay?

G o o n . ( M o r g a n , L 9 8 9 : 9 8 - 9 9 )

I d o n r t k n o w .

W e L L , i f y o u I r e n o t g o i n g t o b e d o i n ganyth ing, come by. I rm go ing to cook somec h i t ' l i n s . ( r a t h e r j o k i n g l y ) o r a r e y o u o n eo f t h o s e N e g r o e s w h o d o n r t e a t c h i t t l - i n s ?

( i n te r j ec t i ng i nd ignan t l y ) Tha t ' s a I I I hea rJ ,a te ly- -sou l food, souJ- food. I f you say youdon ' t ea t i t you ge t accused o f be ing sad i t t y( a f f e c t e d , c o n s i d e r i n g o n e s e l f s u p e r i o r ) .( r na t t e r o f f ac t l y ) We l1 , I a te enough b lack -eyed peas and neckbones dur ing the depress ion


that I canr t get too exc i ted over i t . I eatpr ime r ib and T-bone because I l i ke to , notbecause I 'm t r y i ng t o be wh i t e . . . .

[Mary leaves]

Ba rba ra : We l l , I wasn r t s i gn i f y i ng a t he r , bu t l i ke Ia lways sdy , i f t he shoe f i t s , wea r i t . ( p . 7L )

In the above exchange Barbara both insists that she was notus ing the counter language (s ign i fy ing) whi le s imul taneous lytak ing respons ib i l i ty for the insu l t . Thus the s ta tement : r r l fthe shoe f i ts b /ear i t r r is an ind icat ion that Barbararecognizes her respons ib i l i ty for making the remark, whethershe in tended to use the system or not and whether the hearer rs( researcher) or overhearer rs (Mary) in terpreta t ion is what sheac tua l l y r nean t . l o

Though the speaker is respons ib le for hearers li n te rp re ta t i on o f wha t i s sa id , s /he i s no t r espons ib l e f o rthose who par t ic ipate in the exchange by a non-AASC set o fr u l e s . The Mi tche l l -Kernan example is a r rc lass icr li l lus t ra t ion o f counter language because a l I par t ic ipants v iewintent ion as an outcome of us ing the same system. BecauseBarbara rnade a statement that was framed as counterlanguage,the hearer rs cou ld c la im any reasonable in terpreta t ion theychose. In genera l , Af r ican Amer icans do not d isagree wi th apar t icu lar react ion to what is sa id , but that a react ion isreasonable wi th in a par t icu lar context . Of course, agreementcannot be negot ia ted i f there is no awareness that there issome th ing t o nego t i a te . I n f ac t , den ia l o f r ecogn i t i on t ha tcounter language norms are in use is an impor tant par t o f thenegot ia t ion o f speaker in tent , which is o f ten punctuated wi thc o m m e n t s l i k e r r l d i d n t t m e a n i t t h a t w a y . t t o r r r y o u t o o k t h a tt he w rong r way . t r r l S ince t he no t i on o f speake r respons ib i l i t yis prominent , .a I I par t ic ipants in in teract ions must be awareof the messagle content as wel l as soc ia l rea l i ty , context andpa r t i c i pan ts ( i n t h i s case pa r t i c i pan ts i nc l ude a I I hea re rsunless the context proh ib i ts input f rom passer-bys) .

The not ion o f speaker respons ib i l i ty and in tent iona l i ty inin teract ion descr ibed above is the bas is o f the fo l rowingmaxims which are the foundat ion o f d iscourse in the AASC:

l - . You should know the consequences of your s ta tementse v e n i f y o u d o n t t .

2 . You a re respons ib l e f o r a l l you r s ta temen ts andactions whether you know it or not


This concept o f soc ia l knowledge then, is inext r icab ly t iedto the not ion o f respons ib i t i ty , where you are respons ib le forwhat you say as wel r as any consequences that rnay ar ise f romsaying i t . Th is method of cornmunicat ion, which pers is tstoday, developed in a h is tor icar and soc iar context o frepress ion. r t is not surpr is ing that many of these pract icescont inue to serve counter language funct ions and are o f tent th iddenrr f rom speakers o f non-Af r ican Arner ican cu l tures.

Because there is a sharp focus on speaker respons ib i l i ty ,the AASC is one where what you say you in tended when you saywhat you say is g iven less credence than the overa l l e f fec t orin terpreta t ion o f what you actua l - ly sa id , which is v iewed aswhat was rear ly in tended by the r is teners . Thus the soc ia li den t i t y o f t he speake r , h i s /he r f ace (Go f fman , L967 ) , i s acons t ruc t o f t he commun i t y r s pe rcep t i on o f t he speake r r s ro l ein in teract ion. The const ruct ion o f such assessrn-ents is basedon the communi ty ts not ion o f rea l i ty and the consequences thatone faces when becoming the focus or center (as speaker) o ft h a t r e a l i t y .

4 . I nd i rec t D i scou rse

Afr ican Amer ican communicat ion s ty le has been descr ibed ash iqh keyed , emo t i ona r and an ima ted (Kochman , 1 -981 ; Labov ,1974; sn i therman I L977) . Moreover , non-members o f ten v iew theAASCTS no t i on o f d i r ec t i n te rac t i on as con f ron ta t i ona l(Kochrnan , L981) . Yet for women in the AASC ind i rectd iscourse, ra ther than d i rect communicat ion, is the source ofin tense scrut iny and d iscuss ion and i t is regurar ly v iewed aspo ten t i a l l y con f ron ta t i ona l . Wh i l e i nd i rec t i on can t ake manyforms in d iscourse, there are essent ia l ly two uses which seei tt o be s i gn i f i can t t o t he AASC: ( i ) po in ted i nd i rec tness - whena speaker says someth ing to someone that is e i ther o f nore levance to cur rent or pr ior contexts and/or not obv ious f romthe p ropos i t i ona r con ten t and ( i i ) ba i t ed i nd i rec tness - whena speaker says sorneth ing generar which is taken by theaud ience t o be spec i f i c o r add ressed t o someone i n pa r t i cu la rbecause o f con tex tua ] ev idence . po in ted i nd i rec tness i sde f i ned as such because i t i nvo r . ves a , sham rece i ve r , (F i she r ,L976) and is on ly recogni -zed i f background or context has beenc lear ly estab l ished so that the in tended target and thosearound can determine the ident i ty o f the re ferent . F isheruses t he f o l l ow ing examp le t o desc r i be t h i s speech ac t i nBa rbados .

