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UGC Research and Teaching Study Material
1.Teaching Aptitude
Teaching is a complex process which brings socially desirable behavioral change in a
person. Teaching is a part of teachinglearning process. !t is re"uired to bring certain
changes in a person according to the need of his society and environment in which he is
living. Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic in nature so it is termed as process. !t is
also not a fundamental concept as it is greatly influenced by social and human factors.
Teaching is both art and science. !t isan activity involving teacher and student with a
view to the development of student. The main aim of teaching is to bring about sociallydesirable behavioural changes in the students and can be achieved only if teaching is
effective and based on certain values or principles. Teaching is one of the main parts of
the teachinglearning system. So effective teaching is mostly depending on the teacher.
!t is a common fact that a good teacher is born and not made. Training and research
can ma#e a good teacher better and a better teacher best. Teacher should follow
various methods of teaching devised from time to time. $ teacher encourages the
practice of thin#ing among students. Teacher should give to the students the freedom
and opportunity to express their ideas. Teaching is re"uired to give education to the
students.
%ducation may be defined as the process of drawing out least in an individual. &e candefine education as 'the aggregate of all processes by means of which a person
develops attributes( attitudes and other forms of behaviour of positive value in the
society in which he lives) &e can also define it as 'the social process by which people
are sub*ected to the influence of a selected and controlled environment( so that they
may attain social competence and optimum individual development) The complete
process of education must contain four common factors
+. %ducator ,teacher-
. %ducand ,Student-
/. the sub*ect matter
0. the context ,setting-
1ow( education is the process of developing some abilities in an individual. Though
abilities are in born "uality( it is also a fact that these can be nurtured and developed in
an educand through various means by a n educator. %ducation must also be relevant
and useful to the society in which educand has to live. Since every individual is uni"ue
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in their own way( the educator has to adopt strategies and methods suitable to
individual needs. %ducation is also productive. The educational productivity ,rate of
efficiency of wor#- can be classified as. 2ualitative and "uantitative. 3or better
education both "ualitative and "uantitative productivity is re"uired. 2uality means here
the excellence in the part of textboo#( teachers students aids( facilities and other
teaching aids where as "uantity refers the number of teachers( institutions(
professionals( etc. %ducation and teaching are interrelated. %ducation is a complex
social cultural and ethical process designed in a social or cultural content. !t is related
with social structures( cultural environments( values( and ideas of people( society and
government. $ll these factors are dynamic in nature. So teaching is also a dynamic
process and its definition changes according to place and time. Morrison defines it as a
disciplined social process in which teacher influences the behaviours of the less
experienced pupil and helps him develop according to the needs and ideas of the
society. Smith termed it as an organised system of wor#er. 4e5she must have proper
guts to lead specific activities aimed to help the learner learn by an example at a
superior level as he is the something. 6eader of his pupil. 4e5she has to exercise $nanalytical approach ma#es it clear that any influence for bringing the. 7esired neither of
the definition fulfills the purpose modification in behaviour.
.8arriers at the receiver
The communication cycle may brea# down at the receiving end for some of these
reasons9
+. 6ac# of !nterest. !f a student does not have any interest in your class or sub*ect
he will not ta#e care of what you are telling.
. 6ac# of :nowledge. !f a student don;t #now the basics of a topic or sub*ect(
he5she is unable to understand the topic or sub*ect if you will start at a higher level.
/. 6ac# of Communication S#ills. Those who have wea# reading and listening s#ills
ma#e ineffective receivers.
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fault. Student may misinterpret words and read negative impressions between the
lines. Conse"uently( he5she is li#ely to misunderstand part or all of the report.
=. >hysical 7istractions. !f a classroom is full of bright lights( glare on computer
screens( loud noises( or in an area of excessively hot or cold place( or physical
ailments( those students will probably experience communication brea#downs on a
regular basis.
/Characteristics of Good Teacher
+. Teacher should be mentally and physically fit.
. Teacher should be #een in his wor# and should be enthusiastic and anxious to
#eep his #nowledge fresh ? update.
/. 4e should possess patience and tolerance and try to study the difficulties and
problem of students and try to solve them in a "uiet and calm manner.
