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1651HOBBES AND THE LEVIATHAN
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How is social order possible?Foundation of Western political philosophy, social contract
theory, right of the individual.Materialism: human beings composed of matter and motion,
obeying physical law.
HOBBES’ QUESTION
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People have the capacity to reason They weigh the costs and benefits They consider the consequences of their actions
HOBBES’ ASSUMPTIONS
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People are self-interested They seek to attain what they desire
Security (avoid death and injury) Reputation (status) Gain (possessions)
HOBBES’ ASSUMPTIONS, CONT’D
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Their ability to attain what they desire depends on their power Because men want a happy life, they seek sufficient power to ensure
that life All men have a “restless desire for power”
ASSUMPTIONS, CONT’D
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Hobbes’ approach: a theory of political obligation grounded in human rationality When is it rational for us as self-interested individuals to obey a
ruler? When are we obliged to do so?
HOBBES: NEW APPROACHES TO AN OLD PROBLEM
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Hobbes’ solution: we must learn to recognize that our obligations to obey the sovereign are rationally justified, and hence to respect the sovereign power “Internal” focus Assumes people are not educable Assumes a certain amount of rationality and self-interest
HOBBES: NEW APPROACHES TO AN OLD PROBLEM
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What is our natural condition? Are people naturally equal? Aristotle: No, some are masters and some are slaves according to
the degree of rationality Christian philosophy: yes, they are all equal in that all have an
immortal soul Hobbes: yes, they are all equal in one important respect: equality
to kill
THE STATE OF NATURE
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People are insecure, and live in a constant fear of injury and death
There is no place for industry, because the fruit of it is uncertain
Hence, no agriculture, navigation, building, culture, science
Life is short and unpleasant
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ‘STATE OF NATURE’
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Everyone is strong enough to kill the strongestEveryone thinks him/herself above average in practical
intellectual ability (prudence)But prudence is merely experienceErgo, there are no natural distinctions distinguishing masters
from slaves, or rulers from ruled
EQUALITY
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What is our most important natural desire? Aristotle: the desire to have a good life Hobbes: the desire to avoid violent death
THE STATE OF NATURE
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Do our most important natural desires lead to social integration or disintegration? Aristotle: our important natural desires lead to the creation of
small communities and then to larger communities. We need and desire to be with others.
Hobbes: our important natural desires lead to social disintegration, given our natural equality in the ability to kill or be killed.
THE STATE OF NATURE
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Are our most important desires naturally integrative or disintegrative?
THE STATE OF NATURE
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Natural causes of conflict: Distrust: I do not trust you not to kill me, so I try to kill you first Love of gain (a natural desire): I know myself equal to you, and I
want your things Love of glory (a natural desire): I think myself (erroneously) better
than you are, and think I deserve reparation
THE STATE OF NATURE
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Trust and cooperate
Do not trust, attack
Trust and cooperate
We gain from cooperating: arts, sciences, etc.
One of us gets killed, the other lives and takes your property
Do not trust, attack
One of us gets killed, the other lives and takes your property
One or both of us may get killed
THE STATE OF NATURE
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“In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” (Chapter 13)
THE STATE OF NATURE
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Is there a right to self-preservation? How far does it extend? “even to one another’s bodies” in the state of nature
The justification of this right comes from the universal interest in preserving yourself
RIGHTS
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Because everyone has the same right to everything, there can be no justice or injustice in the state of nature
Justice is a human construction that we have to make possible
RIGHTS AND JUSTICE
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Is Hobbes right? Are there any places in the state of nature today?
RIGHTS AND JUSTICE
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There is an empirical problem: states actually existThe problem is not only empirical but also normative: are we
obligated to obey existing states?We can only appeal to what is rational for us to do, not to God
or some other agency
ESCAPING THE STATE OF NATURE: THE PROBLEM
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Could the problem be solved through the prospect of future cooperation? The stakes are always too high; death prevents future cooperation Repeated cooperation does not solve the problem of how we
come to have obligations to the state
HOW DO WE ESCAPE THE STATE OF NATURE?
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Hobbes’ solution: we all together transfer (most of) our right to everything to a specific person to act in our name to preserve ourselves
This person is then authorized (we are its “authors”) to use all means necessary to preserve the peace (to use “us”)
THE SOVEREIGN
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THE SOVEREIGN
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Why is this a solution? The sovereign has enough power (all of us) to prevent attacks by
any of us individually
THE SOVEREIGN
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Why is this a solution? With the sovereign in place, what can be reasonably expected of
others shifts: we can now expect that they will not attack us, so we can now speak of justice and injustice
THE SOVEREIGN
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Why is this a solution? The act of transferring our right to everything to the sovereign
creates a presumptive obligation to obey the sovereign
THE SOVEREIGN
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The Sovereign is an artificial person It can be a single natural person (a monarch) Or a collection of people that can act in a unified way (an
assembly)
THE SOVEREIGN
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For Hobbes, the most important thing is that there be a sovereign, not so much the form it takes
For Aristotle, the more important question is the form of government
SOVEREIGNTY AND POLITICAL REGIMES
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For Aristotle, the purpose of politics is to realize man’s highest good The best regime most fully realizes the highest good, but other
regimes also realize it to a smaller extentFor Hobbes, the purpose of politics is to avoid the worst of
evils Any regime avoids the worst of evils (war)
POLITICS
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Hobbes wants to remind us that our obligations to obey the state are rationally justified They are obligations (i.e., they apply generally) They are in accord with our self-interest, and in
particular with our interest in avoiding violent death
Conflict arises ultimately from error and irrationality, but it does not require extensive education to solve it
Focuses on the internal problem of conflict, leaving the external problem unresolved
HOBBES’ APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF CONFLICT