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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Water is the most vital requirement for mankind. Ground water constitutes a
major portion of the earth’s water circulatory system known as hydrologic cycle.
Ground water occurs in permeable geologic formation known as aquifer, i.e.
formation having structure that can store and transmit water to wells. In recent
years much progress has been made in the application of GIS techniques to ground
water. It can be utilised in numerous applications like planning, rural development
etc.
1.2 SOURCES OF GROUND WATER
Groundwater sources are the aquifers made up of porous materials with
voids or fissures formed in rocks in which the water gets stored through infiltration
from the surface during rainfall and from the water bodies. These voids of the
substrata or fissures in rocks are generally interconnected permitting the movement
of groundwater. But in some rocks, the fissures may be isolated, and thus
preventing the movement of water between the interstices. Hence, it is evident that
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the mode of occurrence of groundwater depends largely upon the type of
formation, and hence upon the geology of the area.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
The quality of water is determined by its physical, chemical and
bacteriological characteristics.
Physical characteristics are represented by temperature, turbidity, colour, taste,
and odour.
Chemical characteristics are represented by pH, total dissolved solids, hardness,
chloride, sulphate, fluoride, nitrate, iron, manganese etc.
Bacteriological characteristics of the water, is represented by the presence of
coliform group of organisms described by MPN(most probable number) of the
coliforms in the water sample.
Ground Surface
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1.4 WATER QUALITY
Water quality is a measure of the suitability of water for a particular use
based on selected physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Quality of
water is determined by measuring and analyzing the characteristics of the water
such as temperature, dissolved mineral content, and number of bacteria. Selected
characteristics are then compared to numeric standards and guidelines to decide
about its suitability to various uses. Water quality is a relative term used to
convey the idea of the potential usability of groundwater or surface water for a
particular use.
As the rainwater flows over the surface of the earth, it picks up or dissolves
certain organic and inorganic materials. As surface water seeps down into the
ground water storage most of the suspended particles are filtered out, but on the
other hand, the water dissolves the minerals and salts present in earth’s layers
through which it travels before joining the ground water storage.
The impurities which water dissolves or picks up as suspended matter may
sometimes make it useful and potable for drinking, and sometimes they may render
it harmful and unfit. For example, certain minerals such as iron, calcium,
magnesium, fluoride etc., in small quantities may be useful and good for health of
the public. But the same minerals if present in higher concentrations than the
maximum permissible level, render water unfit for drinking. Sometimes the water
may contain toxic or poisonous substances such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
cyanides, lead, silver, copper etc., which may be very harmful to the public health,
even if they present in very low concentration.
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1.5 SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION
Many practices with domestic wastewater and with livestock manure may
lead to contamination of groundwater. The water percolating from facilities such as
Septic tanks, cesspools, latrines contains viruses, bacteria and parasites and may
contaminate groundwater supplies.
Sewers in the unsaturated zone may leak sewage into the soil, and it is likely
that the extent of this problem is largely unrecognized. In the saturated zone, sewer
breaks will result in groundwater contamination.
Storm water collected in sewers that also transport domestic wastewater can
present a major problem. Other than direct discharges to water bodies (which
clearly lead to contamination), it may also be disposed of by collection in basins
and subsequent drainage to soil. This percolation may transfer pathogens to
groundwater. It is found that viruses are available in the soil 9 m below a storm
water basin (Vaugh et al. 1978). The sources of Ground water pollution along with
their health effects are given in the table 1.1.
Contami
nant
Sources to ground water
pollutionPotential health and other effects
Chloride From saltwater intrusion, mineral
dissolution, industrial and
domestic waste.
Deteriorates plumbing, water
heaters, and municipal water-works
equipment at high levels.
Contaminant
Sources to ground waterpollution
Potential health and other effects
Dissolved
solids
Occur naturally from man-made
sources such as landfill leachate,
sewage. A measure of the
dissolved “salts” or minerals in the
water.
Presence of excess concentrations
of specific substances not included
in the Safe Water
Drinking Act, which would make
water objectionable. High
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concentrations of dissolved
solids shorten the life water heaters.
Fluoride Occurs widely from industry. Decreases incidence of tooth decay
but high levels can stain or mottle
teeth. Causes crippling bone disorder (calcification of the
bones and joints) at very high
levels.
Hardness Result of metallic ions dissolved in
the water; concentration of calcium
carbonate. Calcium carbonate is
derived from dissolved limestone
or discharges from operating
or abandoned mines.
