Download - Fostering Inclusive Innovation
EKHS31
Master’s Thesis (15 credits ECTS)
May 2019
Supervisor: Bo Göransson
Examiner: Karl-Johan Lundquist
Word Count: 12565
Master’s Programme in Innovation and Global Sustainable Development
Fostering Inclusive Innovation
The Role of Universities and Private Businesses
by
Annika Ralfs
Abstract
Inclusive innovation is seen as a means to counteract the issue of growing global inequality.
Particularly universities and private businesses are engaged with its promotion. However, the
concept of inclusive innovation has deficiencies concerning the operationalisation and
measurement. In default of extensive primary data, a set of a hundred and two inclusive
innovations has been gathered from twenty-one sources and thereupon analysed. The findings
confirm that inclusive innovation is a prominent issue in developing countries, in particular.
In this sample, universities and private businesses contribute to the generation of inclusive
innovations primarily at the level of addressing a marginalised group with the outcome of an
innovative process. Innovations that include disadvantaged individuals in the innovative
process tend to be initiated without the involvement of the two actors. These process inclusive
innovations are more likely to be supported by universities than by private businesses. In
general, more attention should be paid to innovators from marginalised groups of society.
Thus, all actors of the innovation system can contribute to the fostering of inclusive
innovation and the reduction of inequalities.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Bo Göransson for his constructive assistance and
encouragement throughout the process of thesis writing. I am also grateful for the advice I
received from the Academic Skills Services and in additional Econometrics Labs. Special
thanks are due to Michel Peters and my family – Martina, Dirk and Lennart Ralfs – for their
unconditional support.
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Problem ....................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Aim and Scope ........................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Outline of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 5
2 Theory ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Previous Research ...................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Theoretical Approach ................................................................................................. 8
3 Method............................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Sourcing Strategy ..................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Method of Case Assessment .................................................................................... 18
3.3 Approach .................................................................................................................. 20
4 Findings and Analysis .................................................................................................... 21
4.1 Descriptive Analysis ................................................................................................ 21
4.2 Results ...................................................................................................................... 26
4.3 Discussion of Results ............................................................................................... 28
5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 32
5.1 Research Aim ........................................................................................................... 32
5.2 Implications .............................................................................................................. 32
5.3 Future Research ........................................................................................................ 33
References ............................................................................................................................... 34
Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 39
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List of Tables
Table 1: Definition of the levels of inclusiveness (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,
2014) ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Table 2: Types of university involvement ................................................................................ 13
Table 3: Types of private business involvement ...................................................................... 14
Table 4: Case assessment ......................................................................................................... 18
Table 5: Number of inclusive innovations presented by author ............................................... 21
Table 6: Types of innovation in the sample ............................................................................. 22
Table 7: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation ................................... 23
Table 8: Inclusive innovations by continents and countries .................................................... 23
Table 9: List of disadvantaged groups addressed by the innovations ...................................... 25
Table 10: Distribution of all inclusive innovations .................................................................. 26
Table 11: Distribution of outcome inclusive innovations ........................................................ 27
Table 12: Distribution of process inclusive innovations .......................................................... 27
Table 13: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of university involvement ............. 28
Table 14: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of private business invovlement ... 28
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Levels of inclusive innovation (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014, p.
178) ............................................................................................................................................. 9
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1 Introduction
Inequality has become one of the most pressing global issues of our time (Brundenius, 2017).
Inequality is growing concerning economic indicators as well as with regard to the access to
drinking water and health care (Lundvall, Vang, Joseph & Chaminade, 2009) and knowledge
(Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). The mechanisms of advancing globalisation seem to
reinforce these tendencies and create winners and losers (Sen, 2000). Seemingly, to
experience economic growth, increasing inequality has to be accepted (George, McGahan &
Prabhu, 2012). While the gap between countries of the Global North and South partially
closes, disparities within countries are growing (Brundenius, 2017). Even among the
emerging countries with high economic growth rates like India, the number of people living
below the poverty line of US$ 1.25 per day has increased (Papaioannou, 2014). The
modernisation processes that advance economic development in emerging countries bear the
danger of excluding the weaker members of society who are unable to adapt (Hall, Matos,
Sheehan & Silvestre, 2012). Also in industrialised nations, the upcoming resentment towards
“globalist elites” (p. 82) hints at the consequences of increasing economic and cultural gaps
between different groups of society (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018).
According to George, McGahan and Prabhu (2012), the apparent trade-off between growth
and rising inequality can be counteracted. Promoting inclusive growth is increasingly seen as
a remedy for the unequal development and has been declared a top priority, for example, by
the government of India (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). With the 12th Five Year Plan
(2011-2015), the Chinese government has shifted the focus from unconditional economic
growth to enlarging the group of beneficiaries (Schroeder, Dalton-Brown, Schrempf &
Kaplan, 2016). Similarly, the South African government has increased its efforts in inclusive
growth (Phiri, Molotja, Makelane, Kupamupindi & Ndinda, 2016). Also policymakers in
industrialised countries, for example, in the US have taken action to stop the widening of
income gaps and provide new opportunities for marginalised members of society (Lowe &
Wolf-Powers, 2018). There are several options for achieving inclusive growth.
Recently and with increasing popularity, the concept of inclusive innovation has come up at
the intersection of development and innovation studies (Papaioannou, 2014). The term refers
to innovations that address the needs of a marginalised group (George, McGahan & Prabhu,
2012) and aims to reduce the gaps between privileged and disadvantaged groups of society
(Papaioannou, 2014). Thus, the concept adds a strong normative mission to innovation
research (Schroeder et al. 2016). Accordingly, putting more emphasis on inclusive
innovations can comply with Altenburg’s (2009) request for more equality strengthening and
poverty reduction in innovation systems research.