0. 4e should have feelings of love and sympathy.
=. 4e must not be superstitious about his students and class.
@. 4e should be well dressed and well maintained.
A. 4is voice should be sweet( polite and clear.
B. 4is language should be understandable to the students.
. 4e must not give any false promise.
+D. 4e5she should have interest in his profession and the #nowledge must be
updated.
++. 4e must not have any bad habits.
+. Teacher must have a good communication s#ill and must be a master of his area
or field of teaching.
+/. Teacher should be trained in various methods of teaching.
+0. 4e should #now the child psychology.
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+=. Teacher should be a good researcher.
+@. 4e should have a control over studentsto maintain peace and order in class.
+A. Teaching should be pupil central rather than sub*ect centres is given opportunity
to compare two or more sets of facts. This enhance the understanding of lessonamong students as they compare and observe different facts.
+B. Teacher should arose interest among students about the sub*ect.5order to give a
generalised truth.
+. Teacher must be fair in grading and mar#ing.
D. Teachershould organiEe extra curricular activities forbetter understanding of
sub*ect matter.
+. Good interpersonal relationship should be maintained.
. Rewards and punishments should be given according to their behavior but
usually punishment should be avoided.
/. Teacher should use modern techni"ues( methods and gadgets in teaching for
better understanding of sub*ect matter.
0. Teacher should evo#e curiosity of the pupils by presenting the sub*ect matter in
an effective manner with clear explanation leading to better understanding of the
matter.
=. Teacher should arrange sub*ect matter in a logical way.
@. Teacher should ma#e a lesson plan before presenting the lesson in the class
A. Teacher should wor# as a leader in the class.
B. Teacher should maintain a democratic atmosphere in the class so that every
student will be able to put his doubt( "uestions and ideas with suggestion.
. Teacher should act as a role model for his students with his character and
behaviour. 4e way follow the way of 'simple living and great thin#ing)
/D. Teacher should inspire his pupil.
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08arriers
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=. !t is systematic( ob*ective and logical.
@Classroom !nteraction
The classroom interaction between a student and a teacher is completely based on the
climate created by teacher. 4e should be able to bring the bendiness of friendship with
a definite degree of firmness. The interaction must be smooth and pleasant without any
friction for a complete and fruitful teaching learning process. 1ormally( verbalisM;goes
on in the name of teaching. Students are merely expected to listen to thF explanation
and lectures. This is #nown as direct teaching. The effectiveness of direct teaching has
been "uestioned many times and it is found that this type of teaching is not very
effective one. 3or effective teaching the active( participation of students !S veryimportant. This participation !S done through the classroom interaction.
This interaction consist of their explanations and lectures with students( suggestions(
ideas concepts( and "uestions( etc. These activities of students ma#e important for
ma#ing teaching learning process effective( democratic and friendly. !nteraction is
re"uired for the rectification of the drawbac#s of direct teaching. This interactive
teaching is #nown as indirect teaching. Through the interaction the teacher analyses
thecapacity and re"uirement of students and can bring subse"uent changes in their
behavior according to the re"uirement and can also change way of teaching. !
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4ard wor# and Since teaching is a process and it is mental alertness should be the rest
re"uisite of dynamic in nature so it changes its concept the educational training.
$ccording to time and place. !t is a professional. The teacher has to provide intellectual
and activity. Teaching can be analysed and. Social leadership. 4e is to follow a
curriculum assessed. This analysis and assessment but his tas# is beyond this. 4e acts
as an ideal provides feedbac# for further improvement in for his students. 4e has to
follow the way of methods of teaching. Teaching is highly simple life with great thin#ing(
4is morale dominated by communication s#ill. !t is should be high. 4e must be
competent. 4is interactive process carriedwith purpose and efficiency and enthusiasm
is also very ob*ectives( Teaching may have various forms as important. 4e must also
possess some other formal( imformal( diiectional( lnstructional. 2ualities as he is the
pivot of educational formational training( conditioning( tal#ing9 System. Such as
Use of good means for good showing etc. $ll these words single handly can;t ends( clear
thin#ing no pre*udice( ability of be synonym of teaching. Teaching is a much critical
*udgements at the right time( tolerance broader term( $ll these activities are parts ofare all needed for a teacher. Teacher must be teaching at different level. Ready to
impart to their students all Teaching has been analysed in several information
geographical( historical( political ways for understanding it( for designing social practical
and strategic and scientific. Teaching methods and materials with a view. To The
complete educational process has four realism. Specific ob*ectives ma#ing teaching
important common factors more effective
Teacher wor#s to change the behaviour of
+. Tell whether teaching is a process or students according to the need of thesociety. $ct. 4e5she must also creates situation to increase
. Clearly indicates constitutional factors. The thin#ing capacity of mind of students.
