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LECTURE # 6
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The World, its Resources, and Humankind
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The World
ResourcesMINERALS
Place, History,
Economy, Politics, Disease
Humanity
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MINERALS
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphor
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1808 - Calcium
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 – Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 - REE
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 4
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SALT (NaCl) =
Sodium (Na) Chloride (Cl)
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E. MORAN - 2017 6
Crystalline mineral of sodium chloride (NaCl)
Vast amounts in sea water (3.5%) and in mines
Saltiness = basic human taste
Essential to human health
Processed from sea water and from salt mines
Taxation and active commerce
Trade and War
SALT
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E. MORAN - 2017 7
~ 8000 BC – First evidence of processing salt from sea –
Romania – boiling spring water
Human habitation around water and salt
The name “salt” from Latin “sal” “salarium” = soldier’s pay
Salt present in meat, less in plants - nomads do not eat salt. Farmers do.
Main trading: Chinese, Hittites, Hebrews, Egyptians, Indians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines
“Salting the Earth”
Salt for barter
Salt trading routes – Via Salaria = Ostia-Rome
Salt - Timeline
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E. MORAN - 2017 8
2800 BC – Active exchange - Egypt and Phoenicians
Tuareg made caravan routes through Sahara
800 BC – Salzburg on river Salzach – salt deposits
Celtic people traded salt and salted meat to Greece and Rome
War of Venice and Genoa over salt transport
Liverpool became rich exporting salt from mines of Cheshire
Columbus’ voyages financed by salt from S. Spain
Oppressive salt tax in S. France cause for French
Revolution
1930 – Gandhi “Salt Satyagraha” making own salt boycotting
British raj.
Salt – Timeline (cont’d)
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Salt Deposits at the Dead Sea
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Red Rock Salt, Pakistan
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Salt Mounds, Bolivia
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Salt – Brine from Sea Water Being Boiled
Thailand
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E. MORAN - 2017 13
~200 Mil. Tonnes produced
Producers: China, USA, India, Germany, Canada
Production:
• Sea water evaporation in ponds
• Mines (rock salt) followed by refining
Huge reserves of salt
Uses: 6%-17% - Human consumption
6% - Food processing
12% - Water conditioning process
6% - Agriculture
Salt - Economics
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E. MORAN - 2017 14
Salt = 40% sodium by weight
1 tsp (6g) = 2,300 mg of sodium
Sodium is a source of electrolyte necessary for the
normal function of almost all organs
Necessary for water regulation in the body
Salt intake in Western countries = 10g/day High
blood pressure, stroke
WHO < 2000 mg/day (5 g of salt/day)
Less than 1200 mg/day (3 g of salt/day) is not
recommended
SALT and HEALTH
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphorus
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 - Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 - REE
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 15
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COAL [(Carbon (C)]
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E. MORAN – 2017 17
(?) Volcanic activity dead forests in wetlands buried
under soil pressure of soil
carbonization peat lignite
sub-bituminous coal
bituminous coal anthracite
graphite
Uses: Heating
Fuel for generation of electric power (40%
made with coal)
Coal Formation and Uses
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Bituminous Coal
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Anthracite
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E. MORAN - 2017 20
Old English = “mineral of fossilized carbon”
Combustible sedimentary rock – coal beds or coal
seams
Chiefly carbon with some sulfur, oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen
Mine extraction - accidents, environmental hazards,
disease
COAL
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E. MORAN - 2017 21
1000 BC - Used for smelting copper in China
300 BC - Theophrastus - “On Stones” - anthrakes
~1300 CE - Marco Polo – “black stones which burn like logs”
200-400 CE - Roman Britain – Coal was known (uses?)
