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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND CREATIVE ENGINEERING (ISSN:2045-8711) VOL.4 NO.9 SEPTEMBER 2014
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND CREATIVE ENGINEERING (ISSN:2045-8711) VOL.4 NO.9 SEPTEMBER 2014
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IJITCE PUBLICATION
International Journal of Innovative Technology & Creative Engineering
Vol.4 No.9
Septembar 2014
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND CREATIVE ENGINEERING (ISSN:2045-8711) VOL.4 NO.9 SEPTEMBER 2014
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From Editor's Desk
Dear Researcher, Greetings! Research article in this issue discusses about motivational factor analysis. Let us review research around the world this month. Human brainpower has produced a computer chip reminiscent of the human brain. The new chip, reported in the Aug. 8 Science, scraps the design that formed the basis of decades of computers in favor of an architecture that resembles a bundle of 1 million neurons. Such technology could pinch hit to perform tasks that conventional computers struggle with to identifying objects in photos and videos. It’s an impressive piece of silicon says Stephen Furber, a computer engineer at the University of Manchester in England. “A million neurons on a single chip is a big number.” It has been an absolute pleasure to present you articles that you wish to read. We look forward to many more new technologies related research articles from you and your friends. We are anxiously awaiting the rich and thorough research papers that have been prepared by our authors for the next issue. Thanks, Editorial Team IJITCE
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Dr. Renato J. orsato Professor at FGV-EAESP,Getulio Vargas Foundation,São Paulo Business School,RuaItapeva, 474 (8° andar),01332-000, São Paulo (SP), Brazil Visiting Scholar at INSEAD,INSEAD Social Innovation Centre,Boulevard de Constance,77305 Fontainebleau - France Y. BenalYurtlu Assist. Prof. OndokuzMayis University Dr.Sumeer Gul Assistant Professor,Department of Library and Information Science,University of Kashmir,India Dr. ChutimaBoonthum-Denecke, Ph.D Department of Computer Science,Science& Technology Bldg., Rm 120,Hampton University,Hampton, VA 23688 Dr. Renato J. Orsato Professor at FGV-EAESP,Getulio Vargas Foundation,São Paulo Business SchoolRuaItapeva, 474 (8° andar),01332-000, São Paulo (SP), Brazil Dr. Lucy M. Brown, Ph.D. Texas State University,601 University Drive,School of Journalism and Mass Communication,OM330B,San Marcos, TX 78666 JavadRobati Crop Production Departement,University of Maragheh,Golshahr,Maragheh,Iran VineshSukumar (PhD, MBA) Product Engineering Segment Manager, Imaging Products, Aptina Imaging Inc. Dr. Binod Kumar PhD(CS), M.Phil.(CS), MIAENG,MIEEE HOD & Associate Professor, IT Dept, Medi-Caps Inst. of Science & Tech.(MIST),Indore, India Dr. S. B. Warkad Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Priyadarshini College of Engineering, Nagpur, India Dr. doc. Ing. RostislavChoteborský, Ph.D. Katedramateriálu a strojírenskétechnologieTechnickáfakulta,Ceskázemedelskáuniverzita v Praze,Kamýcká 129, Praha 6, 165 21 Dr. Paul Koltun Senior Research ScientistLCA and Industrial Ecology Group,Metallic& Ceramic Materials,CSIRO Process Science & Engineering Private Bag 33, Clayton South MDC 3169,Gate 5 Normanby Rd., Clayton Vic. 3168 DR.ChutimaBoonthum-Denecke, Ph.D Department of Computer Science,Science& Technology Bldg.,HamptonUniversity,Hampton, VA 23688 Mr. Abhishek Taneja B.sc(Electronics),M.B.E,M.C.A.,M.Phil., Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science & Applications, at Dronacharya Institute of Management and Technology, Kurukshetra. (India). Dr. Ing. RostislavChotěborský,ph.d, Katedramateriálu a strojírenskétechnologie, Technickáfakulta,Českázemědělskáuniverzita v Praze,Kamýcká 129, Praha 6, 165 21 Dr. AmalaVijayaSelvi Rajan, B.sc,Ph.d,
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Dr. P. Kamakkannan,M.C.A., Ph.D .,