4e
/. Reveals ob*ectives( and give education to the people. %ducation is a
0. Say something about its organisational tripolar process involving educator(
educant and structural aspect and social milieu.
Basis of Modification
This modification is based on
+. teacher
. student
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/. sub*ect matter feedbac#s.
B>lan of Chapters
Thin# about the plan of chapters and decide what is best for your research. Then ma#e
a list( in point form( of what will go in each chapter. $lways represent the text of thesisin logical order. Ma#e a plan for each chapter and section( the result will probably be
clearer and easier to read. The different heading may be the following9
+. Copyright &aiver9 This gives the university library the right to publish your wor#.
. 7eclaration9 This page declares that the thesis is your own wor# and is not ta#en
from any other;s wor#.
/. Title >age9 The format of this page may be Title5$uthor9 $ thesis submitted for
the degree of 7octor of >hilosophy in faculty of science in university on date.
0. $bstract9 This part is most important part of the thesis it is most widely page. !t
is best written towards the end. !t should be self contained and contains a consise
description of the problem ,s- addressed. Kour method of solving( result and
conclusion.
=. $c#nowledgements9 !t is the than#s giving page to all the people who helped in
the research or whose wor# you used;for your research.
@. Table of content9 !ntroduction starts from page +( the earlier pages should have
different numbering system.
A. !ntroduction9 This gives the details about the topic its importance. This must be
very interesting. Kou should not bore the reader. 1ever overestimate the reader;s
familiarity with your topic.
B. 6iterature Review9 &here did the problem come fromL what is already #nown
about the problemL !f you have been #eeping up with the literature as you vowed to
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do three years ago( and if you have made notes about important papers over the
year( then you have some good points for the review.
. Materials and Methods9 This varies from thesis to thesis and may be absent in
theoretical thesis. !t explains the methods used for research.
+D. Theory
++. Results and 7iscussion9 The results and discussion are veryoften combined in
thesis. The division of results and 7iscussion material into chapters is usually best
done according to sub*ect matter. !n most cases your result need discussion. &hat
do they meanL 4ow can they fit into existing body of #nowledgeL $re they
consistent with present theoriesL 7o they give new insightL 7o they suggest new
theories or mechanismL
+. Conclusion9 Generally abstract also contains conclusion in very brief form. $summary of conclusions may be put in point form after the result and discussion
chapter.
+/. Reference and $ppendices
+0. 8ibliography
2ualities reviously schools were not designed to successfully teach all students. 1owadays their
motto have been changed. Their new motto is I7< 6%$R1J This setting is dynamic and
flexible. This is changing in viewof ma#ing it beneficial to society rather than for an
individual. Teaching is a process carried out in different steps. There are five main steps
of teaching
+. >reparation9 This stage is re"uired orintended for the preparation of both the
teacher and the students. The teacher prepare the student for a new topic or lesson
in variety of ways.
. >resentation9 $t this stage the new lesson actually begins. The students #now
that what they are going to learn. The sub*ect material should be carefully arranged
by the teacher. 4e has to encourage the students to observe( compare and contrast
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the. 3acts presented to them. This stage re"uires mental alertness from the
students. The presentation rests in. The principle of selection of the area to be
covered. !t is not necessary for ateacher to cover up all areas of the course of
study. 4e. May leave some areas for students selfstudy.
/. Comparison9 !n this section after presentation of sub*ect matter.