1000 CE - Rhineland – Coal use for smelting iron ore
1300 CE - “Seacoal Lane” in London – unloading coal from
Newcastle-upon-Tyne for smiths at Westminster
Abbey
13th Cent. - Underground extraction – “pitcoal”= open mining
18th Cent. - Industrial revolution started in England –
steam engine
Coal Timeline
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Coal mining in United States
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Coal mine in Wyoming
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Coal miner in Britain - 1942
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Miners Leaving their Mine Shift
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About Coal Mining
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E. MORAN - 2017 28
Pneumoconioses = Occupational diseases due to
the inhalation of foreign particles and their
deposition into the respiratory tract
Anthracosis = “Black lung” disease of the miners
Coal particles are inhaled and deposited into the
bronchi (wind pipes) lining and into the lungs,
causing a fibrotic (scar tissue) reaction and
restriction of gas exchanges
Severe chronic lung disease Death
“Black Lung” Disease
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ANTHRACOSIS – Lung mass
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Environmental activists blocking access
to a mine
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World Coal Production 1980-2012
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E. MORAN - 2017 32
1947 – 750,000 miners in Britain, 2004 - only 5000
2001 – China - 50% of world production
USA, India, EU, Australia
Largest importer – Japan
Uses: Heat
Electricity – 40% world’s electricity
USA coal use is declining since 2012
Petro-Chemicals – increasing output due to
gasification syngas electricity
Coal – Production and Uses
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Production of Chemicals from Coal
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E. MORAN - 2017 34
Coal + oxygen + steam - Heated under pressure
Oxygen and water molecules oxidize coal CO + H2 =
“SYNGAS” used to fire engines electricity
Syngas gasoline and diesel
Syngas methanol gasoline
Since 1950s - Petrochemicals: Olefins, acetic acid,
formaldehyde, ammonia, urea, etc.
Gasification and Petrochemicals
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DIAMONDS
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E. MORAN - 2017 36
What are the diamonds?
Internet: “Metastable allotrope of carbon”
A mineral made of pure carbon with the atoms in a strong bond and arranged in a particular structure (lattice)
Highest hardness (grade 10)
Highest optical dispersion
Colorless, but impurities may color:
Blue – boron, yellow – nitrogen, brown – lattice
defects, green – radiation exposure
DIAMONDS
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Lattice of Diamond (left) and of
Graphite (right)
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Diamond Lattice of Carbon Atoms
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E. MORAN - 2017 39
1-3 Billion years (25% - 75% of Earth’s age)
Depth of 87 - 118 Mi. in the Earth’s mantle
Temp of 1650° - 2370°F
Pressure 45 - 60 kbars
May be produced synthetically (HPHT method)
“Diamond simulants” zirconium, germanium
Diamonds Formation
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Schematic Diagram of a Volcanic
“Pipe”
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E. MORAN - 2017 41
Cutting and polishing are done with scientific
knowledge, tools, and experience
Centers: Antwerp, Amsterdam, New York, Tel Aviv,
Johannesburg
Diamond cut & polished = brilliant
Weight reduction upon cutting ~ 50%
1 carat = 200 mg.
Uses: Jewelry
Industry - 80% of mined diamonds
Diamond Cutting
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The “Hope Diamond” 45.52 caratNational Museum of Natural History,
Washington, DC
CUT FROM “BLEU DE FRANCE” GIVEN TO LOUIS XIV 42
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“Bleu de France” Diamond
In 1669 Louis XIV had the Indian 115 carat
diamond recut
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Brilliant set in a ring
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National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, DC
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Diamond Exports by Country - 2014
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E. MORAN - 2017 47
Approx. 130,000,000 carat mined/year = US $9 Bil.
9th cent. BC -18th cent. CE – India major producer
18th cent. – Brazil, Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola,
Russia
US – Arkansas, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana
Recent mines: Russia, Botswana, W. Australia,
D.R. Congo
Political issues: Revolutionary groups “conflict
and blood diamonds” - UN Kimberley Process
Diamonds – Production and Politics
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E. MORAN - 2017 48
D.R. Congo – “Conflict diamonds” and “Blood
diamonds” – Stolen by rebels and sold on
the black market for own profit.