A woman chose to wear an over ly br ight shade of l ips t ickto a par ty . She overheard a woman say, , ,Oh, f thoughtyour mouth $ /as burs t . ' to a man whose l ips were in


p e r f e c t o r d e r . ( L 9 7 5 : 2 3 1 - )

Accord ing to F isher , the above ind i rect speech act is par t o fthe communicat ion system of Barbadian soc ie ty and thesubject ive assessment o f these events is based on soc ie ta li nd i ca to rs o f c l ass and s ta tus . I n t he U .S . howeve r , t h i sform of ind i rectness is not assoc ia ted wi th c lass or s ta tusbut is a s ign of ident i ty and an ideo logy which recognizes twor e a l i t i e s .

Bai ted ind i rectness focuses on the features or a t t r ibutesof a re ferent and inp l ies that those features are a lso sharedby the target who is among hearers and overhearers.Genera l ly , any response regard ing the re ferent that a heareror overhearer makes means s /he is the in tended target r r i ft h e s h o e f i t s . . . r r . T h e e x a m p l e f r o m M i t c h e l l - K e r n a n ( L 9 7 2 )d iscussed above is an example o f ba i ted ind i rectness, notbecause the speaker th inks so, (she ind icates i t was notin tent iona l ) but because the hearer and overhearer sa id thatwas he r i n ten t i on . Mos t r epo r ted cases o f I t s i gn i f y i ng , , ,r rsoundingrr or t tp lay ing the dozensrr are actua l ly the t tgamet , o fba i t ed i nd i rec tness . 12

5. Af r ican Amer ican and Whi te Percept ions o f In tent iona l i tyand Speaker Respons ib i l i ty

A s tudy was conducted to determine whether : (a) Af r icanAmerican and white women have the same perceptions ofin tent iona l i ty in ba i ted and po in ted ind i rect in teract ions;(b) Afr ican Arnerican and white L/omen have the same perceptiono f speake r r s and hea re r r s ro l e and respons ib i l i t y f o r wha t i ssa id and whether (c) Af r ican Amer icansr percept ion o fspeake r ' s r espons ib i f i t y and hea re r r s ro l e i n de te rn in i ngin ten t i ona l i t y i s t he same ac ross gene ra t i ons . s i x t y A f r i canAmer ican women and f i f ty -s ix whi te women between the ages ofL7 and 75 were asked the i r react ions to two scr ip ts conta in ingcases o f i nd i r ec t d i scou rse . The sc r i p t s we re based onin teract ions that r have wi tnessed and/or par t ic ipated inwhich foreground speaker respons ib i f i t .y and/or not ions o fi n ten t i ona l i t y . The s to r i es we re f i e rd t es ted ove r a s i xmonth per iod wi th f i f teen in formants who represented the agesand soc ia l c l ass o f pa r t i c i pan ts o f t he ac tua l s tudy .rn formants who par t ic ipated in the f ie ld tes ts answeredquest ions ind iv iduarry and then d iscussed the text andques t i ons rega rd ing au then t i c i t y , p raus ib i l i t y and c l a r i t y .changes in the scr ip t were made accord ing ly . The rna jor i ty o fthe suggest ions suppr ied by the f ie rd in formants to make thestor ies r r rea I r r and quest ions o f respons ib i I i ty and

Afican Anterican women's discourse 43|

in tent iona l i ty apparent actua l ly compl icated the s tory byconb in ing ac t s o f po in ted and ba i t ed i nd i rec tness .13

Reg ina rs S to ry

I was ta lk ing to some c lose $/omen f r iends of rn ineand another f r iend of rn ine that they hadnr t met ,Marga re t j o i ned us . We IL , I r ve known Marga re t f o ryears but th is was the f i rs t t ime that ny o therf r i ends had rea l l y soc ia l i zed w i t h he r . Anyway ,a l l o f ny f r iends l ive in B lack ne ighborhoods.Margaret and I happen to l ive in whi tene ighborhoods. Anyway, a t some po in t in theconversat ion Margaret s tar ted ta lk ing about howmuch she loved l iving outside the ghetto and awayf rom Black people and how much bet ter i t was andhow she fe l t that she had moved up in 1 i fe , l i v ingh igh on the h i f l away f rom Black fo lk . I cou l -dn. r tbe l - i eve i t , bu t I d i dn t t say any th ing . We I l aI i t t le la ter oh, Margaret had a l ready gone horne,and I asked my f r i ends i f we we re a l l s t i l l go ingto t he mov ies l i ke we p lanned . They a l l j us tlooked at me. Then one of them sa id : r rThe way youta l k , w€ don r t know i f we wan t t o go t o t he mov iesw i th you . r r We l I , I r ea l l y cou ldn t t be l i eve t ha tt hey td ge t an a t t i t ude ove r t ha t . r a

Reg ina t s S to ry f ocuses on speake r respons ib i f i t y andin ten t i ona r i t y when Marga re t r evea l s : r r . . . how much she Lovedr iv ing outs ide the ghet to and away f rom Brack people and hownuch bet ter i t was and how she fe l t that she had moved up inl i f e , l i v i ng h igh on t he h i l - l away f r om B lack f o l k . r r Thehea re rs use po in ted i nd i rec tness (d i r ec ted a t Reg ina ) t oreg is ter the i r be l - ie f that Margaret in tended to insu l - t them bystat ing: [The way you ta ]kr w€ donr t know i f we want to go tothe nov ies wi th you. r r Dur ing f ie rd tes t ing, the in formantsins is ted that Regina be made both the r rhost r r rece iver and thet tba i tedt t target , 6s a necessary addi t ion to the s tory . Th iscompr i ca t i on ra i ses t he ques t i on o f whe the r Reg ina ' s f r i endshord her accountabre for what Margaret sa id , and therefore thein ten t i ona l i t y , i n t ha t t hey seem to be . ba i t i ng t he r t orespond . r t i s an t t r f t he shoe f i t s wea r i t r r sequence becausethe re ference to Regina is ambiguous, . she can assume she isthe target or she can ignore the arnb igu i ty .