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Mr. Md. Musfique Anwar B.Sc(Engg.) Lecturer, Computer Science & Engineering Department, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Mrs. Smitha Ramachandran M.Sc(CS)., SAP Analyst, Akzonobel, Slough, United Kingdom. Dr. V. Vallimayil Ph.D., Director, Department of MCA, Vivekanandha Business School For Women, Elayampalayam, Tiruchengode - 637 205, India. Mr. M. Moorthi M.C.A., M.Phil., Assistant Professor, Department of computer Applications, Kongu Arts and Science College, India PremaSelvarajBsc,M.C.A,M.Phil Assistant Professor,Department of Computer Science,KSR College of Arts and Science, Tiruchengode Mr. G. Rajendran M.C.A., M.Phil., N.E.T., PGDBM., PGDBF., Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Government Arts College, Salem, India. Dr. Pradeep H Pendse B.E.,M.M.S.,Ph.d Dean - IT,Welingkar Institute of Management Development and Research, Mumbai, India Muhammad Javed Centre for Next Generation Localisation, School of Computing, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland Dr. G. GOBI Assistant Professor-Department of Physics,Government Arts College,Salem - 636 007 Dr.S.Senthilkumar Post Doctoral Research Fellow, (Mathematics and Computer Science & Applications),UniversitiSainsMalaysia,School of Mathematical Sciences, Pulau Pinang-11800,[PENANG],MALAYSIA. Manoj Sharma Associate Professor Deptt. of ECE, PrannathParnami Institute of Management & Technology, Hissar, Haryana, India RAMKUMAR JAGANATHAN Asst-Professor,Dept of Computer Science, V.L.B Janakiammal college of Arts & Science, Coimbatore,Tamilnadu, India Dr. S. B. Warkad Assoc. Professor, Priyadarshini College of Engineering, Nagpur, Maharashtra State, India Dr. Saurabh Pal Associate Professor, UNS Institute of Engg. & Tech., VBS Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, India Manimala Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Electronics and Instrumentation, St Joseph’s College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry Post, Kottayam Dt. Kerala -686579 Dr. Qazi S. M. Zia-ul-Haque Control Engineer Synchrotron-light for Experimental Sciences and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME),P. O. Box 7, Allan 19252, Jordan Dr. A. Subramani, M.C.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D. Professor,Department of Computer Applications, K.S.R. College of Engineering, Tiruchengode - 637215 Dr. SeraphinChallyAbou Professor, Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Depart. MEHS Program, 235 Voss-Kovach Hall, 1305 Ordean Court Duluth, Minnesota 55812-3042 Dr. K. Kousalya Professor, Department of CSE,Kongu Engineering College,Perundurai-638 052 Dr. (Mrs.) R. Uma Rani Asso.Prof., Department of Computer Science, Sri Sarada College For Women, Salem-16, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Contents
Deformation and Fracture Mechanism during Forging of Sintered Preform by
Rajesh Rana…….……………………………………………………………….……………………….[231]
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Deformation and fracture mechanism during forging of Sintered preform
Rajesh Rana Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering RPS Group of Institutions Mahendergarh (Haryana)
E-Mail: [email protected]
Abstract--- Metal powder technology is currently arousing global interest as an economic method of producing components from metal powders. The process is attractive because it avoids large number of operations, high scrap losses and high-energy consumption associated with the conventional manufacturing processes such as casting, machining, etc. The properties of the metal powder products are comparable and in some cases even superior to those of cast and wrought products. The bulk processing of metal powder has therefore wide industrial applications because of good dimensional accuracy and surface finish with enhanced load bearing capacity of the component. So far this technology has been developed and employed without substantial theoretical background. A systematic approach is important to analyze and predict, the behavior of powder perform. Such as, the deforming loads necessary to deform the product plastically, or the density of the product, etc. In conventional wrought metal forming analysis, volumetric constancy is assumed for the deforming material, but this assumption cannot be made in the plastic deformation of porous metals where density does not remain constant and changes with load. The present work will help academician and the person associated with metal powder working in analyzing various properties. Sinter-forging has been commercially exploited in recent times for developing requisite product. Keywords-Sintered Preform, Compaction, Metal Forming, Deformed load, Porous Metal.