Inevitably, the innovation system needs to be analysed to determine under which conditions
inclusive innovations can be generated and developed. Various actors have become engaged
with inclusive innovations. The roles of universities and private businesses are of particular
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interest in this context as there are diverging trends and views. Both universities1 (Arocena,
Göransson & Sutz, 2015) and private corporations (Gupta, 2009) have been criticised for
potentially being an excluding element. At the same time, both are developing their own
strategies to address issues of inclusion (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017; Mendoza
& Thelen, 2008).
1.1 Research Problem
Innovations are broadly defined as “both radical and incremental changes to products
(including goods and services) and processes” (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). The research on
inclusive innovations is typically examined in the context of innovation systems (Heeks,
Foster & Nugroho, 2014). Innovation system research can provide insights and
recommendations to policymakers who seek to establish an innovative environment
(Schroeder et al. 2016). The underlying assumption is often that – through innovation –
emerging countries can achieve development in the sense of catching up with the
industrialised countries (Pansera & Owen, 2018). However, there are different approaches in
the innovation systems literature which entail distinct views on the issue of inclusive
innovation. The narrow definition of an innovation system restricts learning to science,
technology and innovation (STI), whereas a broader definition also encompasses experienced-
based learning by doing, using and interacting (DUI) (Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009).
Lundvall et al. (2009) argue that the former is of minor relevance to the innovation processes
in developing countries.
Furthermore, Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014) indicate that innovation systems of
developing countries have to meet challenges related to more unpredictability and a complex
1 In the following, the term universities will refer to private and public universities as well as to research
institutes and other academic facilities.
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social structure where both demands of the global markets and the needs of the poor have to
be met. Moreover, their innovation systems have not evolved together with a stable market
economy and government institutions as in technologically advanced countries (Trojer,
Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014).
Moreover, technological innovations from STI do not automatically address and solve social
issues (Pansera & Owen, 2018). On the contrary, advanced technologies such as nano-
technology are being criticised for targeting the consumerism of high-income groups rather
than solving the essential needs of the underprivileged (Schroeder et al. 2016). At the same
time, many impoverished or remote regions dispose of valuable indigenous knowledge and
tacit practices that have been developed over generations and are frequently neglected by the
conventional STI approach (Gupta, 2006). Following the broad definition of innovation
systems, more consideration should be given to the role of these actors who are frequently
disregarded (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015).
The research field on inclusive innovations is still in its infancy (Grobbelaar, Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis, 2017). So far, research on inclusive innovations is limited to either the
description of individual cases or the conception of theoretical frameworks (Heeks, Foster &
Nugroho, 2014). Moreover, many studies focus on concrete policy implications that can be
derived from the cases and theory (e.g. Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014; Hall et al. 2012;
Phiri et al. 2016). Larger collections of cases frequently examine either the process of
university-led innovations (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) or typologies of the
business strategies employed by private corporations (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008; Angeli &
Jaiswal, 2016). Indeed, Hall et al. (2012) state that the majority of studies, the private
company perspective has been taken.
A weak point of the construct of inclusive innovations is the lack of appropriate and uniform
operationalisation and standards of measurement (Swaans, Boogaard, Bendapudi, Taye,
Hendrickx & Klerkx, 2014). The problem of operationalisation becomes apparent when
looking at the broad diversity and contrariness of definitions. The major difference in the
understandings is whether for an innovation to be inclusive, the marginalised group needs to
be involved in the innovative process or merely addressed by its outcome. Many authors
accept both cases for the labelling of an innovation as inclusive (Fressoli, Around, Abrol,
Smith, Ely & Dias, 2014; George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012) whereas others categorically
demand participatory involvement (Sengupta, 2016). Underlying these two different types of
inclusive innovations, distinct motives for inventiveness can be assumed. Pansera and Owen
(2018) distinguish the market-based and grassroots approaches. Among others, Grobbelaar,
Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) refer to top-down and bottom-up strategies, respectively.
Nonetheless, Pansera and Owen (2018) state that these fundamentally different approaches
are more adequately described as the opposing ends of a continuum because of overlaps and
hybridisation. Ultimately, every example of inclusive innovation is unique, so the
classifications tend to be rough rather than precise.
Also concerning assessment and standards of measurement, the concept of inclusive
innovation remains rather vague. For instance, the availability of panel data on entrepreneurs,
firms and consumption patterns is limited, especially for developing countries (George,
McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Moreover, typical indicators of innovation like R&D expenses
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and patents tend not to capture small-scale and incremental DUI innovation processes as they
often appear in emerging economies (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018) where a
substantial share of economic activity occurs in informal sectors (Phiri et al. 2016). For
example, most of the innovations gathered and documented by the volunteer-based Honey
Bee Network (HBN) in India are not suitable to be protected as intellectual property (Gupta,
2006). Indeed, many innovations are inclusive because of their reliance on open-source rather
than patents (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017). Evidence shows that both R&D
investments and patenting are highly concentrated even among the OECD members (Phiri et
al. 2016). If inventiveness was defined exclusively by the number of patents or the like, a
small elite of corporations and universities would dominate innovative capacity (Gupta,
2006).
Most of these issues of operationalisation and data scarcity seem to be intrinsic to innovative
processes in developing countries and inclusive innovations. Furthermore, the variety of
definitions and perspectives complicates the matter. Therefore, this study constitutes an
attempt to make inclusive innovations more quantifiable by collecting and examining a large
number of cases.
1.2 Aim and Scope
This thesis aims to draw preliminary conclusions about how different actors of the innovation
system contribute to the generation of inclusive innovation. Specifically, the focus will be on
the roles of universities and private businesses.
This will be examined on the basis of an extensive collection of a hundred and two (102)
inclusive innovations. The collection of cases is not restricted to a particular sector or region.