At l in formants aqt ree that Margaret in tent iona l ly insu l tedthe women who t t l - ive in B l -ack ne ighborhoodsrr and she isrespons ib l e f o r do ing so . Responses va ry , howeve r , r ega rd ing


Reg ina rs ro l e and t he i n ten t i ona l i t y and t a rge t o f t he f i na ls ta temen t made by a hea re r . Ques t i ons 1 .1a and 1 . l b o f Tab le1 reveal the womenrs percept ions o f what actua l ly happened.

TABLE 1

AFRICA}I N(ERICAN A}ID WIIITE VIEWS OF WHAT IS SAID VERSUSWHAT IS ITIEANT

1 0 0 -9 5 -9 0 -8 5 -8 0 -7 5 -7 0 -0 5 -

5 0 -5 5 -5 0 -4 5 -4 0 -J 5 -

3 0 -z a -2 0 -1.5 -1 0 -

5 -L J -

aa

i l i l i l i l i l i lB W

i l t i l r i l l t l l

a

i l i l i l i lr i lr l i l l l i l l i l l i l lB W B WB W

1 . l bQ t E S I I O N : 1 . L a I . 2 a L . 2 b

Quest ion: 1 . l -a Regina d idn t t say anyth ing because shed idn t t ag ree w i t h Marga re t .

1 . l -b Regina d idnt t say anyth ing because shed idn t t ca re one way o r t he o the r .

L . 2 a R e g i n a t s f r i e n d s g o t a n a t t i t u d e b e c a u s eshe d idn ' t speak up when Margaret sa idwha t she sa id .

L .2b Reg ina ' s f r i enc l s go t an a t t i t ude becausethey thought she agreed with Margaret.

Though near ly a l l the women agree that Reginars s i lence dur ingMargaret rs s ta tement does not mean that she agrees wi thMarga re t , ( on I y one wh i t e woman cons ide rs t h i s a poss ib i l i t y ) ,

African Anteican women's discourse 433

they are sp l i t over the meaning of her s iLence. Responses toquest ions 1 . l -a reveal that L4 .29 percent o f whi te womenber ieved that Reginars s i lence may have been because shed idn t t ag ree w i t h Marga re t , t hough on l y abou t ha l f ( 9 .3U ) o fthe same number of Afr ican American women agree with them.However , onry 1 .78 percent (one) o f the whi te women th inkRegina d idnt t care about what was sa id whi le L5 percent o f theA f r i can Amer i can women th i nk t h i s was a poss ib i r i t y ( i - . 1b ) .At the same t i rne, the major i ty o f both groups (722 whi te and56 .6 t A f r i can Amer i can ) ag ree t ha t Reg ina was s i r en t becauseshe d idn ' t want to in teract w i th Margaret about what Margarets a i d .

The above responses reveal a tendency for the whi teinformants to try to deternine what the speaker meant and theAfr ican Amer ican in formants to determine in tent iona l - i ty basedon the context and poss ib le in terpreta t ions o f what thespeake r sa id . Thus , wh i l e bo th g roups ag ree t ha t Reg ina d idn ' twant to get invo lved, the percentage of whi tes who ber ievethat Regina d idn ' t speak up because she had an op in ion thatd i f fered f rom her f r iend Margaret is nearJ ,y equal to thepercentage of Af r ican Amer ican women who th ink Regina d idnt tcare what Margaret sa id . Th is d i f ference in a t t i tude towardwhether Regina was respons ib le for what Margaret sa id isechoed in the comrnents of one ol-der Afr ican Arnerican testin formant who both recognizes and has s t rong op in ions aboutR e g i n a r s a n d M a r g a r e t r s p l i g h t .

I hate Margaret and I hate Regina, but you don ' t gobJ-arning a grown woman for something another grown womansa id . I ha te t ha t . I use t o be 1 i ke t ha t bu t I rm tooold for that now.

Di f ferences between Af r ican Amer icans and whi tes on there ra t i onsh ip be tween i n ten t i ona r i t y and respons ib i l i t y i nba i t ed i nd i rec tness va ry even more sha rp l y . wh i re on l y l - 9 .64percent o f whi te women thought Reginats f r iends got anat t i tude because Regina d idnr t speak up when Margaret made hers ta temen t ( 1 - . 2a ) , nea r l y ha l f o f t he A f r i can A rne r i can women(43 .33? ) t hough t t ha t was t he reason fo r t he rep roach . Tha tis , nearry ha l f o f the Af r ican Amer ican women recognized thatRegina was be ing ba i ted or quest ioned as to her in tent ionsr e g a r d i n g w h a t M a r g a r e t s a i d . T h e o t h e r h a l f ( 5 1 . 6 6 e " ) ,a t t r i bu ted t he rep roach t o Reg ina rs f r i end rs be t i e f t ha t shea g r e e d w i t h M a r g a r e t ( 1 . 2 b ) .

The sp l i t among the Af r ican Amer ican women is over whetherto ass ign i n ten t i ona r i t y t o Reg ina . r n t he case o f 1 , . 2a , t hewomen mus t de te rm ine i f Reg ina i s be ing ba i t ed s i nce ba i t i ngi s an ac t ( s i gn ) o f i n ten t i ona l i t y . r n t he second case


( 1 .2b ) , t he women ass iqn mo t i ve f o r t he hea re r r s i ncend ia ryremark (what she meant) ra ther than determine in tent iona l i ty .rn cont rast to the near ly even spr i t among Af r ican Amer icanwomen , a f u l l 76 .78 pe rcen t o f wh i t e women though t Reg ina t sf r i ends be l i eved she ag reed w i t h Marga re t ( 1 .2b ) . Once aga in ,when compared to whites, Afr ican Americans have a tendency tofocus more cons is tent ly on the speech act (as s ign) anddetermine the in tent ions o f a I I par t ies accord ing ly whi lewhi tes, who do not recognize the s ign, a t tempt to determinewhat a speaker means by inbuing some psychological reason fora statement. A stronger case which supports this theory isp resen ted i n Reg ina rs O the r S to ry .