I . INTRODUCTION Powder Metallurgy is a process that has been utilized for
centuries, dating back to 2500 B.C. It has become one of the
most common, most efficient processing techniques. Powder
metallurgy components are being used in ever increasing
quantities in a wide variety of industries as the technology
combines unique technical features with cost effectiveness by
reducing quantity of scrape and at the same time cost of
machining is less. Among the various metalworking
technologies, powder metallurgy (P/M) is the most diverse
manufacturing approach. One attraction of P/M is the ability
to fabricate high quality, complex parts to close tolerances. In
essence, P/M takes a metal powder with specific attributes of
size, shape, and Packing, and then converts it into a strong,
precise, high performance shape by compression (1-4). Key
steps include the shaping or compaction of the powder and the
subsequent thermal bonding of the particles by sintering in the
furnace and cooling in the control environment. The cooling
rate also has effect on properties of metal components. The
solution developed in the present work may find a great
potential in automation and solving bulk-processing problems
of metal powder performs (5-7).
The process effectively uses automated operations with
low relative energy consumption, high material utilization,
and low capital costs. These characteristics make P/M well
aligned with current concerns about productivity, energy, and
raw materials. Consequently, the field is experiencing growth
and replacing traditional metal-forming operations. Further,
powder metallurgy is a flexible manufacturing process
capable of delivering a wide range of new materials,
microstructures, and properties (8-13). The formability of
porous metal powder preform has been discussed critically to
illustrate the various processing parameters involved and the
results are presented graphically.
II. Study and Design of Experimental Setup 2.1 Metal Powder Used
Basic experiments were conducted on Copper and
Aluminium metal powder preforms.
(a) Aluminium Powder:- Atomized Aluminium powder of purity 99.5% and finer
than 100 m was used throughout the experiments. The
physical and chemical property of Aluminium powder is given
in the Table-2.1 and Table-2.2 respectively.
Fig.2.1Aluminium powder used in experiment
Apparent Density 1.20 g/cc
Tap Density 2.1 g/cc
Maximum Limits of Impurities-
Iron Contents 0.17%
Copper 0.00159%
Silicon 0.1313%
Manganese 0.0023%
Magnesium 0.00160%
Zinc 0.0053%
Hydrogen Loss 0.4879%
Table 2.1: Physical Characteristics of Atomized
Aluminum Powder used
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(b) Copper Powder:- Electrolytic Copper powder of greater than 99%
purity was used for preparation of test piece. The physical and
chemical property of Copper powder is given in the Table-2.3
and Table-2.4 respectively.
Apparent Density 2.60 g/cc
Tap Density 7.2 g/cc
Screen
Analysis
(micron)
+100
-100
+150
-150
+200
-200
+240
-240
+350
-350
Percentage
Weight
Retained
0
35.00
15.00
14.50
20.00
14.50
Table2.3: Physical Characteristics of Copper Powder
used
Maximum Limits of Impurities-
Copper 99.80%
Phosphorous 0.001%
Iron 0.006%
Silicon 0.002%
Table 2.4: Chemical Analysis of Sintered Copper
Powder (Weight Percentage)
2.2 Preparation of Specimens and Density Measurement.
In the preparation of metal powder compacts the
following steps are necessary:
1.Die preparation
2.Compaction
3.Sintering
4.Machining
2.2.1 Die preparation Firstly we made the five dies (circular, square,
rectangular, hexagonal) for filling the powder in these, so that
we can get the specimen as our required shape and size. For
this circular dies are made and then we prepare the head and
base for the die.