It involves examples of inclusive innovations from developed as well as developing countries.
Furthermore, innovations addressing various groups of marginalised individuals are
considered.
After constructing the set of inclusive innovations, it is employed to approach the following
research questions:
RQ1: Which patterns can be found across the examples of inclusive innovation?
RQ1a: Which regions, groups of marginalised individuals and types of
innovations show the highest visibility?
RQ2: How does the involvement of universities and private businesses differ with respect to
the inclusiveness of an innovation?
The study attempts to contribute to the, until now, largest collection of qualitatively assessed
cases to perform preliminary quantitative analysis. Accordingly, the study is at the
intersection of both types of methods and has to deal with respective issues. It represents an
explorative approach to a relatively new field of research.
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1.3 Outline of the Thesis
The paper is structured as follows. In the theory Chapter 2, the primary underlying concepts
are defined and differentiated. Additionally, the relevant constructs for the research question
are operationalised. In the methods Chapter 3, the process of case collection is explained with
regard to the search for examples and their categorisation. Furthermore, the method of data
analysis is presented. Chapter 4 contains the findings and analysis as well as their critical
discussion. Lastly, in the conclusion Chapter 5, the main findings of the study are summarised
and discussed. Limitations as well as implications of the study are pointed out.
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2 Theory
The theory chapter will consist of two parts. In the first part, the distinct understandings of
inclusive innovation will be compared and contrasted and relevant related concepts will be
introduced. The second part aims to clearly define and operationalise the relevant units of
examination for this study: the level of inclusiveness, university and private business
involvement.
2.1 Previous Research
Inclusive innovations are defined by the purpose of creating chances for the improved well-
being of marginalised groups (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Marginalisation can occur
in the form of inequalities on the vertical level concerning economic status or a horizontal
level relating to inequalities based on gender, geographical location, natural and social
environment or ethnicity (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). More specifically, the
groups excluded tend to be women, disabled, and ethnic minorities, and most prominently the
poor (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014). The barriers which inhibit entering and engaging in
the market include geographical remoteness, unfamiliarity with conventions outside the low-
income community, exclusion from infrastructures such as financial services and lacking
opportunities to develop human capital in the form of education or training (Mendoza &
Thelen, 2008).
Attributing an innovation as inclusive distinguishes it from the mainstream or conventional
innovations which address high or middle-income customers (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,
2014). Arocena, Göransson and Sutz (2015) point at the imbalance between inclusive and
conventional innovations that originates from a weak commercial interest even though social
interest is significant. There is said to be a “mismatch between the demands of the poor and
the market offer” (Pansera & Owen, 2018, p. 28) which is caused by “severe market failures”
(Kahle, Dubiel, Ernst & Prabhu, 2013, p. 223), information asymmetry in particular
(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Attempts to buffer the deficits of the market through political
interventions tend to be long-ranging, and examples have not always proved successful
(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Consequently, underprivileged parts of society tend to be
excluded from being customers. Moreover, the development of innovations in the sense of
STI is usually performed by a highly-skilled workforce, which also systematically excludes
certain individuals from the innovative process (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Even
though entrepreneurship is recognised as a means of poverty reduction, the fostering of
entrepreneurial activity in emerging economies can be exclusive when directed solely at high-
end capability development (Hall et al. 2012).
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Related concepts
The umbrella term inclusive innovation covers a range of distinct concepts with implicit and
explicit political connotations (Pansera & Owen, 2018). The different notions will be clarified
and compared in the following. As has been mentioned before, rather than clear-cut opposites,
the transitions between different concepts are fluid.
Pro-poor innovations are products and services that specifically address the group of people
marginalised because of their relative economic poverty (Papaioannou, 2014). Pro-poor
innovations also encompass frugal innovations, which Papaioannou (2014) defines as
simplified, cheaper versions of sophisticated technologies. In contrast, Kahle et al. (2013)
state that the best frugal innovations are not “merely cheap replicas of existing products” (p.
221). What both definitions have in common is that they are developed to suit the needs of the
lower income group (Papaioannou, 2014; Kahle et al. 2013). Similarly, the notion of base-of-
the-pyramid (BoP) refers to disadvantaged individuals in resource-poor societies and regions
of the world (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). The symbol of the base of the pyramid indicates that
this group represents a majority – of roughly 4 billion – rather than a minority in the world
population (Hammond, Kramer, Katz, Tran & Walker, 2007). Pro-poor innovations tend to fit
Pansera and Owen's (2018) market-based approach. Often, these are developed by
multinational or other private companies that want to introduce their goods to emerging
markets (Pansera & Owen, 2018). In such cases, the cognitive gap between producers and
consumers can be big, particularly when private businesses with special expertise, for
example, in healthcare address underprivileged users (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). While some
authors are convinced that the market-based approach can ensure the development and scaling
up of welfare-enhancing innovations and thus serve basic needs and raise living standards
(Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016; Mendoza & Thelen, 2008) or even lead to political empowerment
(Kahle et al. 2013), others like Papaioannou (2014) and Sengupta (2016) claim that
addressing the poor merely as users is not sufficiently inclusive.