Decreases the lather formation of
soap and increases scale formation
in hot-water heaters
and low-pressure boilers at high
levels.
Nitrate(as
nitrogen)
Occurs naturally in mineraldeposits, soils, seawater,
freshwater systems, the
atmosphere, and biota. Enters the
environment from fertilizer,
feedlots, and sewage.
Toxicity results from the body’snatural breakdown of nitrate to
nitrite. Causes “blue baby disease,”
or methemoglobinemia, which
threatens oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood.
Sodium from leaching of surface and
underground deposits of salt and
decomposition of various
minerals..
Can be a health risk factor for those
individuals on a low-sodium diet.
Turbidity Caused by the presence of
suspended matter such as clay, silt,
and fine particles of organic and
inorganic matter and other
microscopic organisms.
Objectionable for aesthetic reasons.
Indicative of clay or other inert
suspended particles in drinking
water.
Contami
nant
Sources to ground water
pollutionPotential health and other effects
Color caused by decaying leaves, plants,
organic matter, copper, iron, and
manganese.
Suggests that treatment is needed.
No health concerns. Aesthetically
unpleasing.
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PH Indicates, by numerical expression,
the degree to which water is
alkaline or acidic. Represented on
a scale of 0-14 where 0 is the most
acidic, 14 is the most alkaline and7 is neutral.
High pH causes a bitter taste; Low-
pH water will corrode or dissolve
metals and other substances.
1.6 APPLICATION OF GIS TO GROUND WATER
GIS is a strong tool, which stores spatial as well as non-spatial data digitally
and establishes a link between the two. Resultantly it produces not just maps but an
information system, which can retrieve, analyse and represent the stored data in
desired ways. It can be utilised in numerous applications like planning, rural
development etc. A digital database also has the advantage of easy cost-effective
updating, transparency, rationality and strength of complex analysis.
The increasing amount of multiple data sets being made available from
various sources has created a need for efficient capture, storage, management,
retrieval and analysis of geoenvironmental data to address various groundwater
pollution problems of varying nature, dimension and complexity, cropping at local,
regional and basin scale worldwide. Geographic Information System (GIS) has
emerged as an effective tool for relating and integrating vast volumes of different
data types, obtained from different sources and compiled on different scales. GIStechnology is very useful for the preparation of ground water prospective areas
mapping & management plan on a scientific basis. The information generated on
prospects, quality and depth in a single map will help the planners and decision
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makers for devising sound and feasible ground water development plans.
The main advantages in using GIS techniques for ground water exploration are :
Quick and inexpensive technique for getting information on the occurrence
of ground water,
aids to select promising areas for further ground water exploration thus
reducing field work and provides information on prospects,
depth and quality in one map.
These types of information is very helpful in the areas where more emphasis
is on ground water for the irrigation and drinking purposes.
The GIS is very useful to quantify the spatial geologic data and statistical
analysis to determine the relation between groundwater quality parameters and
geological units. The advent of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) has added
new vistas in the field of ground water resources mapping and management. It
helps in the integrating remotely sensed derived data with ancillary data to havemore precise and correct information about various factors involved in the ground
water resources management. This helps in concentrating the field experts in areas
where greater potential exists and eliminating other zones, thus reducing the cost
and time involved in exploration procedures.
1.5 NEED AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Ground water being hidden resource, is more vulnerable to various threats of
contamination and depletion. Urban growth and rapid increase in population have
induced tremendous pressure on natural resources especially for ground water.
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The local pollution causes major changes in ground water quality which affects the
human health and environment. These changes cannot be measured directly and
are thus difficult to quantify. But it is essential to get data of adequate accuracy on
the quality of ground water to make mitigation measure to preserve the ground
water quality. In such case GIS based analyses for ground water quality mapping
proves to be useful. Based on the needs the following Objectives are framed:
To analyse the status of ground water quality in Virudhunagar district for
drinking and irrigation purposes using Visual Studio based on secondary
data;
To prepare Ground water quality map of Virudhunagar district using GIS;
and
To identify the most vulnerable area in terms of ground water quality.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 GENERAL
Review of literature will help in gathering information and to perceive
significance of the current status of the problem to be dealt with. Also, it helps in
understanding the studies already done regarding the problem at hand. The
applications of various methods in determining spatial distribution of rainfall over
an area were reviewed.