SPECIFICATION OF DIES
S.No. Die Internal
Diameter
Height
1. circular die 1 16 mm 70mm
2. circular die 2 25.4mm 85mm
S.No Die Side Widt
h
Outer
diameter
Length
1. Hexagonal
die
16m
m
----- 40mm 65mm
2. Square die 20.3
mm
----- ----- 75
3. Rectangula
r die
25.4
mm
20.3
mm
----- 65 mm
Extrusion die set
1. Circular cross-section
Cone angle -7
2. Circular cross-section
Cone angle -10
3. Circular cross-section
Cone angle -15
Fig.2.2 Circular & Hexagonal cross-section die
2.2.2 Compaction
For compaction firstly the powder material is filled in
the die as shown in the image, in which copper powder is
filled up in the die.
Fig.2.3 Filling of copper powder material
Aluminium and copper both powder was separately
compacted in a closed circular die using a hydraulic press at
various recoded pressures. The die wall was lubricated with
fine graphite powder. After that compaction is done as shown
in next figure. Compaction is done by the help of universal
testing machine (UTM), on which dies are placed and after
then pressure is applied as our requirement.
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(1) (2) (3)
Fig.2.4 Compaction process on Hydraulic press and
UTM
Fig.2.5 Compacted billets of copper
Fig.-2.6 compacted billets of aluminium
2.2.3 Sintering The basic purpose of sintering is to develop
mechanical strength in the metal powder compacts. Sintering
of aluminium compacts was carried out at 4000C and 4500C
for two hours in an endothermic sand atmosphere and
sintering of copper compacts was carried out at 6000C and
7000C for two hours in an endothermic sand atmosphere. All
sintering operations were carried out in a muffle type silicon
carbide furnace capable of providing sintering temperature of
an accuracy of 50C.
In order to minimize the non-uniformity of density
distribution, the sintered compacts were re-pressed at the same
compaction pressure in the same die. The specimens were
resintered at the same temperature and time.
Fig.-2.7 Sintered billets of copper power
Fig.-2.8 Sintered billets of aluminium powder
Fig.- 2.9 Hexagonal Sintered billets of copper &
aluminium powder
Fig.-2.10 Rectangular Sintered billets of copper &
aluminium powder
2.2.4 Experimental Procedure and Measurements Experiments were conducted on a Universal Testing
Machine and hydraulic press using appropriate dies. The
Aluminium and Copper powder preform of known relative
density was placed between flat dies and was compressed at
room temperature by applying the load. The compression was
carried out in dry and lubricated conditions. Fine graphite
powder was applied as lubricant. The following important
measurements were made:
(i) Increase in relative density of the preform with
increase in compressive load.
(ii) Increase in relative density of the preform with
decrease in height.
In order to evaluate the formability (limit reduction)
the sintered Aluminium and Copper powder preforms of
known initial relative densities were deformed at room
temperature between flat dies. The compressive load was
gradually increased until cracks were observed on the
equatorial free surface of the Aluminium and Copper powder
preform. The percentage compression and the corresponding
compressive load value just at the time of the appearance of
cracks were recorded for all specimens. The experimental
procedure was repeated for five compacts under the similar
processing conditions and an average reading was recorded.
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234
repeated for five compacts under the similar processing
conditions and an average reading was recorded.
2.3 Metallographic Test Preparation
Preparation of metallographic specimens generally
requires five major operations: sectioning, mounting (which is
optional), grinding, polishing and etching. A well-prepared
metallographic specimen is sectioned, ground and polished so
as to minimize disturbed or flowed surface metal caused by
mechanical deformation, and thus to allow the true
microstructure to be revealed by etching.
Sectioning
Important uses of metallography other then process
control include: examination of defects that appear in finished
or partly finished products and studies of parts that have failed
in service. Investigations for these purposes usually require
that the specimen be broken from a large mass of material,
and often involve more than one sectioning operation.
2.3.1 Mounting of Specimen
Compression mounting, the most common mounting
method, involves molding around the specimen by heat and
pressure such molding materials as Bakelite diallyl phthalate
resins, and acrylic resins. Bakelite and diallylic resins are
thermosetting, and acrlyic resins are thermoplastic. Both
thermosetting and thermoplastic materials require heat and
pressure during the molding cycle, but after curing, mounts
made of thermosetting materials may be ejected from the
mold at maximum temperature. Thermoplastic materials
remain molten at the maximum molding temperature and must
cool under pressure before ejection.
