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Quenching – Mastering the Process
D. Scott MacKenzie, PhD, FASMDecember 2011
The How and Why of Quenching Metal Parts
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Mechanism of Quenching– Quenching occurs in three stages
• Vapor Phase– Formation of vapor film around the part– Heat transfer is slow– Heat transfer occurs primarily through radiation and conduction through
vapor• Nucleate Boiling Phase
– High heat extraction rates– Heat removal by bubble formation and contact of cool quenchant on
part surface• Convection Phase
– Starts at below boiling temperature of quenchant– Slow heat transfer
– Governs Properties and Distortion
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
Vapor Phase NucleateBoiling Phase
Convection Phase
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
1. Moment of immersion – vapor film around probe2. After 5 seconds – boiling commences at corners3. After 10 seconds – boiling front moves along the probe4. After 15 seconds – showing vapor. Boiling and convection phases5. After 30 seconds – convection phase
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Metallurgical Effects– Carbon Content and Hardenability
• Avoid the nose or knee of the TTT curve• Cooling rate depends on hardenability of steel• Maximum hardness attainable is dependant on % Carbon
present– Cooling Rates
• Cooling rate is limited by thickness of part– Limited by thermal diffusivity– Excessive cooling rates may cause cracking or distortion– Higher cooling rates yield higher thermal gradients
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Austenite will transform if held at a lower constant temperature
– Lower than austenite stability temperature
– Percent transformation plotted by time versus temperature
– Performed at many temperatures– Summarized in a single diagram– Called TTT (Time-Temperature-
Transformation) Diagram• A “map” that charts austenite
transformation as a function of time and temperature
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• TTT Diagrams– Time-Temperature-Transformation– Also called Isothermal Transformation (IT) diagrams– Shows the time required for transformation
• Start and finish times• Diagram created
– Small specimens austenitized in molten salt– Quenched into molten salt at different temperature for a specific time– Quenched in water– Metallographically examined and volume fraction of constituents are
determined.• Curves widely available• Permits estimates of microstructure for times and temperature
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Diagram is simplified– Really a mixture of curves
• Bainite, pearlite curves are usually shown as one curve• Really overlapping several curves should be shown
– Sufficient to understand microstructures• Isothermal transformations are understood• Pearlite, upper Bainite, lower Bainite and martensite
transformation fractions can be estimated.• Allows estimated times and temperatures to be estimated for
heat treatment
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• TTT Diagram for plain carbon eutectoid steel– A - 0.01 volume fraction
Pearlite– B – 0.99 volume fraction
Pearlite– C – 0.01 volume fraction upper
Bainite– D – 0.99 volume fraction upper
Bainite– E – 0.01 volume fraction lower
Bainite– F – 0.99 volume fraction lower
Bainite– G – 0.01 volume fraction
Martensite
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Shape and Position of Curves– Depends on composition, grain size and alloying
elements• Increasing carbon tends to retard transformation• Increasing alloying elements tends to retard transformation• Increasing grain size tends to retard transformation
– Retarding transformation shoves “nose” or “knee” to the right
• Greater hardenability or deepen harder
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, ASM, 1977
AISI1020
AISI1050
AISI1080
AISI1095
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
AISI 1060 AISI 5160
C-0.63% Mn–0.87% C-0.61% Mn–0.94% Cr-0.88%
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Quenching and Tempering– Most common method of
heat treating• Heating to Austenite
region, then rapidly cooling to miss “knee” to avoid transformation
• Center and surface curves shown
• Transformation of austenite completely to Martensite
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Martempering– Method is used to limit distortion and
residual stresses in parts– Process
• Part is quenched to intermediate temperature at approximately the Martensite (Ms) temperature
• Held until center of piece reaches bath temperature
• Cooled in air or convenient manner• Determines how long part is held at
temperature before formation of Bainite– Widely used to control distortion in
gears and other dimension critical parts
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Austempering– Process of isothermal
transformation of Austenite to Bainite
– For this process, TTT diagram is indispensable
– Shows the minimum time for Austenite to Bainite transformation
– Used for planning austempering heat treatments, and determining time at temperature
– Method used for austempering ductile irons and similar
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• TTT Diagrams cover isothermal transformations– Real heat treat processes cover a range of temperatures– Mixture of isothermal transformation products– Useful in planning heat treatments– Can not be used to accurately predict course of transformation
during cooling• CT (Continuous Cooling Transformation) Curves
– Austenite transformations shifted lower and to the right– Determined primarily by empirical data
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Derivation of CCT Diagrams– Early attempts were unsuccessful.– Originally superimposed end-
quench data on TTT diagram to show downward shift.