In contrast to pro-poor stands the concept of from-the-poor innovations which emphasises the
participation of the marginalised in the process of innovation and thus represents a bottom-up
development (Pansera & Owen, 2018). Sengupta (2016) demands participatory democratic
governance for innovative processes to be inclusive. She (2016) claims that participation of
underprivileged individuals can help to reinforce their self-esteem and to bridge gaps in
heterogeneous societies by enabling dialogue and mutual learning. The notion of grassroots
innovation movements refers to innovations for social or environmental improvement that
originate from pathways other than conventional science (Fressoli et al. 2014) and are usually
based on the traditional, indigenous knowledge of local communities (Gupta, 2006). Some
definitions therefore strictly require the innovators to be from the marginalised group (Gupta,
2006; Papaioannou, 2014) whereas others allow external actors like academics to be involved
(Fressoli et al. 2014). Also in BoP research, the important role of the underprivileged as
entrepreneurs is emphasised and seen as a measure of poverty-reduction (Hall et al. 2012). It
is intrinsic to small-scale and incremental innovations that they cannot be assessed by the
common measures of innovativeness like patents, R&D expenses or sales (Papaioannou,
2014). As a vast majority of them will never be documented, they are often referred to as
below-the-radar innovations (Papaioannou, 2014). It is important to note that inclusive
innovations need to have a positive impact on the excluded part of society and that they foster
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development (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). That is because entrepreneurship at the base-of-the-
pyramid is not necessarily productive. Hall et al. (2012) hint at unproductive or even
disruptive forms of entrepreneurship like crime or trafficking, which do not improve
conditions in local communities.
In this study, the broader definition of inclusive innovation is employed. It covers directing an
outcome at the marginalised group as well as including them in the innovative process. That is
important to cover a broad range of cases and display the diversity of examples. Nonetheless,
this important distinction will be considered.
Criticism
In addition to the difficulty of being narrowed down and measured, the concept of inclusive
innovation has also been criticised for potentially provoking negative connotations. On the
one hand, Heeks, Foster and Nugroho (2014) discuss if, without the label of inclusiveness,
these would not be seen as proper innovations. On the other hand, they argue that this label
could have a belittling effect because true innovations would not need a distinct attribute.
Moreover, Sengupta (2016) reasons that the term inclusion implies a decision by those in
power to include a group in society. This would indicate the passivity of the marginalised
rather than acknowledging the plurality of society and equal participation (Sengupta, 2016).
However, the labelling of the term facilitates the understanding and prioritisation of the issue
(Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014), which is why it is justifiable to use it.
2.2 Theoretical Approach
The innovation systems approach sees innovations as outcomes of interactive learning
processes and thus emphasises the importance of multiple and diverse actors (Chaminade,
Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). Indeed, Kuhlmann and Rip (2015) report an increasing number
and diversity of the actors and call for better concertation of those aiming to address grand
societal challenges.
As a matter of fact, networks and platforms seem to be of crucial importance for inclusive
innovators. Examples can be found on the national level such as the Honey Bee Network
(Gupta, 2009) as well as on the regional level such as the sector-specific innovation platforms
described by Swaans et al. (2014). According to Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014),
cluster initiatives represent another approach of linking actors to strengthen the relationships,
foster trust and inclusive development. Increasingly, innovation intermediaries are important
elements within the network as these link actors and translate between their demands and
supplies (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). This model fits the central role of community
and informal institutions found in low-income regions in particular (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).
Networks such as the Peoples Science Movement in India or the Social Technologies
Network in Brazil can function as intermediaries between grassroots innovators and the
mainstream system of innovation development (Fressoli et al. 2014). The Honey Bee Network
offers to support grassroots innovators on two levels: thousands of innovations are scouted
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and documented and for a smaller number of cases, the HBN and associated organisations can
offer assistance in funding, patenting and commercialisation (Fressoli et al. 2014).
The triple helix model of regional innovation includes government alongside the private
business and university actors (Lowe & Wolf-Powers, 2018). In this study, the emphasis will
be placed on universities and private businesses as actors in the system of innovation and how
they can contribute to inclusive growth. Of course, governments, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) or social movements are crucial actors as well. However, they will not
be in the focus of this study.
Eisenhardt (1989) states that in deriving theory from case study research, the presentation of a
priori constructs is crucial for the definition of construct measures. To be able to test potential
hypotheses, it is important to sharpen the constructs by using unequivocal definitions and a
form of measurement (Eisenhardt, 1989). Thus, the following section is essential for the
study’s validity as the relevant items of investigation – the level of inclusiveness and the
involvement of universities and private businesses – largely rely on the following definitions.
Levels of inclusiveness
For the collection of innovations, the broad
definition of inclusiveness will be employed. Yet, to
further distinguish between distinct levels of
inclusiveness, different categories will be discussed
in the following.
Based on the many different conceptions of the
broad term of inclusive innovations, Heeks, Foster
and Nugroho (2014) model a ladder of inclusive
innovation that consists of six levels increasing in
inclusiveness. The stages range from the mere
intention of an innovation to address the needs of
disadvantaged members of society to innovations
being created “within a frame of knowledge and
discourse that is itself inclusive” (Heeks, Foster &
Nugroho, 2014, p. 177-178). However, despite their
(2014) detailed definitions of individual steps, in
practice, it proves difficult to differentiate between
the six levels and evaluate the impact of an innovation. Consequently, for this study, the
model was adjusted and narrowed down to the most important distinction, namely if the
innovation output is aimed at the marginalised (levels 1-3) or if they are included in the
innovative process (levels 4-6) (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014), see Figure 1. In the
following, these two different levels of inclusiveness will be referred to as outcome inclusive
and process inclusive. This distinction is consistent with the necessary criteria for innovations
that Papaioannou (2014) derives from the basic needs approach: meeting equitable needs as
well as improving participation.
Figure 1: Levels of inclusive innovation
(Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,
2014, p. 178)
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Naturally, using only two categories of inclusiveness signifies a simplification. Besides
addressing a marginalised group as producers or consumers, there is a third option of
addressing them as employees (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). For example, the fashion company
Filip + Inna engages in the preservation of traditional Philippine clothing by selling fabrics
made by disadvantaged artisans on the global markets (Herrera, 2016). While the
marginalised are included as producers in the manufacturing and given the opportunity of
work, they are not participating as innovators in the generation of ideas, which is why this
innovation classifies as outcome inclusive. From one perspective, employment can mean a
higher degree of empowerment than a product (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). From another
perspective, the concept of inclusive innovation aims to shift the focus from the
underprivileged as receivers to active innovators (Gupta, 2006). Therefore, the definition of
process inclusiveness will be strict in requiring participation in the creative process.
Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge that outcome inclusiveness can vary with regard
to empowerment. More examples include formal registration (Yadav, 2014) as well as
microfinance and microinsurance services which primarily address disadvantaged individuals
as customers or receivers but in a long-term perspective contribute to their empowerment and
participation, for example, in entrepreneurship (Kahle et al. 2013). These services offer the
underprivileged the opportunity to make use of their existing ideas, motivation, and skills
(Mohan & Potnis, 2010).
Furthermore, it is important to carefully observe at which point the marginalised become
engaged in the innovation process. For example, Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017)
distinguish between the involvement of local community members in the design, development
or implementation of an innovation. Out of the three, only the design relates to the creative
generation of the innovation, which is why it is assigned to the level of process inclusiveness.
Thus, a home-care-application that was developed in a joint effort of university members and
community caretakers (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) can be described as process
inclusive while including the end-users in the production or distribution of an innovation
(Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) will be classified as outcome inclusive. Again, the
boundaries are not clear-cut, which bears the risk of bias due to researchers’ judgement.
Most importantly, to be process inclusive the innovation requires to be generated by the
disadvantaged members of society. For instance, an initiative of Vaatsalya Hospital aimed to
attract doctors back to their rural home regions, which they left for their studies (Angeli &
Jaiswal, 2016). While they might have belonged to the underprivileged remote areas in the
past and can identify with the locals, they are not in a disadvantaged position anymore. That is
why, even if the respective doctors had been actively involved in the generation of this idea, it
would not have been classified as process inclusive.
To have a clear framework and definitions of terms, the simplified two-level version adapted
from Heeks, Foster and Nugroho's (2014) model is presented in Table 1. It also includes the
refinements concerning employment opportunities, the stage of development at which the
participation begins and the aspect of empowerment. While in the ladder model (Heeks,
Foster & Nugroho, 2014), every level requires all levels below to be fulfilled, this does not
apply to the definitions presented here. Accordingly, an innovation can be generated by the
marginalised without being aimed at them as users.
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Of course, this model of only two categories is a simplification of the variety of types of
innovations. Nevertheless, this strict differentiation is a necessary step in operationalising the
abstract concept of inclusiveness to later enable a reliable assignment of cases. It is important
to note that in default of data, this study does not assess indicators concerning the quality of
an innovation and how much impact it has on the marginalised group it is directed to.
Table 1: Definition of the levels of inclusiveness (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014)
University Involvement
The university system is a central element to innovation systems both in industrialised and
industrialising countries. They contribute to growth and development through various
channels such as research or the provision of a skilled workforce to the labour markets
(Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009; Lowe & Wolf-Powers, 2018). Kuhlmann and Rip
(2015) point at new and more actors involved in science, technology and innovation policy
and the resulting increased complexity. There are two major trends which possibly have
opposite effects on the role of universities in the context of inclusive growth.
On the one hand, universities and research facilities are becoming increasingly connected with
but also dependent on the industry. This close connection and orientation of university
education to serve the purposes of the industry has been criticised (Brundenius, Lundvall &
Sutz, 2009). The external funding can create pressure of publishing at a high frequency and
restricts the choice of topics (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). Essentially, this might
create a disparity in weighting profitability and social necessities (Schroeder et al. 2016).
On the other hand, research institutes on global and national levels have shown growing
interest in the field of inclusive innovations for several decades (Fressoli et al. 2014).
Brundenius, Lundvall and Sutz (2009) describe a stream of research about the Third Mission
of universities that seeks to shed more light on the social dimension of the relationship of
universities and societies, apart from the provision of knowledge and workforce.
Level of inclusiveness Definition Inclusiveness
indicator
Outcome inclusive The disadvantaged group is addressed by the
outcome of an innovation. They are involved as
end-users or producers or involved in the
innovative process at the stage of development or
implementation. The innovation might contribute to
the marginalised group’s empowerment in the long
run.
0
Process inclusive The disadvantaged group is leading the innovative
process or involved at the stage of design. The
outcome is not necessarily directed at the group
itself.
1
12
Developmental universities enforce this integral mission most consequently (Brundenius,
Lundvall & Sutz, 2009). These play a significant role in fostering the democratisation of
knowledge, access to education, and shifting the research agenda towards more diverse and
inclusive issues (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). Furthermore, there is a great emphasis
on concepts like Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) which aim to align societal
needs and ethical considerations with the generation and commercialisation of innovations
(Schroeder et al. 2016).
The stronger focus on social values and development counteracts the criticism of universities
to be an excluding element. This reproach derives from the fact that knowledge and access to
higher education tend to be reserved to privileged members of society (Arocena, Göransson &
Sutz, 2015). Not only are the outcomes of conventional research directed primarily at the
needs of higher or middle-income groups but also the possibility to participate in research and
learning is inhibited for the underprivileged (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). An example
of a particularly exclusive industry is nano-technology. On the global as well as on the
individual level, very few countries or researchers have the opportunity to operate in this field
(Schroeder et al. 2016).
Moreover, there might be cognitive gaps resulting from the disparity of realities. Mainstream
research institutes tend to be structured in a centralised manner, which could be conflicting
with the innovations developed in alternative pathways (Fressoli et al. 2014). For instance,
while also approving the effectiveness of certain traditional practices, conventional scientists
tended to view indigenous inventions of Gupta’s (2006) Honey Bee Network skeptically. The
mentioned factors contribute to a relative inflexibility of the system, which tends to reinforce
social exclusion.