0. GeneraliEation9 This stage comes after the comparison and observation. 7ifferent
types of conclusions can be drawn from comparison and generaliEation. These
conclusions are systemiEed in a particular
=. $pplication9 $t this stage the generaliEed facts are applied for various
+DResearch $ptitude
Research9 Research is the systematic and ob*ective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalisations principles or theories
resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Scientific research is a
systematic and ob*ective attempt to provide answers to certain "uestions. !t is an
essential and powerful tool in leading towards progress( $ significant research leads to
progress in some field of life. Research is born lout of human curiosity. Curiosity
aroused to study movements( behaviour patterns etc. &e can also define research as
'ideally( the careful unbiased investigation of a problem( based in so far as possible
upon demonstrable facts and involving refined distinctions( interpretations and usually
some generalisations) %ducational research is the study and investigation in the field of
education or bearing upon educational problems. Since research is. a continuous
problem solving approach to learning it aims and assists in achieving the goals through
analysis and comprehensiveinvestigation.
++Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting units ,e. g. people- from a population of interest so
that by studying the sample we may fairly generaliEe our results bac# to the population
from which they were chosen. $ response is a specific measurement value that a
sampling unit supplies. !f you measure the entire population and calculate a value li#e a
mean or average( it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite
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number of samples of the same siEe as the sample in your study is #nown as the
sampling distribution.
!n sampling contexts( the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives
us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. $ low sampling error means
that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. 4ow do we
calculate sampling errorL on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the
sample standard deviation( the greater the standard error5the sampling error. The
standard error is also related to the sample siEe. The greater your sample siEe( the
smaller the standard error. 8ecause the greater the sample siEe( the closer your sample
is to the actual population itself. !f you ta#e a sample that consists of the entire
population you actually have no sampling error because you don;t have a sample( you
have the entire population. !n that case( the mean you estimate is the parameter.
Probability sampling method
!t is any method of sampling that utiliEes some form of random selection such as
pic#ing a name out of a hat( or choosing the short straw.
The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple
random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. 8ecause
simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample( it is reasonable to generaliEe
the results from the sample bac# to the population. Simple random sampling is not the
most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may( *ust because of the luc# of
the draw( not get good representation of subgroups in a population.
Stratified Random Sampling( also sometimes called proportional or "uota random
sampling( involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then
ta#ing a simple random sample in each subgroup. !t assures that you will be able to
represent not only the overall population( but also #ey subgroups of the population(
especially small minority groups. Second( stratified random sampling will generally have
more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the
strata or groups are homogeneous.
The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population
that;s disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of
ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. !t is for
precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. !n cluster
sampling( we follow these steps9
+. divide population into clusters ,usually along geographic boundaries-
. randomly sample clusters
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/. measure all units within sampled clusters
Non-probability sampling
The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. &e candivide non probability sampling methods into two broad types9 $ccidental or purposive.
!n accidental sampling( sample is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they
are representative of the populations we;re interested in generaliEing to and in many
cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e. g. College students in some
psychological survey. !n purposive sampling( we sample with a purpose in mind. &e
usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are see#ing. 3or
instance( have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a
clipboard and who are stopping various people and as#ing if they could interview themL
Most li#ely they are conducting a purposive sample. >urposive sampling can be very
useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample "uic#ly and wheresampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. &ith a purposive sample( you
are li#ely to get the opinions of your target population( but you are also li#ely to
overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.
roportional and non proportional. !n proportional "uota sampling you want to
represent the ma*or characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional
amount of each. e. g. Getting 0D females from a population of say +DDD.
Then there is snowball sampling. !n snowball sampling( you begin by identifying
someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. Kou then as# them to
recommend others who they may #now who also meet the criteria.
+Research 7esign
Research design provides the glue that holds the research pro*ect together. $ design is
used to structure the research( to show how all of the ma*or parts of the research
pro*ect the samples or groups( measures( treatments or programs( and methods of
assignment wor# together to try to address the central research "uestions. 7esign can
be either experimental or nonexperimental.