2.2 GROUNDWATER QUALITY MAPPING
Assessment of Groundwater Pollution (Quality) Around Ludhiana and its
Environs in Punjab was investigated by Dr. V.V.S. Gurunadha Rao and
Dr. S. Sankaran(1994). Ludhiana and Mukstar were chosen as the Study area. In
Ludhiana, they assessed the groundwater and surface water quality in and around
the industrial belt through selection of observation wells for regular monitoring.
Detailed analysis of water samples for trace elements and TDS etc was carried out.
They Evaluated the aquifer parameters and developed a geohydrological database
and developed a mathematical model to simulate groundwater flow and mass
transport for assessment of groundwater contamination. Prediction of contaminant
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• Map of ground water potential.
The central groundwater board and central pollution control board(2002)
performed an assessment of groundwater quality for the purpose of mapping using
GIS. Delhi was chosen as the study area. The map is shown below.
In a similar manner, the Govt. of Haryana assessed the groundwater quality
to map the quality of water in various areas of Haryana(2003). This is shown as
follows.
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This paper mainly deals with the preparation of Integrated Ground Water
Resource (IGWR) map indicating ground water prospects, quality and depth. The
main hydrogeomorphic units mapped are alluvial plain, alluvial plain with sand
cover, valley fills, interrmontane valley/basin, structural hills, residual hills,
buried pediments, linear ridges along with lineaments. Each geomorphic unit is
assessed for probable ground water potentiality. Depth to water table and well
location data has been collected from Ground Water Cell, Department of
Agriculture, Haryana. The prepared hydrogeomorphology, ground water quality
and depth maps have been digitized in Arc/Info GIS environment. In order to
provide more useful information on ground water resources, the authors have
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developed a methodology on integrated ground water resource map on 1:50,000
scale using remote sensing and conventional data in GIS environment. The
IGWR map thus prepared gives information on ground water potential, quality
and depth to water level at any given location. This information was very useful
in narrowing down the target areas for citing bore wells. This will result in
significant saving of time and cost.
Geographic Information System and groundwater quality mapping in
Panvel Basin, Maharashtra, India was carried out by S. anbazhagan and Archana
Nair. Panvel Basin of Raigarh district, Maharashtra was chosen as the study area
for groundwater quality mapping using the Geographic Information System
(GIS). The study area was typically covered by Deccan basaltic rock types of
Cretaceous to Eocene age. Though the basin received heavy rainfall, it frequently
faced water scarcity problems as well as water quality problems in some specific
areas. Hence, they carried out GIS based groundwater quality mapping has been
carried out in the region with the help of data generated from chemical analysis
of water samples collected from the basin. Groundwater samples showed quality
exceedence in terms of chloride, hardness, TDS and salinity. These parameters
indicate the level of quality of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Idrisi 32 GIS software was used for generation of various thematic maps and for
spatial analysis and integration to produce the final groundwater quality map.
The groundwater quality map showed fragments pictorially representing
groundwater zones that are desirable and undesirable for drinking and irrigation
purposes.
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The Figure below shows a Map of Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution prepared in
the year of 1997. London was the Study area. A team of Researchers of London
carried out this project funded by the Government.
Mapping of Arsenic in Groundwater was carried out in May 2000. Since
May 2000, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has published three maps
summarizing a national data set on arsenic in groundwater. These maps were
intended as a big-picture view of patterns in naturally occurring arsenic across the
United States. But interest in using these maps for other purposes - making cost-
benefit estimates for new drinking-water regulations or predicting arsenic-related
health risks for different regions of the country - has been intense. National
regulatory and legislative bodies needed to know which parts of the country have
high arsenic in drinking water; how serious an effect arsenic may have on public
health; and where reducing the arsenic concentrations will be most costly. Maps of
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County map: Arsenic concentrations found
in at least 25% of ground water samplesin each county
Data map: 31,350 ground-water arsenicsamples collected in 1973-2001
Equal-area map: Arsenic concentrations found in at least
25% of ground-water samples within a moving 50km radius
existing water-quality data were produced to clarify these issues. The maps are
shown as follows.
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Figure shows a daily flood risk map for the USA. The map is based on flood
forecasts made by thirteen Regional Flood Centres (RFCs) across the country.
Forecasts are developed on the basis of data on rainfall, the water content of lying
snow, antecedent river conditions, temperature, wind and evaporation rates.
Hydrological models such as this are used to predict likelihood of flooding,
including flash floods, and are updated twice daily.