Mounting presses equipped with molding tools and a
heater is necessary for compression mounting. Readily
available molding tools for mounts having diameters of 1 inch
are used for mounting of specimen. Consist of a hollow
cylinder of hardened steel, a base plug, and a plunger.
Fig.-2.11 Specimen mounting machine mounted
specimen
A specimen to be mounted is placed on the base
plug, which is inserted in one end of the cylinder. The
cylinder is nearly filled with molding material in powder
form, and the plunger is inserted into open end of the cylinder.
A cylindrical heater is placed around the mold assembly,
which has been positioned between the platens of the
mounting press. After the prescribed pressure has been
exerted and maintained on the plunger to compress the
molding material until it and the mold assembly has been
heated to the proper temperature nearly for 10 minute, the
finished mount may be ejected from the mould by forcing the
plunger entirely through the mold cylinder.
2.3.2 Finishing Process
Grinding is accomplished by abrading the specimen
surface through a sequence of operations using progressively
finer abrasive grit. Grit sizes from 40 mesh through 150 mesh
are usually regarded as coarse abrasives and grit sizes from
180 mesh through 600 mesh as fine abrasives.
Grinding should commence with coarse grit size that will
establish an initial flat surface and remove the effects of
sectioning within a few minutes. An abrasive grit size 150 or
180 mesh is coarse enough to use on specimen surfaces
sectioned by an abrasive cutoff wheels. Hacksawed, band
sawed or other rough surfaces usually require abrasive grit
sizes in the range 80 to 150 mesh. The abrasive used for each
succeeding grinding operation should be one or two grit size
smaller than that used in the preceding operation. A
satisfactory grinding sequence might involve grit sizes of 180,
240, 400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 meshes.
Sr.
No.
Metal
Powder
Used
Sintering Temp. &
Time
Shape/Size of the Preform
1. Copper
6000C
6300C
6500C
For 3
hours
1.Cylindrical
16mm X 12mm
2. Square
20mm X 20mm X 11mm
3.Hexagonal
side-15mm
height-12mm
4.cilinderical
16mm X 12mm
16mm X 12mm
2.
Alumini
um
4000 C
4500C
For 3
hours
1.Cylindrical
16mm X 15mm
16mm X18mm c. 19mm X 26mm
2. Cylindrical
25.4mm X 16mm
25.4m X18mm
16mm X 20mm
3.Hexagonal
side-20.3mm
height-13mm
4.cilinderical
16mm X 22mm
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Fig.2.12 Amery paper used for primary finishing
Grinding Mediums
The grinding abrasives commonly used in the
preparation of specimens are silicon carbide (SiC), aluminium
oxide (Al2O3), emery (Al2O3 - Fe3O4), diamond particles,
etc. Usually are generally bonded to paper or cloth.
Aluminium oxide abrasive material has a trigonal crystal
structure and a hardness of 9.1 on the Morhs scale and is
synthetic corundum.
Lapping
Is a grinding technique similar to disk grinding. The
grinding surface (lap) is a rotating disk whose working surface
is charged with a small amount of a hard abrasive material.
Laps are made of wood, lead, nylon, paraffin, paper, leather,
cast iron and laminated plastics. The abrasive charge may be
pressed into lap material by means of a steel block, or the lap
may be charged directly with a mixture of abrasive and
distilled water during lapping. A groove in the form of a spiral
is a direction counter to the lap rotation is often cut in the
surface of laps, particularly of lead and paraffin laps. The
spiral groove aids retention of cooling water and abrasive.
2.3.3 Polishing
Polishing is the final step in production a surface that
is flat, scratch free, and mirror like in appearance. Such a
surface is necessary for subsequent accurate metallographic
interpretation, both qualitative and quantitative.
Polishing Cloths
A cloth without nap or with a very low nap is
preferred for the preliminary or rough polishing operation.
The absence of nap ensures maximum contact with the
polishing abrasive, and results in fast cutting with minimum of
relief. The cloths most frequently used are canvas, low-nap,
cotton, nylon and silk. After installation, the cloths are
charged with the appropriate abrasive (usually in sizes from
15 microns down to 1 micron) and carrier. Rough polishing is
usually done with the laps rotating at 500 to 600 rpm.