What did United Nations do?
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing”
The World Looked on and Did Nothing
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Synthetic Diamonds Grown by the
High-pressure High-temperature
Technique
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Colorless Gem Cut From Diamond
Grown by Chemical Vapor Deposition
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphorus
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 - Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 - REE
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 51
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SULFUR (S)
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E. MORAN - 2017 53
Solid yellow crystalline mineral abundant in
Earth’s crust
Occurs as native or as sulfide or sulfate minerals
Essential to life: Amino-acids and vitamins
Found in volcanic regions and hot springs
Mined in Sicily, Indonesia, Chile, Japan
SULFUR
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Sulphur in fumarole – Volcano, Italy
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E. MORAN - 2017 55
Old Testament - “brimstone” “fire-and brimstone” =
eternal damnation of unbelievers
Known in antiquity
6th cent. BC – Chinese medicine
1044 CE – Chinese black gunpowder
Alchemists used it for skin conditions
18th cent. – Sicilian mines - horrible conditions –
Booker T. Washington: “Sicily mine is the
nearest thing to hell that I expect to see in this
life.”
Sulfur Timeline
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E. MORAN - 2017 56
Mining declined after 2002
Side product of oil refining
Uses: Sulfuric acid v. important in oil refining and mineral extraction
Fertilizers
Fungicides, pesticides
Sulfa drugs (antibacterial sulfonamides)
Winemaking (sulfites inhibit aerobic bacterial growth)
Sulfur – Production and Uses
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Production and Price (US market)
Price is in Red
57
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Burning of coal in industry sulfuric
dioxide in air + water + oxygen = sulfuric
acid acid rain
Effects of Acid Rain on a Forest in the Czech
Republic
58
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphorus
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 - Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 - REE
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 59
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SILICON [Silica (Si)]
(Silicon dioxide SiO2)
(from Lat. silex)
60
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E. MORAN - 2017 61
Second most abundant in the Earth’s crust
Known since old times
Major constituent of sand
Wide use in industry
SILICA
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E. MORAN - 2017 62
Uses: Construction for Portland cement
Production of glass
Production of ceramics: Earthenware
Stoneware
Porcelain
Production of microchips
Health hazards: Silicosis – a lung disease due to
the inhalation of sand particles
Silica
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63
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic
equipment today: electronics, computers,
mobile phones, and other digital home
appliances
Microchips = Integrated Circuits
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QUARTZ
64
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E. MORAN - 2017 65
Second most abundant mineral in Earth’s crust
Name is from German “Quarz.” The name crystal
is from Greek “kristalos”
It is a crystalized form of silicon dioxide
A six-sided prism with a six-sided pyramid at one end
and embedded into a matrix at the other end.
Many varieties due to impurities and the structure
macro- or micro-crystalline structure
Rock crystal is the purest
QUARTZ
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A Cluster of Natural Quartz Crystals
66
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Quartz crystal cluster from Tibet
67
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Clear Rock Crystal
68
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Amethist crystals on matrix
IRON IS THE IMPURITY 69
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Rose quartz cluster
70
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Smoky Crystal from the Alps
71
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E. MORAN - 2017 72
Known from antiquity
Associated with funeral ritual in many countries
Semi-precious in Europe and in Middle East as
jade was in Asia. Many gems, vases,
decorative.