Reg ina rs O the r S to ry

f was ta lk ing to some c lose women f r iends of minewhen another c lose f r iend of mine they hadnr t met ,Do re tha , j o i ned us . We ] l , Do re tha and f have beenf r iends for years , but my other f r iends donr t knowher as wel l as f do. Anyway, w€ were a l l s i t t ingaround talking about how our l ives have changed andDoretha sa id t fOne th ing I l i ke about ny l i fe ist ha t I don r t have t o have any bab ies i f I don r twant to. I think any woman whb has more than twok ids is crazy and needs her head examined. r r Now,no one sa id anyth ing but two of ny f r iends havefour k ids a p iece and one of then was pregnant wi thhe r t h i r d ch i l d . We I I , a l i t t l e l a te r on , a f t e r wehad been dr ink ing and laughing a l i t t le b i t , I s rasta lk ing to one of the g i r ls and Doretha was s i t t ingnearby. So my g i r l f r iend says very loud ly so thateveryone could hear r r l rm sorry that I have so manyk ids . I guess $ /omen l i ke me j us t don r t have anysense and should just forget i t and have our tubest ied ! t t f was so ernbarrassed that f d idn t t sayany th ing .

In th is s tory , the responses to one quest ion in par t icu larprov ide a s t rong case for hearers t in terpreta t ion o f speakerrespons ib i l i t y and i n ten t i ona l - i t y . When asked : r rDo you t h i nkthat Doretha knew that some of the women had more than twoch i l d reD? t t , 65 pe rcen t o f t he A f r i can Amer i can women sa ide i ther yes or maybe Doretha in tent iona l ly insu l ted the women,wh i l e on l y 35 .6 pe rcen t o f t he wh i t es concu r red .

About 55 percent of both groups thought that the womanrss ta temen t : r r J rm so r r y t ha t I have so many k i ds . f guess womenl ike me jus t don ' t have any sense and should jus t forget i tand have our tubes t ied l t t was d i rected onry a t Doretha and

African Anterican women's discourse 435

about 44 percent o f both groups thought i t was d i rected ateverybody. Moreover , when asked the mot ivat ion for thewomanrs s ta temen t , B0 pe rcen t o f A f r i can Amer i cans and 76 .78percent o f whi tes thought i t was because she wanted Doretha toknow that she d idn ' t l i ke what Dor tha sa id . An addi t iona l23.3L percent o f the whi tes thought she made the s ta tementbecause she d idnr t l i ke what Doretha sa id (not that she wantedDoretha to know) whi le 10 percent o f Af r ican Amer icans agreed.The remain ing Af r ican Amer icans (108) thought that the f r iendrnade the s ta tement because Regina d idnt t say anyth ing aboutwhat Doretha sa id . When asked \^ rhy Regina was embarrassed,on ly 5 percent o f whi tes be l ieved i t was because Reginathought the g i r l f r iend was at tack ing her though f ive t imes asmany Af r ican Amer icans (252) cons idered po in ted ind i rectnessa p o s s i b i l i t y .

Even though the number o f Af r ican Amer icans who th inkMargaret was de l iberate ly insu l t ing the women is near ly doublethat o f whi - tes , there is l i t t le d i f ference between the twogroups response to in terpreta t ions o f what occurred. TheAfr ican Amer ican women on ly d i f fer f rom the whi te women overwhether they should cons ider the in tent ion o f the speaker andthe ident i ty o f the in tended target in po in ted ind i rectness.

The d i scuss ion o f Reg ina rs O the r S to ry i s conv inc ingev idence that the communicat ion system of Af r ican Amer icanl romen is d i f ferent f rom that o f the whi te women because of thed i f ferent under ly ing system of in terpret ive procedures. TheA f r i can Amer i can womenrs responses cons i s ten t l y r ecogn i ze t ha tind i rect re ference occurred whether what was sa id was aninsu l t o r no t i s immate r i a t . On the o the r hand fo r wh i t es ,t he eva lua t i on o f Do re tha rs i n ten t i on i s assoc ia ted w i t h why ,o r how i t i s poss ib l e t ha t she cou ld i nsu l t Reg i -na ' s f r i ends .They in teract on the premise that they can f igure out what thespeake r t h i nks o r wan ts (Du ran t i , I 99O; Gee r t z , 1 "983 ) . Ye t , i ti s nea r l y i r nposs ib l e t o de te rm ine a speake r r s i n ten t i on i nambiguous d iscourse because by def in i t ion, the speaker canc la i rn e i ther rea l i ty . Consequent ly , the Af r ican Amer ican\ , {omen in the s tudy coul -d choose between two rea l i t ies or normswhi le the whi te women on ly had access to one. Though thef ind ings repor ted here rn ight suggest that for Af r ican Amer icanwomen there are two systems of ind i rect d iscourse which area rb i t r a r i l y chosen , an i n te rgene ra t i ona l ana l ys i s r eveaLs t ha tthe Af r ican Amer ican women are actua l ly operat ing wi th in as ing le mu l t i - t i e red sys tem.


6. In tergenerat iona l D i f fereDces in In terpret ingIn tent iona l i ty

The responses of twenty-s ix o f the Af r ican Amer ican womenwho par t ic ipated in the or ig ina l s tudy were compared accord ingto gene ra t i on f o r Reg ina ' s S to ry and Reg ina ' s O the r S to ry .The women were divided into three age gtroups: Generation T,5 5 - 7 5 ; G e n e r a t i o n I I , 4 0 - 5 0 ; G e n e r a t i o n I I I , L 7 2 5 . r s

An analys is o f the i r responses (Table 2) reveals a s t r ik ingd i f ference between Generat ion I and I I and Generat ion I I Iregard ing in tent iona l i ty and respons ib i l i ty in ind i rectd iscourse. When asked, f rom Reginats Story , whether r rRegina

didnt t say anyth ing because the others d idnt t say anyth ing"(2 .1 ,a ) , on l y Gene ra t i on I I I r esponds a f f i r na t i ve l y . I ncont rast , Generat ions I and f f respond af f i rmat ive ly to theques t i on 2 .Lb , "Do you t h i nk Reg ina d idn ' t say any th ingbecause she d idn r t ca re one way o r t he o the r? r r ( 1002 and 66 .72respec t i ve l y ) , wh i l e Gene ra t i on I I I does no t cons ide r i t a ta l l - . I n ques t i on 2 .2a , none o f t he Gene ra t i on I women th i nkRegina shouLd let her fr iends know what she thinks about whatMarga re t sa id t hough Gene ra t i on I I i s even l y d i v i ded (50U)ove r t h i s ques t i on . I n con t ras t , a f u l l 86 .7 pe rcen t o fGenerat ion I I I women th ink Regina should have le t her f r iendsknow what she thought about what Margaret said. A11 ofGene ra t i on I and I I women respond i den t i ca l l y t o ques t i on 2 .3athough Gene ra t i on I I I ove rwhe lm ing l y (80? ) chooses 2 .3b .