Fig.-2.13 Polishing machine polishing process
Polishing Abrasives
Polishing usually involves the use one or more of
five types of abrasive: aluminium oxide (Al2O3), magnesium
oxide (MgO), chromic oxide (Cr2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3),
and diamond compound. With the exception of diamond
compound these abrasives are normally used in a distilled
water suspension. Aluminium oxide (alumina) is the polishing
abrasive most widely used for general metallographic
polishing. The alpha grade aluminium oxide is used in a range
of particle sizes from 15 microns to 0.3 micron. For some hard
materials the 0.3 micron size is sufficient for a final polish.
The gamma grade of aluminium oxide is available in a 0.05
micron particle size for final polishing.
Fig.2.14 Aluminium Oxide (polishing abrasive)
2.3.4 Etching
Although certain information may be obtained from
as-polished specimens, the microstructure is usually visible
only after etching. Only features which exhibit a significant
difference in reflectivity (10% or greater) can be viewed
without etching.
Chemical Etching
Chemical etching is based on the application of
certain illumination methods, all of which use the Kohler
illumination principle. This principle also underlies common
bright-filed illumination. These illumination modes are dark
field, polarized light, phase contrast and interference contrast.
They are available in many commercially produced
microscopes, and in most cases, the mode may be put into
operation with few simple manipulations.
Fig.-2.15 Etching Agent (methanol)
Cleaning
Cleanliness is an important requirement for
successful sample preparation. Specimens must be cleaned
after each step; all grains from one grinding and polishing step
must be completely removed from the specimen to avoid
contamination, which would reduce the efficiency of the next
preparation step. Through cleaning is particularly critical after
fine grinding and before rough polishing and all subsequent
steps.
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After cleaning, specimens may be dried rapidly by
rinsing in alcohol, benzene, or other low-boiling-point liquids,
then placed und a hot-air drier for sufficient time to vaporize
liquids remaining in cracks and pores. Rinsing is most
frequently used and consists of holding specimen under a
stream of running water and wiping the surface with a soft
brush or cotton swab.
Fig.2.16 Prepared specimen for metallography
Fig. 2.17 Metallurgical Microscope
3. Experimental Results And Discussion Densification
Densification of Aluminium and Copper powder
preform before and after deformation is governed by several
factors, which interact with each other in a complex manner.
Some of the important factors considered here are as follows:
(a) Powder Particle Size-
Powder particle size has a remarkable effect on the
relative density which in turn affects deformation
characteristics and fracture mechanisms of the metal powder
preforms. The influence of powder particle size on the relative
density of the copper powder preforms compacted at 30
kg/mm2 and sintered at 6500C and the influence of powder
particle size on the relative density of the aluminium powder
preforms compacted at 10 kg/mm2 and sintered at 4500C and.
The decrease in grain size of powder, however, results in more
densification and improvement in formability of the powder
preforms. Poor flow rate for finer particles are also observed.
(b) Compacting Pressure-
Figure 3.1.1 & fig 3.1.2 shows the relative density
variation with increase in compacting pressure. It is seen that
the relative density of the Aluminium and Copper powder
preform increases gradually with increase in compacting
pressure. The formability of Aluminium and Copper powder
preforms improves at higher compacting pressure.
Combine figure and table for various compacting pressure and different temperature range (600˚C -
650˚C) for copper Table.3.1.1
At Temp- 620˚C 630˚C 640˚C 650˚C
LOAD REL. DEN. REL. DEN. REL. DEN. REL. DEN.
1.5 0.574588 0.61553 0.62821 0.6351683
2 0.613005 0.64388 0.6541 0.65117385
2.5 0.676908 0.67877 0.70448 0.71921792
3 0.696438 0.6979 0.71242 0.74385264
3.5 0.705491 0.72734 0.75162 0.763821478
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
Rel
ati
ve
Den
sity
Load (P)
At Temp = 6200
At Temp =6300
At Temp = 6400
At Temp =6500Load Vs. Relative Density
Fig.-3.1.1
Fig. 3.11 shows load Vs. relative density for various sintering
temperature, considerable pattern for increase in relative
density. In Fig: 3.1.1 relative density increases with rapid rate
from load 0 - 2.5 tone. After that rate of increase in relative
density decrease in the range of load from 2.5 – 3 tone.