At the same time, universities and research institutes offer great opportunities to support the
inclusion of marginalised groups (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). For example, high
technology outcomes can address the most pressing issues of low-income groups such as
medication, and it is even being discussed if the technology itself should be accessible for
everyone (Schroeder et al. 2016). Frequently, researchers and university teachers act as
intermediaries in the innovation system that connect and mediate between the diverse actors
(Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). Universities’ involvement in inclusive or grassroots
innovations offers the opportunity of providing resources, advice and potentially scaling up
the initiative (Fressoli et al. 2014).
Knowing the opposing trends that universities and other research institutes are experiencing
and their potentials to ex- and include, it is interesting to see their effect on the generation of
inclusive innovations. To be able to evaluate their involvement, categories need to be clearly
defined. Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) assume inclusive innovation projects to
be university-supported or university-led when faculty members, students or administrators
“play a key role in the project” and “it is likely that the project would not have happened” or
“would have looked very different” (p. 9) without their involvement. This assumption will
also hold for the study at hand. It is important to state that the university will be considered as
an external actor. That is, the innovator having received tertiary education will not be a
relevant category. Furthermore, there will be a gradation between no involvement, which also
13
includes the documentation of the case, supporting involvement and leading involvement. The
categories are further specified in Table 2.
Private Business Involvement
According to Chaminade, Lundvall and Haneef (2018), firms play a decisive role in
innovation processes as “the unit that introduces new ideas in the form of new processes and
new products and services” (p. 29). Indeed, the share of multinational corporations (MNCs) in
global R&D amounts to 50 percent (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015).
A couple of decades after the emergence of NGOs and development agencies, private
businesses like MNCs or small and medium corporations have appeared as actors in the
development context (Pansera & Owens, 2018). In recent years, the involvement of the
private sector in innovations that target disenfranchised customers has evolved as a
consequence of the improved technological capabilities in developing countries which made
poor customers become an accessible mass market (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014).
Kahle et al. (2013) see private corporations to be in a position to initiate and enable
innovations that help to reduce marginalisation and poverty. What is more, Mohan and Potnis
(2010) find for India’s microfinance sector that large financial institutions have a more
significant outreach to the poorest than donor funded organisations.
Yet, Chaminade, Lundvall and Haneef (2018) consider that in the context of inclusive
innovations the definition of firms as “the unit” (p. 29) that innovates might exclude
innovators who are not formally organised in businesses. In fact, to some authors,
development in the informal sector is a central aspect of inclusive innovations (Chaminade,
Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). Similarly, Gupta (2009) accuses the neglecting of small-scale
producers from remote areas and the imbalance in their trade with powerful corporations.
Table 2: Types of university involvement
Type of Involvement Definition Involvement
Indicator
No involvement University actors do not participate in the
innovative project or merely document it.
0
Supporting involvement University actors provide resources, know-how
or coaching, take up and develop an idea,
support the patenting or support the
commercialisation.
1
Leading involvement University actors lead the innovative project or
are the innovator.
2
14
The term private business can include a variety of models that have distinct implications for
the system of innovation. The definition of inclusive innovations covers both profit and not-
for-profit orientation (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). For example, Marin and Arza
(2009) find that multinational corporations represent an important channel through which
knowledge and technology generated outside a developing country can be introduced to its
national innovation system, for instance, via multinational corporation subsidiaries. Private
businesses can also include developing countries’ champion firms that offer a chance to
combine knowledge of the local environment and the international knowledge network
(Barnard, Bromfield & Cantwell, 2009). However, Barnard, Bromfield and Cantwell (2009)
find for the case of South Africa’s Sasol that the champion firm seems not to promote weaker
local firms in the innovation system but instead follows the path of foreign multinationals. Of
course, local entrepreneurs can also be providers of inclusive innovation (Hall et al. 2012).
A general risk of for-profit activities in a field that addresses social needs is that pressure to
generate returns for investors could undermine the social mission (Mohan & Potnis, 2010). In
addition to the motive of profitability, corporate social responsibility (CSR) can motivate
companies to engage for inclusive growth (Herrera, 2016). At the intersection of for-profit
and not-for-profit models, there are social business models which do not only serve the
purpose of creating financial returns but also contribute to the enhancement of welfare
(Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).
To evaluate the impact that private businesses have on the inclusiveness of an innovation, the
gradation of involvement needs to be specified beforehand. The level of inclusiveness has
been defined by the fact if innovators stem from the disadvantaged group – regardless of their
status as formal or informal entrepreneurs. Consequently, the notion of private business
involvement explicitly refers to the involvement of external corporations – that is, external to
the disadvantaged group. This involvement could be in the form of help with the
Table 3: Types of private business involvement
Type of involvement Definition Involvement
indicator
No involvement No external private businesses participate
in the generation of an innovation or they
merely document it.
0
Supporting involvement External private businesses provide
coaching, access to distribution channels,
know-how, or support the
commercialisation via licensing.
1
Leading involvement An external private business is leading the
innovative project or has started it as the
innovator.
2
15
commercialisation of the innovation, for example, via licensing as was the case with the real-
time, low-bandwidth video solution project reported by Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis
(2017). Another example could be CocaCola that lets non-profit organisations distribute
social products to remote areas via their transportation network (Kahle et al. 2013). Again, the
involvement will be classified in three gradations – no involvement, supporting and leading
involvement – which are further specified in Table 3.
16
3 Method
In this chapter, the proceeding of data collection will be described. It is essential to depict the
method of search and selection of inclusive innovations so that it can be traceable. Of course,
the inevitable biases and limitations of the proceedings also need to be considered.