17th cent. Nicolas Steno – modern crystallography
1930 – Electronic industry used quartz crystals
Quartz Timeline
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Persian Ewer in Rock Crystal – c. 1000
73
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Cornucopia in rock crystal
(pure quartz) – Austria, 1890
74
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E. MORAN - 2017 75
Piezoelectric properties – Jacques and
Pierre Curie – 1880. Quartz crystals
develop an electric potential upon
application of mechanical stress
(pressure)
Crystal oscillator used in the production of
very accurate measurements like time –
Quartz watch
Piezoelectric Effect
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Tuning-fork crystal used in a modern
quartz watch
76
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A Quartz Clock
77
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CLAY
78
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E. MORAN - 2017 79
Natural soil material - Minerals + traces of metal oxides +
organic matter
Absorbs water swells and becomes plastic
Upon drying or being fired becomes hard
Geologic clay deposits in layers of various colors
Formation: Chemical weathering of rocks by carbonic
acid and water
Firing in kilns ceramics: Earthenware,
Stoneware
Porcelain
CLAY
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Clay Cliffs in Martha’s Vineyards
80
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E. MORAN - 2017 81
14,000 BC – Used in Japan (Jomon Culture)
Clay tablets used for writing with a reed – Cuneiform
writing and the hieroglyphs
Man discovered the clay properties upon heating -firing
USES: Oldest building material, bricks – adobe
Wall and floor tiles
Pottery, dishware, cooking pots,
Domestic appliances, musical instruments, art
Clay - Timeline and Uses
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Ceramic Vessel from Mesopotamia
4500 – 4000 BC
82
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Cuneiform Writing
Sumerian (Mesopotamia) 3500-3000 BC
83
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Egyptian Hieroglyphs
3300 BC
84
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“Eve of Long Beach,”
April 2011
85
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“Mia, the Burmese Lady”
White clay, May 2011
86
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“A Memory”
Clay, 2013
87
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“Thinking of Modigliani”
Clay, 2014
88
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At the Art Show, Long Beach, 11-17-12
89
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphorus
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 - Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 - REE
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 90
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COLTAN
91
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E. MORAN - 2017 92
A metallic ore discovered ~1990
Name is short for columbite-tantalite
The Niobium-dominant mineral in coltan is Columbite
The Tantalum-dominant mineral in coltan is Tantalite
x 80 better conductor than copper
Resists high temperatures
Resists oxidation
COLTAN
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A Piece of Coltan
93
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E. MORAN - 2017 94
60 - 89% of world production used for:
Mobile phones, flat TV, video games, MP3, batteries,
laptops, GPS, airplane industry, optic fiber,
tele-guided weapons, artificial satellites
digital cameras, medical appliances
Late 2000 – Great demand for PlayStation 2
Coltan price increased temporarily
Coltan - Uses
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Tantalum Capacitor
95
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Map of Colonial Africa in 1910
96
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Africa after the Second Congo War
97
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E. MORAN - 2017 98
71% mined in D.R.Congo; 20% recycled
Australia - 10%
Thailand – 5%
Brazil – 5%
Major explorations. High global demand - still met
Major international theft, aggression, and war
United Nation – Plunder of gems and minerals by
militia and 125 companies
Smuggled coltan through Eastern Europe - Russia
Coltan – Resources - Economy
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E. MORAN - 2017 99
“Resource Curse” = Countries rich in resources have
worse economic development
Children used in the extraction; paid 1-2 US$/day
Corruption, exploitation Political instability
paid militia, civil war
• 90% of young men – Leaving farms for mining
• 30% of youth are analphabets
• 60% do not have potable water
• 30% - undernourished
• 1 Million refugees
Eastern Congo invasion from Rwanda selling coltan
Coltan – Social and Political Issues
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E. MORAN - 2017 100
D.R. Congo – “Conflict diamonds” and “Blood
diamonds” – Stolen by rebels and sold on
the black market for own profit.
D.R. Congo – “Resource Curse” – Coltan
Stolen by insurgent armies and sold to pay
mercenaries.
What did United Nations do?