Further increase in load shows an increased rate of increase in
relative density. So we can conclude that compacting pressure
range for copper components is 3 tones to 4.5 tones per inch
square for better quality and for obtaining relative density near
to unity i.e. density of copper powder components approaches
to the density of solid copper .
Combine figure and table for various compacting
pressure and different temperature range (400˚C-
450˚C) for aluminium Table.-3.1.2
At Temp 410˚C 420˚C 430˚C 440˚C
LOAD Rel.
Density Rel.
Density Rel.
Density Rel. Density
1.5 0.707582 0.70397 0.71835 0.71081079
2 0.757399 0.76256 0.76758 0.8302024
2.5 0.775723 0.78334 0.79867 0.83108403
3 0.819335 0.82335 0.82836 0.84860878
3.5 0.853088 0.86611 0.87309 0.88458159
Fig: 3.1.2 load Vs. relative density for various
sintering temperature shows a considerable pattern for
increase in relative density. In Fig: 3.1.2 relative density
increases with rapid rate from load 0 – 2 tone. After that rate
of increase in relative density decrease in the range of load
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from 2 -2.5 tone. Further increase in load shows an increased
rate of increase in relative density. So we can
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
Rel
ativ
e D
ensi
ty
Load (P)
Load Vs. Relative Density
At Temp = 4200
At Temp =4300
At Temp = 4100
At Temp = 4400
Fig.- 3.1.2 Variation between load in tone and
relative density conclude that compacting pressure range for aluminium
components is 3 tones to 4 tones per inch square for better
quality and for obtaining relative density near to 1. i.e. density
of aluminium powder components approaches to the density
of solid aluminium.
(c) Sintering Temperature The basic purpose of sintering is to improve the
strength of green compacts. Fig: 3.3.1 & Fig: 3.3.2 shows the
variation of relative density with the sintering temperature for
preforms compacted at various compacting pressure. It is
observed that the relative density of the Aluminium and
Copper powder preform increases with both the sintering
temperature and compacting pressure.
3.3 Relation Between Temperature And Relative Density At Different Load
Table.-3.3.1
3.3.1 For Aluminium
410 415 420 425 430 435 440
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Temp Vs Relative Density
Rel
ativ
e D
ensi
ty p
/po
Temp
AT 1.5 load
AT 3.5 load
AT 2.5 load
AT 2.0 load
AT 3.0 load
Fig .-3.3.1
As shown in the Fig: 3.3.1 relative density increases with the
increase in sintering temperature. It is experimentally found
that the pieces held at greater sintering temp. have the high
density as compared to the pieces held at relatively low
sintering temp. This difference in the density occurs due to the
bonding formation between the powder particles. At relatively
high temp. Crystallization takes place and bonding starts
between the particles as a result void reduced in the metal
preform hence density increases. Crystallization Temp. for
aluminium is 450˚C.
3.3.2 For Copper
Relation between Temperature and Relative density at
different Load
Table.-3.3.2
1.5
load 2.0 load 2.5 load 3.0 load 3.5 load
Temp Rel.
Den
Rel.
Den Rel. Den Rel. Den Rel. Den
620 0.574
588
0.61300
5 0.676908
0.6964382
3 0.705491
630 0.615
528
0.63388
2 0.678769
0.6978995
4 0.727345
640
0.62
8212
0.6540
97
0.70447
8
0.712417
93
0.75161
7
650 0.63
5168
0.6511
74
0.71921
8
0.743852
64
0.76382
1
620 625 630 635 640 645 650
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
Temp Vs Relative Density At Load 3.5 T
At Load 3.0 T
At Load 2.5T
At Load 1.5 T
At Load 2.0 T
Rel
ati
ve
Den
sity
p/p
o
Temp
Fig:-3.3.2
As shown in the Fig: 3.3.2 relative density increases with the
increase in sintering temperature. It is experimentally found
that the pieces held at greater sintering temp. have the high
density as compared to the pieces held at relatively low
sintering temp. This difference in the density occurs due to the
bonding formation between the powder particles. At relatively
high temp. Crystallization takes place and bonding starts
between the particles as a result void reduced in the metal
preform hence density increases.