Table 3 shows th is pat tern pers is t ing in Regina 's OtherStory as weI I . Quest ions 3 .1a and b concern whether Dorethaknew that the wornen rnight have more than two chi ldren. Whilebo th o f t he o lde r gene ra t i ons cons ide r i t ve ry l i ke l y ( 100? ) ,the youngest group cons iders i t un l ike ly a quar ter o f the t ine(26 .72 ) . Howeve r , when asked i f Do re tha m igh t no t have knownabou t t he number o f ch i l d ren t he women had (3 .Lc ) , Gene ra t i onI I I r esponds i n t he a f f i rma t i ve 73 .3 pe rcen t o f t he t i r nethough ne i ther o f the o lder groups cons ider th is ap o s s i b i l i t y .

The in tergenerat iona l responses to Reginars Story suggestthat Generat ions I and I I ernp loy ident ica l in terpret ivesystems in determin ing in tent iona l i ty and speakerrespons ib i l i t y . Gene ra t i on I I I , howeve r , appea rs t o u t i l i zean in terpret ive system which is more s i rn i la r to the whi tewomen repor ted earL ier (Table f . ) than to o lder Af r icanAmer ican women. Ev idence which seems to fur ther cor roboratethese observat ions are prov ided in Regi -na 's Other Story (Tab1e4 ) .

100 -9 5 -9 0 -8 5 -8 0 -7 5 -7 0 -6 5 -6 0 -5 5 -5 0 -4 5 -4 0 -3 5 -3 0 -z ) -2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -

5 -0 -

D

i l l i l l

TABLE 2*INTERGENERATIONAL ANALYS I S

REGINAIS STORY


D

i l i l i l1

D

i l I | i l11il i l i l i l I l t l i l i l i l1 i l i l i l12 . L a 2 . 1 b 2 . L c 2 . 2 a 2 . 2 b 2 . 3 a 2 . 3 b

Ques t i on : 2 . l a Reg ina d idn ' t say any th ing because t he o the rsd idn ' t say any th ing .

2 .Lb Reg ina d idn ' t say any th ing because she d idn ' tcare one way or the o ther .

2 . L c R e g i n a d i d n t t s a y a n y t h i n g b e c a u s e s h e d i d n ' twant to get involved

2.2a Regina should have le t her f r iends know aboutwhat she thought about what Margaret said.

2 .2b Reg ina shou ld no t have l e t he r f r i ends knowabout what she thought about what Margarets a i d .

2 .3a Reg ina rs f r i ends go t an a t t i t ude because shedidnt t speak up when Margaret sa id what shes a i d .

2 .3b Reg ina ' s f r i ends go t an a t t i t ude because t heythought she agreed wi th Margaret .

*G = GENERATION I I{ = GENERATION II P = GENERATION III


TABLE

INTERGENERATIONAL A}IALYS TSREGINAI g OTHER STORY

l l l l i l i l l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l i l

I *

1 0 0 -9 5 -9 0 -8 5 -8 0 -7 5 -7 0 -b 5 -

5 0 -5 5 -5 0 -4 5 -4 0 -3 s -3 0 -2 5 -

2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -

5 -0 - i l1 i l i l i l i l i l t1

3 . l a

Quest ion: 3 . l -a

3 . l b 3 . 1 c

Doretha knew that some of the other women hadmore than two ch i ldren.

3 . ]-b Doretha didn t t know that some of the otherwomen had more than two chi ldren.

3. l -c Maybe Doretha knew that some of the o therwomen had more than two ch i ldren.

*G = GENERATTON I M = GENERATION II D = GENERATION III

I n q u e s t i o n s 4 . 2 a a n d 4 . 2 b , m o s t o f t h e y o u n g e r w o m e n ( 6 5 2 )bel ieve that the woman who made the remark at the end of thestory wanted Doretha to hear what she sa id . In cont rast , a l to f the o lder women th ink the remark was for everyone to hear .Whi le the younger womenrs focus is on the person who made theincendiary remark, the o lder women concent ra te on the presenceand ro le o f hearers /overhearers in 'Ehe in teract ion. Th is samepa t te rn pe rs i s t s i n r esponse t o t he rema in ing ques t i ons (4 .3a -c i 4 . 4 a - c ) . Generat ions I and I I rare ly choosein terpreta t ions that n ight reso lve ambigu i ty o f re ference ori n ten t i ona l i t y wh i l e Gene ra t i on I I I seeks poss ib l eexplanat ions for the arnb igu i ty or the insens i t ive remark.

African American wonlen's discourse 439

TABLE 4

INTERGENERATIONAL ANALYS IS *REGINAI g OTHER STORY

l l i l l i l i l l l i l l l l l l i l i l i l l i l l l l l l l i l i l r r4 . 2 a 4 . 2 b 4 . 3 a 4 . 3 b 4 . 3 c 4 . 4 a 4 . 4 b 4 . 4 c

4.2a The woman wanted Doretha to hear what shes a i d .

4 .2b The woman wanted everybody to hear what shes a i d .

4 .3a The g i r l f r i end sa id t ha t t o Reg ina becauseRegina d idnr t say anyth ing about what Dorethas a i d .

4 .3b The g i r l f r i end sa id t ha t t o Reg ina because shed idn ' t l i ke wha t Do re tha sa id .

4 .3c The g i r l f r i end sa id t ha t t o Reg ina because shewanted Doretha to know she d idn ' t l i ke whats h e s a i d .

4 .4a Reg ina was embar rassed because o f wha t he rg i r l f r i e n d s a i d .

4 .4b Reg ina was embar rassed because o f wha t Do re thas a i d .

4 .4c Regina was embarrassed because she thought herg i r l f r i end was t a l k i ng t o he r .