CHAPTER 3
STUDY AREA
3.1 GENERAL
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Virudhunagar District is part of the Vaippar Basin located in the Southern
part of TamilNadu. It lies between a North Latitude of 11°00’N and 12°00'N and a
East Longitude of 77°28’E and 78°50’E. Virudhunagar District is landlocked on all
sides with no direct access to the sea. It is bound on the north by Madurai, on the
north-east by Sivaganga, on the east by Ramanathapuram and on the south by
Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts.
Physiographically it consists of two distinct regions. The eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats in Srivilliputtur and Rajapalayam taluks and the black soil
plains of Sivakasi, Virudhunagar, Sattur, Aruppukkottai, Tiruchili and Kariapatti.
The average height of the hills of the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats is
1500m, though a few peaks rise to 1700m. The Total Geographical area of
Virudhunagar district is 4243 Km2.
Match factories at Sivakasi, Sattur ,Virudhunagar; Fire works ,Off-set
Printing Presses at Sivakasi; Nib Industry at Sattur; Ginning, Spinning & Weaving
Mills, Rajapalayam; Madras Cements, Thulukkapatti; Tamilnadu Cements,
Alangulam; Tamilnadu Asbestos, Alangulam; Bolts and Nuts (T.V. Sundaram
Fastners) Aaviyur are some of the important Industries in the district.
3.1.1 DISTRICT MAP OF VIRUDHUNAGAR
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3.1.2 RIVER SYSTEM OF VIRUDHUNAGAR DISTRICT
Virudhunagar does not have any perennial rivers. The Vaippar, Arjuna nadi,
and Gundar constitute the river network of the District. Numerous streams and
rivulets, activated by the monsoon, feed these rivers. The Mandiri odai and
Girudhamal nadi flow into the Gundar, which irrigates the northeastern region of
the District. The Sengundrapuram odai, Kausika manadi, Uppodai and
Mannarkottaiyar are feeder streams of the Arjuna nadi, which flows through the
central portion of the District. The Kayalkudiyar and Nichepa nadi join the
Vaippar, which runs through the southern part of the District. The Arjuna and the
Vaippar meet at Irukkangudi.
3.1.3 CLIMATE
The climate of the region is semi-arid tropical monsoon type. It has a high
mean temperature and a low degree of humidity. The temperatures range from 20°
C to 37° C. April, May and June are the hottest months of the year. Virudhunagar
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receives scanty rainfall with an annual average of 812 mm. The South West
monsoon which sets in June and lasts till August brings scanty rain. The bulk of
the rainfall is received during the North East monsoon in the months of October,
November and December.
3.1.4 IRRIGATION
The most striking feature of this drought prone district is absence
of dependable irrigation sources such as perennial rivers. Though 33% of
the cultivated area is classified as irrigated area, assured irrigation is
available only for 57% through the wells, the remaining area being
irrigated by rainfed tanks. Two reservoirs, namely Periyar and Kovilar at
Pilavakkal in Watrap irrigate about 3800 hectares through 40 tanks.
There are ir rigation reservoir like Anaikootam, Kullursandai,
Vembakottai and Golwarpatti.
The details of Reservoir systems in the district are :
Pilavukkal Reservoir System, Anaikuttam Reservoir Scheme, Vembakottai
Reservoir; Kullursandai Reservoir, Golwarpatti Reservoir, Chennampatti Anicut;
Athikulam Anicut Scheme, Ambalathadi Anicut Scheme, Irukkankudi Reservoir
Project; Nagariar Reservoir near Sasthakoil, Nilayur Extension Canal.
3.2 INDUSTRIES
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The establishment of textile mills, cement factories and a number of
industries in the small and medium sectors coupled with the
encouragement given by the state Government in the form of incentives
and setting up of industr ial centres has accelerated the rate of
industrialization in the District.
Cotton is a major commercial crop of the District and the cotton industry
therefore occupies an important place in the economy. Rajapalayam is the chief
centre for spinning mills and ginning factories. Surgical cotton and bandage cloth
are manufactured here. Textile mills in the produce a variety of cotton yarn. As the
District has deposits of limestone and gypsum, the cement industry has gained a
strong foothold.
Tamil Nadu Cements – a Public Sector undertaking at Alangulam
and Madras Cements – a Private Sector undertaking at Thulukkanpatti
are two large cement producing units. Tamil Nadu Cements has an annual
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production capacity of 4 lakh tonnes of Portland cement while Madras
Cements has an annual capacity of 4.15 lakh tonnes.
Tamil Nadu Asbestos is another Public Sector unit in the District
producing asbestos cement sheets .