Ultimately, the approach to the analysis of the data set will be described.
3.1 Sourcing Strategy
As has been mentioned, research on inclusive innovations is relatively new and usually
limited to the description of individual cases or theoretical frameworks. In default of
quantitative data on the diffusion of inclusive innovations and the like, a larger number of
cases has been aggregated to be able to derive propositions about the roles of universities and
corporations in the generation of inclusive innovations. In a new field, inducting theory based
on case study research is seen as an appropriate method (Eisenhardt, 1989). Consequently,
cases of inclusive innovation presented in scholarly articles have been chosen as the unit of
investigation for this meta-study. The paper follows an exploratory approach in that it shows
an attempt to make inclusive innovations more quantifiable and derive preliminary
conclusions.
The guiding objective during the search for cases was to collect as many examples as possible
from reliable sources. In considering the trade-off between the depth of the individual case
and amount of cases, more emphasis has been placed on the quantity. That means, the search
for cross-case patterns is prioritised over within-case analysis (Eisenhardt, 1989).
The same principle has been applied concerning the geographical and sectoral contexts of
innovations as these have not been narrowed down. Qualitative case studies tend to be region
or sector-specific, which improves their explanatory power but limits the generalisation to
other countries or fields (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). Not restricting the search to a region or
sector of observation compromises the validity of the outcomes (Eisenhardt, 1989). However,
this allows a collection of a greater amount of innovations.
In order to limit the amount of potential cases and ensure the reliability of sources, the
mentioning of the innovation in scholarly articles has been made a necessary prerequisite.
Additionally, a few cases stem from reports from the NGO PROLINNOVA (Rüter &
Piepenstock, 2008; Letty & Walters-Bayer, 2010).
Naturally, only descriptions of innovations that provide relevant information on university
and private business involvement could be included. Examples of inclusive innovations are
not necessarily taken from detailed case studies. However, it was a necessary precondition
17
that the evaluation of university and private business involvement as well as the level of
inclusiveness could be derived from the presentation of the case.
Search for cases
The search for relevant articles on inclusive innovations has been conducted with the help of
keyword searches (Creswell, 2014) in the computerised databases Google Scholar and
LUBsearch. Based on suitable articles and citations, forward and backward searches helped to
find more authors reporting on inclusive innovations. However, it needs to be considered that
these forward and backward searches bear the danger of finding only related sources based on
similar understandings of the topic.
To further expand the search, platforms specialised in the documentation of inclusive
innovations and the connection of actors have been employed. Smith, Around, Fressoli,
Thomas and Abrol (2012) gathered various networks to provide an overview. Among these
are, for instance, Brazil’s Social Technologies Network or PROLINNOVA. However, the
sheer amount of cases – the Honey Bee Network alone listed over 100,000 ideas (Smith et al.
2012) – and time constraints do not allow including all cases in the collection. Moreover, the
cases documented in these databases frequently do not provide sufficient information with
regard to university or business involvement. Accordingly, innovations from these databases
can only be included in the collection when also presented in a scholarly paper.
Ultimately, an important consideration is when to close the search for additional examples of
inclusive innovations. In the theory of qualitative research, saturation describes the point at
which the collection of additional data does not add new features to a study (Gentles, Charles,
Ploeg & McKibbon, 2015). Moreover, Gentles et al. (2015) specify that theoretical saturation
is reached when enough information is collected to develop the occurrences of the categories.
In this study, the point of saturation will be reached when a broad variety of models is
covered. This is the case when every possible combination of the types of university and
external business involvement is included.
Limitation and bias
Even though guidelines and proceedings have been defined beforehand and followed during
the search for cases, clearly the selection of innovations cannot be random. Yet, as opposed to
quantitative research, qualitative research does not endeavour to show a representative part of
the population (Gentles et al. 2015). That is why a quantitative analysis based on non-
randomly selected qualitative case studies can only have a limited force of expression. There
are several sources of selection bias to be discussed in the following.
Firstly, the selection of cases made by the authors of articles might distort the picture.
Eisenhardt (1989) states that case study research does not usually rely on random sampling,
and there is a tendency to purposefully present extreme situations and polar types. Moreover,
she (1989) suggests that case studies tend to be selected on the basis of the theory which they
are supposed to confirm or extend. Thus, it is very likely that examples of inclusive
innovations presented by the same authors embody very similar models. By contrast, others
might have deliberately picked highly differing cases.
18
Secondly, there can be bias in which inclusive innovations can be found on the basis of the
literature search described. In general, it can be assumed that all of the examples of inclusive
innovations which have been reported on are above-average successful. Accordingly,
restricting the collection of innovations to those published in scientific papers is problematic
because this proceeding only considers rather prominent cases while below-the-radar
innovations are neglected. By expanding the search in networks such as the HBN, more
grassroots innovations can potentially be considered; however, being documented on such a
platform also depends on specific conditions.
Thirdly, relying on the description of others – in most cases from only one source – means to
be dependent on the researchers’ presentation of the case. Consequently, any leaving out of
information or the role of an actor in the articles can potentially bias this study. Moreover,
some authors might have an interest in embellishing the innovation they present.
To sum up, it is important to understand that this study cannot claim to be representative
because of the mentioned reasons. Nevertheless, it aims to cover a broad range of models of
inclusive innovation so that university and private business involvement can be examined.
This can be achieved by prioritising quantity. Ultimately, declines in the representativeness
have to be accepted in exchange for a higher degree of reliability of the sources.
3.2 Method of Case Assessment
In documenting the cases of inclusive innovations, an extensive data set has been set up, see
Appendix. For all of the cases assessed, the entries displayed in Table 4 have been made.
Many of the items, for example, relating to the type and context of an innovation are relevant
for approaching research questions RQ1 and RQ1a in search of common patterns.