* G = G E N E R A T I O N T M = G E N E R A T T O N T I D = G E N E R A T T O N I I II

1 0 0 -9 5 -9 0 -8 s -8 0 -7 5 -7 0 -o f -

5 0 -5 5 -5 0 -4 5 -4 0 -3 5 -3 0 -2 5 -2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -

5 -u -

DM


The s in i lar i ty in responses between the two o ldergenerat ions is as s t r ik ing as the s in i la r i ty between whi tewomen and the youngest generation. Yet the later sirni lar i tyi s on l y a supe r f i c i a l one . The r ra f t e r su rvey d i scuss ion r r ,wh i ch was i ns i s ted on by Gene ra t i on I I I , began w i t h f r l t wasn r tfa i r . r r fn cont rast , the d iscuss ion wi th the whi te womenrespondents o f ten began wi th f rshe meant . . . r r Whi te women ingenera l d id not seem to unders tand in tent iona l i ty and d id notsuppor t not ions o f speaker respons ib i l i ty . Generat ion I I I , oDthe other hand, reported that they didnft Tike having to payat tent ion to in tent iona l i ty and be respons ib le for r r . . .anybodywho comes a long accus ing me of say ing someth ing I d idnt tac tua l l y say . t t Gene ra t i on I I f r s r esponses appea r t o have beena show of so l idar i ty for the pred icament in which Regina,Margaret and Doretha found themselves rather than a lack ofunders tanding of the speech s i tuat ion. The young women, whi teres is t ing (or resent ing) the system, unders tand i ts ru les.

7. Sunmary

The above study has revealed that when Afr ican American andwhi te women are compared in terms of the i r unders tanding ofr rwhat is sa idr r in ind i rect d iscourse, the two groups haves ign i f icant ly d i f ferent percept ions o f what is in tended andtherefore o f speaker respons ib i l i ty . fn cases of po in tedind i rectness, Af r ican Amer icans do not acknowledgedispensat ions or a t ternpt to imbue psycholog ica l exp lanat ionsfor what is sa id . They th ink that what is sa id , inc lud ing a l larnb igu i ty , is what the speaker in tended. In cont rast , whi tewomen cons is tentJ ,y seek in tent iona l i ty exp lanat ions for ta lkthat is in terpreted negat ive ly . In cases which are ambiguous,they cons is tent ly a t ternpt to reso lve the arnb igu i ty .

The d i f ference in in terpreta t ion between races conf i rms theex is tence of two very d is t inc t not ions o f communicat ion aswel l as the ex is tence of a counter language. For the whi tewomen, i t seems that in cases of both d i rect and ind i rectspeech, what the speaker says s /he rmeant t is in terpreted asrwha t t he speake r i n tended to say ' . I t i s pe rm iss ib l e t oreconst ruct speakerrs in tent ions or prov ide psycholog ica lexp lana t i ons f o r poss ib l e amb igu i t i es . A f r i can Amer i canwomen, however , employ an in terpret ive system which v iewsind iv idua l repor ts o f in tent ion as one of many factors whichdetermine in tent ion and respons ib i l i ty in ind i rect d iscourse.Because these in terpreta t ions are d i f ferent , the two speechcommuni t ies in terpret context , ro le o f par t ic ipants , e tc . inve ry d i f f e ren t ways .

When Af r ican Amer ican women are analyzed accord ing to d9€,

African Ameican women's discourse 44I

d i f f e rences be tween the o lde r gene ra t i ons ( I and I I ) andGenera t i on f I I a re ev iden t . F i r s t , wh i l e t he o lde rgenerat ions cons is tent ly choose responses which focus on whata speaker says ra ther than what s /he rn ight have meant ,Generat ion f I I chooses responses which at tempt to exp la in thein tent ion o f the speaker . Moreover , when speakers makestatements whose re ferents are ambiguous, Generat ion I I I onceagain tends to prov ide exp lanat ions which would address thein ten t i ona l i t y .

Gene ra t i on I I I ' s i n te rp re ta t i on o f speake r respons ib i l i t yinv i tes many quest ions about in tent iona l i ty , counter languageand the deve lopmen t o f p ragma t i c sk i l l s i n gene ra l . Ye t ,the i r responses must be v iewed in con junct ion wi th the i rremarks regard ing respons ib i l i ty and in tent ionaf i ty in the twos to r i es d i scussed above . The re a re a t Leas t two poss ib l eexp lana t i ons f o r t he young womenrs appa ren t i nsecu r i t y .F i r s t , s i nce t he l anguage soc ia l i za t i on p rocess i s ongo ingin to adul thood, they s imply may not have command of the wholep ragna t i c sys tem ( c f . Sch ie f f e l i n and Ochs , L9B6) . They mayrep resen t a l eve1 o f acqu i s i t i on whe re t hey recogn i ze speake rrespons ib i l i t y bu t do no t have a l l t he i n te rp re t i ve sk i l Lsnecessary to be he ld accountab le for i t . The argument thatlanguage soc ia l izat ion may be inconple te is suppor ted byAfr ican communi t ies (Mufwene, personal communicat ion) where,in genera l , speakers are not he ld accountabLe for a I lin terpreta t ions o f in tent iona l i ty unt i l they are cons ideredsophis t icated enough to in terpret ind i rect speech adequate lyand exp lo i t con tex t -based amb igu i t i es . Ano the r exp lana t i onfor the young womenrs responses to the survey is thatGenerat ion I I I does not adhere to the counter language and isopt ing for the non-Af r ican Amer ican system. They may perce ivethe i r r o l e and re l a t i onsh ip t o soc ie t y as one whe re r rh i dden r l

f o rns o f d i scou rse a re unsu i t ab le . O f cou rse , i t i s a l soposs ib le that both o f these factors cont r ibute to Generat ionI I f r s d i scou rse i nsecu r i t y . f n t he absence o f i n fo rma t i on onspeake r respons ib i l i t y and i n ten t i ona l i t y i n t he A f r i canArner ican communi ty , i t i s i rnposs ib le to determine whetherthe i r r esponses a re an i nd i ca t i on o f l anguage soc ia l - i za t i on ,d i scon t i nu i t y o r dea th .