1.5 load 2.0 load 2.5 load 3.0 load 3.5 load
Temp. Rel. Den Rel. Den Rel. Den Rel. Den Rel. Den
410 0.707582 0.757399 0.775723 0.819335 0.853088
420 0.70397 0.76256 0.80334 0.82335 0.86611
430 0.71835 0.76758 0.77786 0.82836 0.87309
440
0.71081 0.8302 0.83108 0.84861 0.88458
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(d) Compression
The influence of compression is to increase the
relative density of the metal powder preform. The relative
density of the preform increases with increase in compressive
load as shown in Fig: 3.1.1 and Fig: 3.1.2. The relative
density of the preform increases very sharply at the beginning
of loading and then increases slowly with increase in load.
After attaining 1 the preform starts yielding significantly.
For simple compression, the pressure distribution at
the die-work piece interface decreases from the center towards
the edge. The decrease in adhesion friction results in a further
decrease in the pressure distribution which in turn affects the
relative density. Therefore, the relative density is a function of
pressure and flow stress of the metal powder preform.
3.4 Result and discussion of matelography test
Effect of sintering temperature on microstructure of copper preform
Fig: 3.4.1 Copper (sintering temp=600˚C) & Copper
(sintering temp=620˚C)
Fig: 3.4.2 Copper (sintering temp=640˚C) & Copper
(sintering temp=650˚C) The above photograph of microstructure shows the
effect of sintering temperature on bonding of metal powder.
These micrograph shows that the grain size was enlarged
approximately 2 times (from about 0.4µm at 600c to about
0.75 µm at 650˚C after 120 min.). Grain size increases with
increase in sintering temperature. At low temperature bonding
between the particle does not take place. When there is
increase in the sintering temp. , crystallization stage reached
where bonding between particles takes place which result in
the uniform micrograph as shown in above fig for sintering
temp. 650˚C. A densification of about 12% and relative
density of approximately 65% to 77% of the pore-free value
were obtained during the solid state sintering of Cu. From
temp.600˚C to 650˚C.
Fig: 3.4.3 Void between the bonded particles of
powder The above micrograph shows the formation of void due to
interruption of air between the metal powders during
compaction process. Air does not release from the preform
and filled between the interstitial sites which result in the
formation of void as shown in the above micrograph. These
void are formed due to compacting pressure simultaneously
void can be reduced by increasing the compacting pressure
and by using suitable die design.
Effect of sintering temperature on microstructure of aluminium perform
Fig: 3.4.4 Aluminium (sintering temp=400˚C);
Aluminium (sintering temp=420˚C) &Aluminium (sintering temp=430˚C)
Fig: 3.4.5 Aluminium (sintering temp=440˚C) &
Aluminium (sintering temp=450˚C) The above photograph of microstructure shows the effect
of sintering temperature on bonding of metal powder. These
micrograph shows that the grain size was enlarged
approximately 2 times (from about 0.1μm at400˚C to about
1.75 μm at 450˚C after 150 min.). Grain size increases with
increase in sintering temperature. At low temperature bonding
between the particles does not take place. A densification of
about 5% and relative density of approximately 84% to 89%
of the pore-free value were obtained during the solid state
sintering of Cu. From temp.400˚C to 450˚C. When there is
increase in the sintering temp. , crystallization stage reached
where bonding between particles takes place which result in
the uniform micrograph as shown in above fig for sintering
temp. 450˚C.
V. CONCLUSION
On the basis of above experiments some basic rules are
established and these rules will be very much helpful for
analysis of the deformation characteristics of the metal
powder performs for evaluating the various parameters such
as die load, internal power of deformation, relative density
distribution etc. These rules are also used for verifying the
experimental results with theoretical mathematical solutions.
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