Sivakasi and Sattur are famous for the match industry. There are
over 4500 match units. Crackers and fireworks is another important
industry with about 400 units in the District. Explosives for blasting are
also manufactured here. Over 70% of the total production of matches and
fireworks in India is manufactured in Virudhunagar District. A large
percentage of crackers are exported. The pr inting industry was original ly
established to supply labels for the match and firework industries. Soon
the industry developed and diversified into other areas of printing like
books, posters, greeting cards and diaries. Sivakasi now offers sta te of
the art, world class printing facilities.
Sundaram Fasteners and Brakes India Ltd. , private sector enterprises
of the TVS group are located at Aviyur and Kanjanaiyakampatti in
Kariapatti taluk. The former manufactures high density bolts and nuts
while the latter manufactures automobile brakes.
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 GENERAL
METHODOLOGY
Data
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Quantitative IndexQualitative Index
Preparation of
Temporal Map
Preparation of Spatial
Map
Collection of
Groundwater Quality
Data
Collection of Maps of
Study Area from
Taluk to Block
Identification of
Standards
Prepartion of
Boundary Map by
Di itisation
Grouping of
Parameters
Preparation of
Groundwater Well
Ma
A
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A
4.2 GROUNDWATER QUALITY
Generally, groundwater is clear, colourless, odourless and free from physical
impurities, because it undergoes natural filtration during the process of percolation
through soil pores. But groundwater is harder than the surface water of the region
in which it occurs. Since water is a solvent for many salts and some types of
organic matters, as groundwater moves along flow lines from recharge to discharge
areas, its chemistry is altered by the variety of geo-chemical processes. These
processes may include many chemical reactions, dissolution of limestone,
oxidation-reduction reactions, ion-exchange processes, decomposition of aquifer
rocks, transport of various leachates, industrial and municipal waste products,mining wastes and salt water intrusion. Groundwater, is hence, entirely not pure.
Many of the dissolved natural substances contribute to human health enhancement
by providing essential nutrients, while many contaminants introduced in the natural
Comparison withStandards Using
Visual Studio
Analysis of Results
Conclusion
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hydrological system by humans or otherwise are associated with wide range of
potential environmental health hazards.
4.3 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
4.3.1 The Central Public Health Environmental Engineering Organisation
(CPHEEO)
Recommended Guidelines for physical and chemical water quality standards
as per CPHEEO Manual on Water supply and treatment are furnished in Table1
and the bacteriological water quality standards are furnished in Table2.
Table 4.1. Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters
Characteristics
Acceptablity by
consumers
Cause for
rejection
Colour (units on platinium Cobalt scale) 5 25
Taste and Odour Unobjectionable Objectionable
Ph 7.0 to 8.5 < 6.5 or > 9.2
Total dissolved solids(TDS) (mg/L) 500 2000
Total Hardness (as CaCO3)
200 600
Chloride (mg/L) 200 1000
Sulphate (mg/L) 200 400
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Flourides (mg/L) 1 1.5
Nitrates (mg/L) 45 45
Calcium (mg/L) 75 200
Magnesium (mg/L) < 30 150
Iron (mg/L) 0.1 1.0
Manganese (mg/L) 0.05 0.5
4.3.2 WHO’s Latest Standard Guidelines for Potable Water
Table 4.2. Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters
Organism Guideline Value
pH Preferably < 8.0 (Between 6.5 – 8.5)
Hardness 500 mg/l (as CaCO3)
Total Dissolved Solids 1000 mg/l
Sodium 200 mg/l
Chloride 250 mg/l
Fluoride 1.5 mg/l
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4.3.3 Indian Standard Drinking Water Specifications (IS 10500 : 1991)
Table 4.3. Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters
Substance
or characteristic
Requirement (Desirable
limit)
Permissible limit in the
Absence of Alternate Source
pH 6.5 - 8.5 No relaxation
Total hardness mg/l 300 600
Chlorides mg/l 250 1000
Fluoride mg/l 1.0 1.5
Calcium mg/l 75 200
Magnesium mg/l 30 100
Sulphate mg/l 200 400
4.4 COMPARISON USING VISUAL STUDIO
The comparison of the collected Secondary data with various drinking
watrer standards such as IS, WHO, CPHEEO was designed using Visual Studio,
shown as follows.
FORM1
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4.5 CALCULATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX
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The Calculation of Water Quality Index was carried out in Microsoft Excel,
shown as follows.
4.6 BOUNDARY AND WELL LOCATION MAP PREPARATION