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7ata analysis is the last part of the research. !n most social research the data analysis
involves three ma*or steps( done in roughly this order9
Cleaning and organiEing the data for analysis ,7ata >reparation-
7escribing the data ,7escriptive Statistics-
Testing 4ypotheses and Models ,!nferential Statistics-
Data Preparation
!t involves chec#ing or logging the data in chec#ing the data for accuracy entering the
data into the computer transforming the data and developing and documenting a
database structure that integrates the various measures.
+/Types of Statistics
7escriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study.
They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with
simple graphics analysis( they form the basis of virtually every "uantitative analysis of
data. &ith descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is( what the data shows.
!nferential Statistics investigate "uestions( models and hypotheses. !n many cases( the
conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. 3orinstance( we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the
population thin#s.
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$pplied research is research underta#en to solve practical problems rather than
to ac"uire #nowledge for #nowledge sa#e.
8asic research is experimental and theoretical wor# underta#en to ac"uire new
#nowledge without loo#ing for longterm benefits other than the advancement of
#nowledge.
Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental
distinctions in research design nomenclature9 Crosssectional versus longitudinal
studies. $ crosssectional study is one that ta#es place at a single point in time. !n
effect( we are ta#ing a IsliceJ or crosssection of whatever it is we;re observing or
measuring. $ longitudinal study is one that ta#es place over timewe have at least
two ,and often more- waves of measurement in a longitudinal design.
$ variable is any entity that can ta#e on different values. $nything that can vary
can be considered a variable. 3or instance( age can be considered a variable
because age can ta#e different values for different people or for the same person at
different times. Similarly( country can be considered a variable because a person;s
country can be assigned a value.
There is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. !n fact
the independent variable is what you ,or nature- manipulatesa treatment or
program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent
variableyour effects or outcomes. 3or example( if you are studying the effects of a
new educational program on student achievement( the program is the independent
variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones.
$ hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. !t describes in concrete ,rather
than theoretical- terms what you expect will happen in your study. 1ot all studies
have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory.
2ualitative research is research underta#en to gain insights concerning attitudes(
beliefs( motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human
problem and include methods such as focus groups( indepth interviews( observation
research and case studies.
2uantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes(
behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone(
intercept and doortodoor interviews as well as selfcompletion methods such as
mail outs and online surveys.
Three basic types of "uestions that research pro*ects9
7escriptive9 &hen a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or
what exists. >ublic opinion polls that see# only to describe the proportion of people
who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. 3or instance( if we
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want to #now what percent of the population would vote for a 8N> or Congress in the
next election( we are simply interested in describing something.
Relational9 &hen a study is designed to loo# at the relationships between two or
more variables. $ public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and
females say they would vote for a 8N> or Congress candidate in the next election isessentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference.
Causal9 &hen a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables
,e. g. a program or treatment variable- causes or affects one or more outcome
variables. !f we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent
political advertising campaign changed voter preferences( we would essentially be
studying whether the campaign ,cause- changed the proportion of voters who would
vote 8N> or Congress ,effect-.
1!"teps #f esearch
!dentification of research9 The very +ststep of research is to identify the sub*ect
and nature of the problem.
>roposal of $ction9 $fter identifying the sub*ect or the problem( we proposed an
action plan to solve the problem or find a solution for that.
Constructing hypothesis9 4ypothesis is a tentative explanation for an
observation( phenomenon( or scientific problem that can be tested by further
investigation. !t is a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain
certain facts or phenomena. Characteristics of hypothesis9 ,+- !t should state the
relationship between variables ,-. !t must consist of #nown facts ,/-. !t can be
tested. ,0-. !t must be dear in its concept ,=-. !t must be ob*ective and specific ,vi-.
!t should be amendable to testing with in a reasonable time. So our next step is to
construct a hypothesis for research and after that he plans to explain it either based
on laboratory experiment or field experiment.
Collection of data9 The researcher collects data either in experimental way or in
non experimental way( for his problem.
>resentation of data9 The next step is to represent the collected data in logical
manner so that he or anyone else will be able to analysEe that easily. Most generalway of presentation of data in scientific or social research is to ma#e table of the
collected data in certain way which shows the relation between variables.
$nalysis of data9 The analysis is done in both ways statistical and descriptive
analysis.