– Now determined by hardness and metallographic data from Jominy End Quench
– Dilatometer and Metallography used extensively
– Instrumented rounds of material also used
– Designed to estimate hardness of round bars
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Alternatively– Time versus temperature plot
used.• Hardness is displayed at the
end of cooling curve• Difficult to predict time effect
of higher austenitizing temperatures
– Cooling rate at 1300°F (704°C) used
• Based on Jominy• Good for pearlite
transformations• Not as good for Bainitic
transformations
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Martensitic microstructures are the hardest in any carbon steel– Only produced if ferrite and cementite is avoided
• Section discusses– Relationship of carbon to martensite hardness– Discusses hardness can be achieved throughout a part– Hardenability term intoduced
• Ease of martensite formation• Effect of section size, cooling rates and composition
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Hardness– Function of Martensite content
• Hardness of martensite much higher than Pearlitic structure
• High hardness and high strength is reason why Martensitic structures are preferred
– Retained Austenite formed at high carbon contents
• Ms temperatures drop below room temperature
• Low temperature treatments to force transformation is done
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Grain size effects attainable hardness– Smaller grain size
increases hardness– Associated with carbon
segregation making yielding more difficult
• Finer structures have shorter differences
• Less ability to yield
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Hardenability– “Ability to harden deeply” not “Ability to Harden”– The depth and distribution of hardness produced by
quenching– Official Definition:
• “The capacity of a steel to transform partially or completely from Austenite to some percentage of Martensite at a given depth when cooled under some given conditions.
– Affected by cooling rates, composition and grain size
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Factors Affecting Cooling Rates– Two factors
• Ability to diffuse heat out of the part (thermal diffusivity)• Ability of the quenching medium to remove heat.
– Thermal Diffusivity• Ability of steel to transfer heat• Changes as a function of temperature• Very little change as a function of composition
– Quenchant• Most important control over cooling rate• Complex process
– Depends on radiation, boiling and forced and unforced convection– Agitation, quenchant temperature and concentration (if polymer quenchant)
primary factors• Important practical considerations
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Severity of Quench– Effectiveness of quenchant ranked by parameter called “Severity of
Quench”• Measure identified by “H”• Determined experimentally by quenching a series of round bars• 50% Martensite region determined (dark/light etch transition)
– Determination of “Severity of quench” makes possible:• Calculation of critical size in terms of standardized quench;• Calculation of critical size from a single test• Predicting how a know steel would behave under different severity of quench• Predicting hardness distribution
– How to do it?• Quenching varies more than suspected• No way to translate results from laboratory to field, or to other quench.
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Different bar diameters quenched in different quenchants – Unhardened diameter to
bar diameter determined (Du/D)
– Ratios plotted as a function of bar diameter
– H-Value determined• Water quenching
generally is given as H=1
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
Air Oil Water BrineNo circulation of fluid or piece 0.02 0.25-0.30 0.9-1.0 2Mild circulation or agitation 0.30-0.35 1.0-1.1 2-2.2Moderate agitation 0.35-0.40 1.2-1.3Good circulation 0.40-0.50 1.4-1.5Strong agitation 0.05 0.5 - 0.8 1.6-2.0Violent Agitation 0.8 - 1.1 4 5
Severity of Quench (H) for Various Quenching Media
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Ideal Diameter– Requires definition of “Ideal Quench”
• Fastest possible quench, where surface of the bar would be cooled instantly to the temperature of the quenchant.
• Handled simply by heat transfer calculations– Fastest Quench, then the largest size obtainable with a
specific hardenability• Basis of comparison• Called “Ideal Critical Size”, or DI• Reliable method and used for hardenability calculations and
specification purposes.• Can be determined experimentally by quenching bars• Can be determined by composition.
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Jominy End Quench– Developed by Jominy– Characterizes hardenability of
a steel from a single bar– Simple test
• Specimen cooled at one end• Provides cooling rates
between water quenching and air cooling
• After quenching, parallel flats are ground on each side
• Hardness readings taken at 1/16” intervals
– Hardness differences can be readily compared
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Standardized Test– ASTM A 255– SAE J406
• Each position corresponds to a specific cooling rate– Cooling rate determines
percentage of Martensite– Data can be used to predict
hardness if cooling rates known
• Test is highly accurate and repeatable– Excellent method for selecting
steels
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
Timken “Practical Guide for Metallurgists
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Severity of Quench– Effectiveness of quenchant ranked by parameter called “Severity of
Quench”• Measure identified by “H”• Determined experimentally by quenching a series of round bars• 50% Martensite region determined (dark/light etch transition)
– Determination of “Severity of quench” makes possible:• Calculation of critical size in terms of standardized quench;• Calculation of critical size from a single test• Predicting how a know steel would behave under different severity of quench• Predicting hardness distribution
– How to do it?• Quenching varies more than suspected• No way to translate results from laboratory to field, or to other quench.