Whi Ie Af r ican Amer ican and non-Af r ican Amer ican communi t iesnake up the Uni ted States, i t has a lways been na ive to assumetha t commun i t i es whose h i s to r i es and re l a t i onsh ips (espec ia l l ypower re l a t i onsh ips ) a re so d i f f e ren t wou ld sha re t he samespeech norms. As Hymes (197 2 ) s ta tes , r rNo rms o fin terpreta t ion i rnp l icate the be l - ie f systern o f a cornmuni ty( 6 4 ) . r r A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s i n t h e U . S . s h a r e a r e a l i t y a n dbel ie f systern that is both s i rn i la r and very d i f ferent f romother speech communi t ies . The women who migrated f rom the

442 Marqliena H. Morgan

Western Southern states to form the urban Afr ican Americancommuni ty o f Chicago represent the rea l i t ies which were thehardships of the South and the heartbreak and dream of urbanAmer ica. They have been and cont inue to be a r ich resource inthe s tudy of the soc ia ] rea l i ty o f Af r ican Amer icans in theU.S. Th is paper has shown that in order to unders tand andfu l ly par t ic ipate in verba l in teract ions wi th the members o fany speech comrnunity i t is i-nportant to understand both howinteract ions are eva luated and the soc ia l knowledge whichf rames them.

L .

2 .

3 .

Afican Ameican women's discourse 443

FOOTNOTES

This paper is based on f ie l -d work conducted in Chicagobe tween L974 and 1975 and L978 and 1982 . I wou ld l i ke t othank the women and the i r fami l ies who gave the i r t imeand ins ights to my research and accepted me in to the i rhomes .

The idea for th is paper began dur ing post doctora ls tud ies funded by the Minor i ty Scholar in Res idenceProgram of the Consort iurn of Liberal Arts Colleges atPomona Col lege. Inva luable comments and d iscuss ion onea r l i e r d ra f t s came f rom G i l l i an Sanko f f , De l I Hymes ,Thomas Kochman, Claudia Mi tche l l -Kernan, Sal ikokoMufwene, Ronald Macau1ey, Donal -d Brenneis , Barnb iSch ie f f e l i n and A lessand ro Du ran t i .

S e e R i c k f o r d ( 1 - 9 7 7 ) , H o l m ( l - 9 8 0 ) , B a u g h ( t - 9 8 0 ) , M u f w e n e(n . d . ) f o r d i scuss j - on o f t hese i ssues .

S e e a J s o B u t t e r s ( L 9 8 7 i 1 9 8 9 ) f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i sp o s i t i o n .

Th is is not to say that these s ty les should , not bestud ied as ent i t ies in and of themselves but that theyhave essen t i a l l y been j ux taposed w i t h o the r U . S .va r i e t i es ra the r t han ana l yzed i n re l a t i on t o t hecommuni ty ts language communicat ion reper to i re . Thuswhi le there is a weal th o f in format ion on speech s ty lesl i k e ' s i g n i f y i n g ' , r s o u n d i n g r o r ' p l a y i n g t h e d o z e n s r ,t t o a s t i n g r a n d t r a p p i n g t , I i t t 1 e h a s b e e n d o n e o nin teract ions that are not marked as s ign i f icant lyd i f ferent f rom dominant Arner ican Engl - ish var ie t ies .

Ha I I i day ca l l s t he l anguage wh i ch deve lops ana n t i l a n g u a g e a n d f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e s i t a s r r . . . t h e m e a n s o frea l i za t i on o f a sub jec t i ve rea l i t y : no t mere l yexp ress ing i t , bu t ac t i ve l y c rea t i ng and ma in ta in i ng i t .I n t h i s r espec t , i t i s j us t ano the r l anguage . Bu t t herea l i t y i s a coun te r - rea l i t y , and t h i s has ce r ta i nspec ia l i r np l i ca t i ons . f t imp l i es t he f o reg round ing o ft he soc ia l s t r uc tu re and soc ia l h i e ra rchy . f t i r np l i es apreoccupat i -on wi th the def in i t ion and defence of ident i tyt h rough the r i t ua l f unc t i on ing o f t he soc ia l h i e ra rchy .I t imp l i es a spec ia l concep t i on o f i n fo rma t i on and o fk n o w l e d g e ( 1 , 9 7 8 : 1 7 2 ) . ' ,

A f r i ca Amer i ca re fe r s t o a I l pe rsons o f A f r i can descen t

4 .

5 .


res id ing in the Amer icas whi le Af r ican Amer ican re fers to

those o f A f r i can descen t r es id i ng i n t he U .S .

There are many more examples of the importance ofi nd i rec t speech i n A f r i can con tex t s . See espec ia l l yI r v i n e ( 1 9 8 2 i L 9 7 4 ) , P i e r s e n ( L 9 7 L ) , H e r s k o v i t s ( 1 9 5 6 ) .

Th is s ty le o f ind i rectness, re f er red to as r rdropped

remarksr or t tdropping wordsr r , is o f ten cons ideredrrunru ly , d is rupt ive, s tubborn, d isorder ly t t (Reisman,

Lg74zL23 ) o r r r r ude and unmanne r l y " (F i she r , L9 ' 76 r235 ) .See the sect ion on ba i ted ind i rectness for fur therd iscuss ion of th is phenomenon.

In r ight o f the above d iscuss ion, i t is not surpr is ingthat soc io l ingu is ts have rn is in terpreted or not fu l lyunders tood the language behav ior o f Af r ican Amer icans.Corresponding ly , in the i r ana lys is o f the tense, mood andaspec t sys tem, Baugh (1984 ) , Spea rs (L982 ) , and R i ck fo rd

1tbtS1, have d iscovered that Af r ican Amer ican Engl ish(AAE) inc ludes i tems which, whi le ident ica l in form toother Amer ican Engl ish var ie t ies , have addi t iona l meaningand/or funct ions which are not shared. Though i t is notc lear whether Af r ican Amer icans exp lo i t thesedi f ferences, i t appears that those who are not prof ic ientin AAE do not recognize the d i f ferences in meaning.

Morgan , 1 -ggg and Du ran t i , 1990 d i scuss t he p rob lems i nw e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y ( c f . A u s t i n , L 9 6 2 , L 9 6 ) - ; S e a r l e ' 1 9 8 3 'L 9 7 6 , t e e s ; G r i c e L g 5 7 ; t 9 7 5 ) r e g a r d i n g m e a n i n g a n din ten t i ona l i t y . These t heo r i s t s d i scuss i nd i rec tnessf rom the perspect ive o f i l focut ionary force and at ternptto develop theor ies about the sub ject ive mind of thespeake r . Howeve r , i n many cu l t u res ( c f . B renne i s , L986 iDu ran t i , L988 ) , consequences o f t a l k a re de te rm inedthrough convent ions which are coded, not in the message,but through knowledge of events , ro le , s ta tus, andideo logy i n ways wh i ch a re conven t i ona l and recogn i zab le .