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7eclaration of Result9 $fter analysing the data( the researcher declares the result
of the research.
+@Sub*ect Matter
!t is also #nown as curriculum. Curriculum is a 'general overall plan of the content or
specific material of instruction( that an educational institution should offer to the
student by way of "ualifying him for graduation or certification) !t is also a body of
prescribed educational experience under an institutional supervision( designed to
provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for the
society of which he5she is a part( or to "ualify him for a trade or profession. !t is also
defined as 'a sub*ect matter( instructional materials( situations oF experience that may(
help to develop understanding( s#ills( appreciation and attitudes) Curriculum should be
logical( >sychological and according to the needs of the pupil and also the society. !t
should be ob*ective in approach. Curriculum can be of two types9
+. Teacher oriented curriculum9 !n this type of curriculum the process of selection of
materials content is based on the needsof the instructor5teacher. The teacher is
proficient in( his particular field and is considered superior.
. Child5student oriented curriculum9 $ curriculum in which the criteria for the
selection and se"uence of material( activities and experiences for any particularpupil are the needs( maturity( interests and experiential bac#grounds of the
individual child. !n our country the 1C%RT is the main institution authoriEed for
ma#ing curriculum. %very state has. 4is own curriculum ma#ing bodies #nown as
SC%RT. Some states follows the 1C%RT curriculum. $ll schools affiliated uses. This is
the most important step ofteaching learning process. The C8S% boards generally
follow 1C%RT curriculum. $t higher Olevel every university ma#e their own
curriculum according to the guidelines of University Grant Commission which acts for
the uniformity in curriculum at higher level in our country.
+AThesis
Thesis and its format9
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one or two heading may be irrelevant or one or two more heading may be re"uired. &e
can divide the whole thesis in four parts9
+. !ntroduction
. %xplanation of the topic
/. 7etails of research ? its result
0. Reference and appendices.
+BTransmitting 8arriers
Such as if a teacher started saying something in a class of deafs verbally he will not be
able to communicate properly to his students. Things that get in the way of message
transmission are sometimes called 'noise.) Communication may be difficult because of
noise and some of these problems9
+. >hysical 7istractions. $ noisy classroom can destroy communication. !f a notes
or something on board is not formatted properly( or if it contains grammatical and
spelling errors( the receiver may not be able to concentrate on. The message
because the physical appearance of the massage is sloppy and unprofessional.
. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the
receiver may result in incomplete communication. 3or example if a teacher re"uests
his pupil to answer some "uestions immediately without giving the students enough
time to gather the proper information.
/. Channel 8arriers. !f the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of
communication( communication may not reach in a proper way.
+Types of Communication
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$ntrapersonal %ommunication
This means communicating within yourself. &hen you thin#( daydream( solve problems(
and image( you are in the realm of intrapersonal communication. Some investigators
also include all physical feedbac# mechanisms( such as the sensations of hunger( pain(
and pleasure in this area.
$nterpersonal %ommunication
This form of communication describes the interact ions of two or more people. The most
significant setting for interpersonal communication !S direct facetoface
communication between two persons. $n interview( a conversation( and in climate
communications come under this heading. !t is more persuasive and int+uential than
any other type of communication. 3or it involves( the in( terplay of words and gestures(
the warmth of human closeness and in fact all the five senses. 3eedbac# is the #ey
word here. 3eedbac# is instantaneous.
&roup %ommunication
Group communication shares all these "ualities( though in a much less measure. The
larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of exchange. !n fact( as
the group grows in siEe communication tends to become more and more of monologue(
for participation becomes problematic. The degree of directness and intimacy(
therefore( depends upon the siEe of the group( the place where it meets( as also the
relationship of the members of thegroup to one another( and to the group message.
Mass %ommunication
&hen a message needs help to get from its source to its destination( mass
communication begins to function. Usually some form of mediumone meaning of which
is IbetweenJ is needed to connect the sender to receivers. These media and visibility to
some people and points of views( whereas it mutes other voices and viewpoints. Thus
mass communication affects our perceptions of issues( events( and people.