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
From “Practical Data for Metallurgists”, Timken Company, 8th Edition
For ½” Bar, the expected values are:Surface: JEQ 1/16 = 62HRCCore: JEQ 2/16 = 59 HRC
For 2” Bar, the expected values are:Surface: JEQ 2/16 = 59HRCCore: JEQ 7/16 = 31 HRC
For 3” Bar, the expected values are:Surface: JEQ 4/16 = 38HRCCore: JEQ 12/16 = 21 HRC
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Quenching Mediums– Many different types
• Water• Brine• Caustic• Polymer• Oils• Molten Salts• Gases
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Water– Approaches maximum cooling rate attainable– Inexpensive and readily available– Easily disposed– Widely used
• Non-ferrous parts• Stainless steels• Large forgings
– Agitation important to break up persistent vapor phase– Contamination can change cooling rate
• Emulsions, oils, soaps decrease speed• Salts or hard water increase speed
– Disadvantages• Rapid cooling near typical Ms temperatures• Usually restricted to small parts• Large parts when core hardness is important
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, Seconds
Te
mp
era
ture
, De
gre
es
C
20 C 40C 60C
20C 40C 60C
Hard WaterDistilled Water
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Brine– Applies to water solutions of salt
(NaCl, KCl or CaCl2)– Advantages
• Faster cooling rate than water• Temperature less critical• Reduced soft spots from steam
pockets• Equipment is simplier
– Disadvantages• Corrosive• Hood required for corrosive
fumes• Increased cost• Increased testing for
concentration
From “Houghton on Quenching”
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Quenching Systems– Equipment varies over a
wide range• Depends on size• Product requirements
– Typical system consists of:• Tank• Agitation equipment• Fixtures• Cooling Systems• Heaters• Filtration Equipment
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Tanks– Rule of thumb
• “One pound of parts – one gallon of quenchant”
– Holds the quenchant– Auxiliary Equipment
• Agitation• Heaters• Filtration
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Agitation– Critical for quenching
uniformity– Reduces surface to surface
thermal gradients– Must provide uniform flow
thru-out furnace load– Wipe vapor blanket from
parts to achieve quench uniformity
– Racking and Agitation work together
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Agitation Equipment– Pumps
• Often selected• Simple• Easy to direct flow
– Propellers• Most efficient method of moving
quenchant• Compact• Require little piping
– Velocity Effect• Recommend 0.5-1.0 m/s• Dense loads may require up to 2
m/s– Number of Agitators
• Reduces dead spots• Provide more uniform agitation• Baffles improve flow uniformity
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Achieving necessary agitation– Requires adequate horse
power to drive agitators– Most design rules based on
marine propellers– Polymers more sensitive to
agitation than oil
• Uniformity of agitation is just as important
Volume - Tank GallonsHP per Gallon
Oil Water
50-800 0.005 0.004
800-2000 0.006 0.004
2000-3000 0.006 0.005
Greater than 3000 0.007 0.005
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Racking– Very critical to get part
properties and low distortion
– Must allow proper flow of quenchant around part
• Minimize oil hot spots• Uniform heat transfer on
all surfaces– Specialized racks and
fixtures often expensive• Life• Alloy cost• Well worth cost of
grinding and distortion
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Quenchant Heating– Achieved by several methods:
• Gas• Electrical
– Maximum rating on heaters should not exceed 10 watts/in2
• Locally overheat quenchant• Cause premature failure of
quenchant and heating elements
• Good quench oil flow should be maintained around heaters
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Quenching – Mastering the Process
• Quenchant Cooling– Use of water cooled heat
exchangers is not recommended
• Risk of water contamination
– Air-Oil Heat Exchangers recommended
• Recommended to be sized to recover maximum heat load in the time of one heat-treat cycle
• Filtration is suggested prior to heat exchanger
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Quenching Products from Houghton
Cold Quenching OilsHoughto-Quench KHoughto-Quench GHoughto-Quench 3440Houghto-Quench 3430Dasco Quench LPA 15Dasco Quench LBA 15
Aqueous QuenchantsAqua-Quench 140Aqua-Quench 145Aqua-Quench 245Aqua-Quench 251Aqua-Quench 260Aqua-Quench 3699Aqua-Quench C
Email [email protected] more information.
Hot Quenching OilsMar-Temp 355Dasco Quench MPA 60
Below is a sampling of Houghton quenchants. However, you should consult a Houghton expert for the right product for your application.
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Your Global Fluid Technology Partner
• We offer your operation a global network of fluids experts delivering innovative technologies, chemistries, products and services with a single focus on solving your toughest challenges.
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Worldwide Coverage… One Company
Over 2,000 employees in 31 countries with manufacturing and
research facilities in 21 locations.
Houghton helps customers around the world save on overall process chemical and disposal costs
while improving production and part quality.
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