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“If I have seen further, it is
by standing on the
shoulders of giants!”
- Isaac Newton
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Democritus -- 400 B.C.
Student of Arostotle
Basic particles make-up all matter
The smallest, indivisible particles of
matter are called atomos
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Robert Boyle
First to study chemistry as a
separate intellectual discipline
First to carry out rigorous
chemical exmperiments
First to clearly define an
element
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Joseph Priestley - 1774
Isolated the gas oxygen by
heating mercury oxide (HgO)
2HgO g 2Hg + O2
Chemical formula
Chemical equation
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Law of
Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created nor destroyed
in chemical reactions
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John Dalton -- 1807
Studied chemical reactions which
investigate the conservation of mass
Developed Dalton’s Atomic Theory
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All matter is
composed of tiny,
indivisible particles
called atoms which
cannot be created,
destroyed, or
interconverted
Atoms of any particular
element are identical;
whereas, atoms of one
element differ from
atoms of other
elements
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Chemical change is a
union, separation, or
rearrangement of
atoms
If the experimental
conditions of a
chemical reaction are
changed, the
combining ratio of one
element with another
element may also
change
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Sir William Crookes
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Sir William Crookes
1879
Developed the cathode ray tube
Discovered cathode rays
• negatively charged particles
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Cathode rays
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The Physics of Waves
l - (lamda) Represents wavelength of a wave
n - (nu) Represents the frequency of a wave
v=ln
E=hn
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J.J. Balmer -- 1885
Swiss scientist
Developed an equation to
calculate the wavelength of
lines in the hydrogen atom
spectrum
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Eugen Goldstein -- 1886
Used a Crookes tube with holes
in the cathode
Observed another kind of ray
which originated near the anode
and passed through the holes in
the cathode
Canal rays
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J.R. Rydberg -- 1890
German
Developed an equation based on
Balmer’s work, which describes
the energies associated with
various energy levels in the
hydrogen atom
E=hn=2.179 X 10-18J(1/n12 - 1/n2
2)
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J.J. Thomson
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J.J. Thomson -- 1897
English physicist
Measured the deflection of cathode ray particles in both a magnetic and an electric field
Determined the charge (e) to mass (m) ratio and found them to be identical for all particles regardless of the metal used as an electrode or the type of gas within the tube
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Max Planck
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Max Planck -- 1900
German physicist
Proposed a quantum theory that
described the light emitted from
a hot object as composed of
discrete unit called quanta or
photons
E=hn
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J.J. Thomson -- 1904
Proposed a model of the atom with
electrons embedded in a sea of
positive charges
Called the “plum-pudding model”
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Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein -- 1905
Published an explanation of the
photoelectric effect
• today the photoelectric effect has
resulted in such technology as
automatic doors
Electrons are emitted from metals
when these metals are exposed to
light of the proper frequency
E=hn=hc/l
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The Photoelectric Effect
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J.J. Thomson -- 1907
Determined that Goldstein’s rays are positively charged particles called protons
The mass was determined to be
• 1.0073 amu
• 1.673 X 10-27 Kg
The atomic mass unit
or amu is
1/12 the mass of the
carbon-12 atom
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1 amu is
1.660 X 10-27Kg
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Robert Millikan
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Robert Millikan -- 1909
Millikan Experiment
Determined the charge of the
electron
From the value of e/m, he found
the mass to be 1/1837 of the
mass of a hydrogen atom
• 0.00055 amu
• 9.11 X 10-31 Kg
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Ernest Rutherford
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1909 -- Rutherford Experiment
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Ernest Rutherford -- 1911
Published his 1909 work in 1911
Projected a beam of a particles onto a
very thin gold foil
From experimental results, Rutherford concluded:
• the volume occupied by an atom is largely
empty space
• each atom contains a massive, positively
charged nucleus
• electrons move about the nucleus giving
the atom its volume
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Niels Bohr -- 1913
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Niels Bohr -- 1913
Proposed that the electron’s energy is
quantized
Developed the Bohr model of the atom
• Often called the planetary model
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The electron of
hydrogen moves
about the
nucleus in a
circular orbit
The centrifugal
force due to this
motion
counterbalances
the electrostatic
attraction between
the nucleus and the
electron
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The energy of the
electron is
restricted to
certain values,
each
corresponding to
an orbit with a
different radius
Quantum number
energy
constant
Integer
for given
orbit
Atomic #
2
2
n
kZE
−=
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Integer
characteristic of an
orbit
Radius of
hydrogen atom
Atomic #
Z
anR o
orbit
2
=
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Ahh…
an example
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If a spark promotes the electron
in a hydrogen atom into an orbit
with n=3, what is the calculated
energy, in joules, of the
electron?