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing”
The World Looked on and Did Nothing
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~8000 BC - Salt
3750 BC - Coal
3000 BC - Antimony
2500 BC - Arsenic
~2000 BC - Sulfur
1669 - Phosphorus
1732 - Cobalt
1774 - Manganese
1817 - Selenium
1818 - Iodine
1824 - Silicon
1990 - Coltan
1990 – Rare Earth Elements
MINERALS
E. MORAN - 2017 101
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RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
102
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• Cerium (Ce)
• Dysprosium (Dy)
• Erbium (Er)
• Europium (Eu)
• Gadolinium (Gd)
• Holmium (Ho)
• Lanthanum (La)
• Lutetium (Lu)
• Neodymium (Nd)
• Praseodymium (Pr)
• Promethium (Pm)
• Samarium (Sm)
• Scandium (Sc)
• Terbium (Tb)
• Thulium (Tm)
• Ytterbium (Yb)
• Yttrium (Y)
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
E. MORAN - 2016 103
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E. MORAN - 2017 104
1787-1901 - Discovered in the soil of Ytterby, Sweden
17 elements found in the earth as oxides
Earth crust – 68 ppm (like Cu) - NOT SO RARE
Pacific Ocean seabed mud (?)
Isolation is difficult. Using difference in solubility and
other modern techniques
Used in high-tech. Reserves are dwindling.
Environment concerns: Radioactive slurry, toxic acids
in the refining process
Rare Earth Elements
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E. MORAN - 2017 105
Scandium - Light aluminum-scandium alloys for
aerospace, additive in metal-halide lamps,
radioactive tracing agents.
Yttrium – Yttrium-aluminum garnet laser (YAG), TV,
microwave filters, energy-efficient light bulbs,
additive to steel.
Lanthanum – High refractive glass, hydrogen storage,
camera lenses, catalyst for oil refineries.
Cerium - Oxidizing agent, catalyst for self-cleaning ovens
and for oil refineries
Praseodymium – Magnets, lasers, carbon arc lighting
Rare Earth Elements (1)
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E. MORAN - 2017 106
Neodymium - Magnets, lasers, didymium glass,
ceramic capacitors.
Promethium – Nuclear batteries, luminous paint.
Samarium - Magnets, lasers, neutron capture.
Europium - Lasers, mercury-vapor lamps,
fluorescent lamps, NMR.
Gadolinium - Lasers, X-ray tubes, computer
memory, MRI contrast agent, NMR, steel additive.
Terbium - Lasers, magnets, fluorescent lamps.
Dysprosium – Magnets, lasers.
Rare Earth Elements (2)
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E. MORAN - 2017 107
Holmium - Lasers, magnets, optical spectrophotometers.
Erbium – Infrared lasers, vanadium steel, fiber-optic
technology.
Thulium – Lasers, portable X-ray machines, metal-halide
lamps.
Ytterbium – Infrared lasers, stainless steel, nuclear
medicine.
Lutetium – Positron emission tomography (PET scan),
high-refractive-index glass.
Rare Earth Elements (3)
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108
Till 1948 – India, Brazil; 1950s – S. Africa; 1960-1980 –
Mountain Pass, CA; 2010 - China
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
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E. MORAN - 2017 109
China – 90% of world production and exporter
Since 2009 China gradually reduced the
export quotas
China forced small independent miners to merge
into state-owned corporations
2012 – USA, EU, and Japan confronted China at
WTO
2014 – WTO: China had broken free trade
agreements
2015 – China had lifted all quotas
Rare Earth Elements
Economics and China
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E. MORAN - 2017 110
Searches for alternative sources
Canada, Australia, Vietnam, Greenland – new
sources of REE
North Korea = 2nd largest reserve. Selling to China
Recycling started in Japan, France, Malaysia
Pricing: • Not exchange-traded
• Not sold in pure form
• Price dictated by demand
Rare Earth Elements
World Economics
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E. MORAN - 2017 111
China: Reason for reducing quotas
• Depletion of resource
• Environmental concerns
USA: Dysprosium import “most critical”
• World production of REE = 132,000 metric tons.
• China produces 129,000 metric tons
Solution: 1. New sources
2. Changing production policy
USGS - REE in So. Afghanistan’s Helmand province
1.3 Mil. tons - $7.4 Bil.
Rare Earth Elements
Geo-politics
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END OF LECTURE # 6
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