DTypes of Research
There are many classifications of research. Some of the important classifications are9
+. %xploratory and conclusive research9 %xploratory or formulate research aims at
probing into phenomenon to formulate a more precise research problem or to
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develop a hypothesis. &hile conclusive research tests these hypothesis. 7eveloped
through exploratory research and may suggest a new idea or a new opportunity.
. 3undamental or pure or basis research( applied research and action research9 $
fundamental research is the formal and systematic process where the researcher;s
aim is to. 7evelop a theory or a model by identifying all the important variables in
the situation and by discovering broad generalisations and principles about these
variables. $pplied research( applies the theory or model developed theories but to
test those existing theories in actual problem situations. $ction research has
recently been popular in the field of social psychology( industrial psychology and
education. !n action research( researcher focuses upon the immediate conse"uences
and applications of a problem of a theory or a model.
/. 4istorical research( descriptive research and experimental research9 4istorical
research describes what was. The process involves investigation( recording(
analyEing and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discoveringgeneraliEations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and to a
limited extent( in anticipating the future. 7escriptive research describes records(
analyEeS;and interprets the conditions that exist( practices that prevail( beliefs(
points of views or attitudes that are held processes that are going in effects that are
being felt( or trends that are developing. !t involves some type of comparison or
contrast and attempts to discover relationship between existing nonmanipulated
variables. !t can be of various types( li#e survey studies( interrelationship studies
casual comparative studies and development studies. %xperimental research
describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated. The focus is on variable relationship. 7eliberate manipulation is alwaysa part of experimental method. %xperimental research is the description and
analysis of what will be( or what will occur( under carefully controlled conditions in
which one factor is varied and the others are #ept constant and can be repeated by
another investigator( by the same investigator or another occasion with nearly
identical results.
0. %xperimental and nonexperimental research9 This classification is based on the
nature of research. $n experimental research is one where the independent
variables can be directly manipulated by( experimenter. !t is further divided into two
main types6aboratory experiment and field experiment. $ non experimental
research is one where independent variables cannot be manipulated and therefore
cannot be experimentally studied. $ non experimental research can be divided into
three main typesfield( studies( expost factor research and survey research.
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#ther important types
6aboratory %xperiment9 !t is the study of a problem in a situation in which some
variables are manipulated and some are controlled in order to have an effect upon
the dependent variable. The variables which are manipulated are #nown as
independent variables and the variables which are controlled are #nown asextraneous or relevant variables. Thus in laboratory experiment the effect of
manipulation of an independent variables upon the dependent variable is observed
under controlled conditions.
3ield %xperiments9 !t is a study carried out is a more or less realistic situation or
field where the experimenter successfully manipulates one or more independent
variables under the maximum possible controlled conditions.
3ield Study9 !t is a study which systematically discovers relations and
interactions among variables in real life situations such as school( factory(
community college etc. !t field study the investigator depends upon the existing
conditions of a field situation as well as upon the selection of sub*ect for determining
the relationship among variables.
%xpost 3acto Study9 !n this the investigators attempt to trace an effect which has
already occurred to its probable causes. The effect becomes the dependent
variable and the probable causes become the independent variable. The
investigator has no direct control over such variables.
Survey Research9 !t is a techni"ue where( the investigator or researcher studies
the whole population with respect to certain sociological and psychological
variables. 7epending upon the ways of collecting data( survey research can be
classified into different categories( namely( personal interview( main
"uestionnaire( panel techni"ue arid telephone survey.
+>aper
!t is an essay or dissertation read at a seminar or published in a *ournal !t is a formal
written composition intended to published( presented( or read aloud or a scholarly
essay.
$rticle9 !t is a nonfictional literacy( composition that forms an independent part of a
publication( as of a newspaper or magaEine.
&or#shop9 $ meeting at which a group engages in intensive discussion and activity on a
particular sub*ect or pro*ect.
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Seminar9 $ conference for discussion on training on a specific sub*ect.
Conference9 $ formal meeting for discussion or debate. Symposium9 $ meeting or
conference for discussion of a topic( especially one in which the participants form an
audience and ma#e presentation.
7issertation or Thesis9 $dvancing a new point of view resulting from research usually a
re"uirement for an advanced academic degree.