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2
2E=
kZ
n
−
First…Which equation is needed?
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Second…What is given?
Hydrogen atom
n=3
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Third…How do I set the
problem up?
( )( )
( )
218
19
2
2.179 10 J 1E 2.421 10 J
3
−
−−
= = −
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Henry Moseley -- 1913
English physicist
Killed during World War I
Used X-rays striking an element to determine the number of protons (atomic number) in the nucleus
X-rays produced by various elements were measured
The X-ray energies were dependent on the atomic number of each element
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F.W. Aston -- 1913-14
Developed the mass
spectrometer
• Gaseous substance are bombarded
by high-energy electrons, thus
knocking off electrons so as to
produce positively charged ions
• Ions are directed through a
magnetic or electrical field, which
deflects their paths depending on
their mass/charge ratio
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Mass Spectrometer
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Atoms of the same element
have differing masses
Identified the isotopes of
various elements
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Masson, Harkins, & Rutherford
1920
Orme Masson (Australian)
William Harkins ( American)
Ernest Rutherford (New Zealander)
Independently postulate the existence of
an uncharged particle with the same
mass as the proton (neutron).
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Failures with the Bohr model
lead to a need for a
new atomic model
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Electrostatic attraction of positive
nucleus and negative electrons.
Centrifugal force holding the nucleus
and electrons apart.
Electrons behave as a wave as well as
a particle.
vs
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Bohr’s Model Provides Insight
into Atom’s Behavior
Energies of electrons (energy levels) are quantized.
Quantum numbers describe such electron properties as energy and location.
An electron’s energy changes with distance from the nucleus.
Spectral lines of the elements are due to quantized electronic energies.
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Nucleons
The total of all nuclear
particles. Includes both
protons & neutrons.
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Atomic Mass
The mass in
atomic mass units
of an element
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Molecular Mass
The mass in
atomic mass units
of a molecule
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Formula Mass
or
Empirical MassThe mass in
atomic mass units
of an ionic compound
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Na - 23.0 X 1 = 23.0
Cl - 35.5 X 1 = 35.5
------------------------------
58.5 amu
C - 12 X 1 = 12
O - 16 X 2 = 32
----------------------------
44 amu
NaCl CO2
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Moles
The quantity of matter containing
Avogadro’s number of particles
6.022 X 1023 particles
Particles may include:
• subatomic particles
• ions
• atoms
• molecules
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Molar Mass
The mass of
one mole of a substance
in
grams
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Calculating moles from
grams
Divide grams by molar
mass
Mass of
Substance
Mole of
Substance
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Calculating grams from
moles
Moles of
substanceMass of
substance
Multiply moles by molar mass
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Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear equation: Elemental
symbols represent only the
nuclei of atoms.
The subscript represents only
the number of nuclear charges
(protons or atomic number).
14 14 0
6 7 1C N + e−→
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Alpha (a) Radiation
Helium nuclei
4
2 He
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Beta (b) Radiation
electron
0
1e−
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Gamma (g) Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation
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Positron Emission
A proton changes into a neutron
plus an ejected positron.
0
1e
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Electron Capture
The nucleus captures one of the
surrounding electrons in an atom,
thereby converting a proton into a
neutron.
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Nuclear Stability