M i t che l l -Ke rnan i n te rp re t s Ba rba ra r s s i gn i f y i ng asd i rected to both the researcher and Mary, though Mary,the overhearer , is the on ly one who responds. Though thehea re rs a re obv ious l y o f f ended by Ba rba ra rs remark , i t i snot c lear that the in teract ion is host i le orcon f ron ta t i onaL . E rv i n -T r i p (L964 ) a rgues t ha t i nd i r ec tspeech acts l ike s ign i fy ing are not des igned to s tar thos t i l e i n te rac t i ons . Labov (L972 ) , and S rn i t he rman

6 .

9 .

1-0


(L977 ' ) separate personar f rom r i tuar s ign i fy ing and arguetha t pe rsona r s i gn i f y i ng can l ead t o noL t i l i t i 6 s .R e c e n t l y , K o c h m a n ( 1 9 9 6 ) h a s a r g u e d t h a t r f . . . t h echaracter o f the act iv i ty changes f rom so l idar i ty toargument with the denial rather than the introductio-n ofp e r s o n a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r . . . ( 1 5 4 ) r r . H o w e v e r , i t i s m o r el ike ly that the d i f ference is between ba i ted ind i rectness(see berow) in d iscourse and the ' ,game" o f s ign i fy ingwhich is c lear ry marked. The r rgamerr is over when thereference gets , too c loser f . Th is o f ten means that whatis sa id is t rue or no ronger a rgame of ind i rectnessf f .The denia l is , in fac t , dD ind icat ion that the re ferencehas become direct and the game has terminated or thed iscourse s i tuat ion has changed.

11 . Mary rs response i n M i t che l r -Ke rnan rs examp le o fs i gn i f y i ng i l l u s t ra tes t h i s po in t . The f ocus i ; no t onwhat she meant , but the cho ice o f in terpreta t ion.

L2 . wh i l e r do no t d i scuss t he game o f s i gn i f y i ng he re ( c f .Abrahams, L9761 Kochman, L972) i t is

- i rn ior tant to

d is t ingu ish verba l ar t f rom verbar s t ra tegy. ^eray ing

thet rd i r ty dozensrr revears much about the J ign i r icance ofind i rectness and verbar p lay in the Af r ican Amer icancommuni ty . r t does .9 t , however , const i tu te s t ra tegy ind iscourse because i t is f ramed as p lay. Mi tche l - l -Kernan(L973 : L97L ) p rov ides add i t i ona l d i scuss j -on and de ta i l edev idence

_ wt r ich suppor ts th is anarys is . Gates ( l_9BB ) ,chagr ined because the essence of r ;s ign i fy ing, ' has beenrn issed muses: r r t is cur ious to me now rna-ny

-def in i t ions

of s ign i fy in(g) share th is s t ress on what wL might th inko f as a bLack pe rson rs symbo l i c agg ress ion , enac ted i nl anguage . . . The de r i gh t f u l l y "d i r t y r i l i nes o f t he dozensseem to have generated far more in terest f rom scholarsthan has s i gn i f y i n (g ) , and pe rhaps f a r more hea t t hanI i g h t . ( 6 8 - 7 r )

13 . Du r i ng f i e rd t es t i ng , how the s to r y was de l i ve red ( readby par t ic ipant , researcher or f rom i tape) d id not e f fec tresponses. Though there were no ef fec ts on manner inwhich the women reviewed the narrat ive and actual-responses, many women asser ted that they had preferencesfor how the story was introduced and Lnat thosepreferences should be cons idered. rn the end, d1 l - wornenv/ere read the story though many also had a script tofo l low. A th i rd s tory , ' ,Rbber t I s Storyr f ,

.which

dernonst ra tes ba i ted ind i rectness was inc ludLd ' in theo r i g i n a l s t u d y ( M o r g a n , 1 9 8 9 ) .


L4. Though be ing accused of l thav ing an at t i tuderr or antratt i tude pt loUt"*rf means that a person has a negative

d ispos i t ion, most Af r ican Amer icans assume thatr ra t t i tuderr is a lways a par t o f any in teract ion 'r rAt t i tudet t re fers to i speakers t or targetsr d ispos i t ign

toward interlocutors, thL speech event, si tuation and is

therefore essent ia l in in terpret ing in tent iona l i ty ' Not

su rp r i , s i ng l y , con t ro l l i ng one rs a t t i t ude , as we l l as t he

aUi i i ty t6 d6termine r ra t t i tude" is cons idered one of the

more i i rpor tant aspects o f language soc ia l izat ion ' I t is

I ikeIy tnat the i lnportance of being able to rrread someone

I ike ; bookrr , can be l inked to the nature o f cont ro l

i nhe ren t i n t o ta l i ns t i t u t i ons . As Go f f r nan (L961 ) no tes

(and desc r i bed above ) , t he p rocess o f r r l oop ing t t whe re

phases of an act ion are not v iewed as separate . buti , co l l apsed back i n to t he s i t ua t i on i t se l f ( p .37 ) " i s a

d i s tu rb ing bu t s i gn i f i can t aspec t o f t o ta l i ns t i t u t i ons .

In such s i tuat ions, a d ispos i t ion or r ra t t i tude l toward a

punishment or some act ion or s i tuat ion may be seen as

irounds for further punishm"tt! . In the American South,

€n i= is o f ten re fer r6O to as d ' isp lay ing an unders tanding

o f one rs r r p l ace r r i n soc ie t y . Members o f t he AASC assume

that speakers are ab le to in terpret and express a range

of nat t i tudesrr which e i ther suppor t or cont rad ic t the

actua l - in teract ion.

15 . The f o l l ow ing t ab les on l y i nc l ude ques t i ons f o r wh i ch

the re a re responses . Fo r a l l o the r ques t i ons consu l t

M o r g a n ( l - 9 8 9 ) .

African American wonren's discourse 447

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