Every innovation has been given a consecutive number. This has also been done because
innovations are not always given a clear name. In such cases, a short description was inserted
in the column for the name. The type of innovation refers to the distinction of product or
service innovations as opposed to process innovations. This distinction is not always clear-cut
as there are combinations; however, the most suitable category has been chosen. Furthermore,
a detailed description and partly information on the formation has been recorded. Importantly,
Table 4: Case assessment
General Information Context Source Indicators
Consecutive number
Name
Type of innovation
Detailed description
Disadvantaged group
Region
Country
Stakeholders
Author
Article
Year
Additional source
University involvement
Private business involvement
Level of inclusiveness
19
the disadvantaged group at which the innovation is directed is defined. This proceeding
provides an unequivocal basis for the decision between inclusiveness in the sense of outcome
or process.
Additionally, the context of the innovation with regard to region and country has been noted.
This is important for enabling a more specific examination of distinct regions later in the
analysis. To keep a good overview, the names of relevant stakeholders have been noted in an
extra column.
Another crucial feature to the innovation is the source it has been reported in. The source has
been captured by noting the author, article and year of publication which can also be found in
the references. It is important to note that the description and categorisation of the inclusive
innovations has been made based on the information of the source at the time of publication.
Consequently, the innovations’ further development has not been followed up on because of
time constraints and a high risk of not finding equally accurate and reliable descriptions.
However, when a more recent or detailed study was available, that one has been preferred.
That being so also examples of inclusive innovations that are planned or have failed are
included. In case complementary sources have been employed to complete the picture, these
have been recorded in an additional column.
Most importantly, the indicators of the relevant items for answering the research question
RQ2 have been assessed. The involvement of universities and private businesses as well as
the level of inclusiveness of the innovation has been evaluated based on the construct
definitions from Chapter 2.
Exemplary categorisation
In order to be transparent and traceable, some examples of assessing and categorising
innovations will be given in the following. These include cases to illustrate the guidelines
stated before.
The categorisation of the example of innovation has been made based on the description of
the case at the time of publication. For instance, Gupta (2006) mentions the farmer Bhanjibhai
Mathukia who invented a three-wheeled tractor that was lighter than any comparable model
on the market and could be assembled from readily available parts. The invention caught the
attention of the Honey Bee Network and associated research institutions that promoted its
documentation and recognition (Gupta, 2006). Gupta (2006) reports that they developed a
technology transfer agreement which allows a private corporation to manufacture and market
the tractor in return for a royalty. This innovation has been categorised as a process
innovation since the innovator stems from the marginalised group. At the point of description
in Gupta’s (2006) paper both research institutes and a private business are involved in the
spreading and commercialisation, which is why they were both assigned supporting
involvement.
Cases might be taken from any step in the innovation process, even before the
commercialisation of the product as is the case with nanodrugs against tuberculosis, which
Schroeder et al. reported on in 2016. Also initiatives that eventually collapsed like DrumNet
(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008) have been included.
20
In case it was available, a more detailed study has been preferred over the one found first.
This was the case, for example, with the microfinance provider BancoSol which is mentioned
in Mendoza and Thelen's (2008) collection and described in more detail in Lal and Lobb's
(2016) case study.
3.3 Approach
After presenting the method of case collection, in the following section, the second major part
of the study is described: the analysis based on the constructed data set.
The first part of the analysis is descriptive and aims to answer the first research questions
(RQ1, RQ1a) of which are common characteristics across the hundred and two (102) cases of
inclusive innovation. It is a common strategy in the search of cross-case patterns to establish
categories or dimensions that show within-group similarities and intergroup differences
(Eisenhardt, 1989). Examples of inclusive innovations will be grouped according to specific
characteristics such as the authors who presented them, the innovations’ home countries, their
types and the marginalised groups that are addressed.
In the next part, the second research question (RQ2) of how university and private business
involvement differ with respect to the inclusiveness of an innovation is approached.
Ideally, to test the involvement of universities and private businesses for significant
differences concerning the level of inclusiveness, a regression analysis could have been
employed. Since the research design contains a dichotomous outcome variable and two
categorical predictor variables, logistic regression could have been an appropriate method
(Peng, Lee & Ingersoll, 2002). However, such a regression analysis would not yield reliable
estimates because a critical assumption is violated. Logistic regression demands that the
sample is random, and observations are independent from each other (Peng, Lee & Ingersoll,
2002). This cannot be assumed for the data set constructed on the basis of qualitative cases.
As has been mentioned before, the collection of examples suffers from certain selection
biases, and the innovations are not independent of each other when reported by the same
author. Consequently, regression analysis has not been used for this problem.
A common method of analysing cross-case patterns in case study research is to use cell
designs based on the categories set in advance (Eisenhardt, 1989). This scheme has been
employed in the analysis instead of a regression. Still, the primary focus has been on the
distinction of outcome and process inclusiveness in relation to university and external
business involvement. This can be done based on the predetermined levels of inclusiveness
and types of involvement.
The tables for the summaries and comparisons of inclusive innovations have been generated
in Stata. The outputs are compared and related to the theory which has been discussed in
Chapter 2. Yet, it is important to note that conclusions derived from the data set are not
suitable for an inference to the whole of the inclusive innovations. The reason for that lies in
the non-randomness of the sample due to selection biases.
21
4 Findings and Analysis
In the following chapter, the findings and analysis of the data set will be presented. At first,
the data set will be described with regard to the sources, types of innovations and regions as
well as concerning the marginalised groups addressed by an innovation. Furthermore,
differences in the level of inclusiveness will be considered concerning the roles of universities
and private businesses. Ultimately, the findings will be discussed in the context of the
previously introduced theory.
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
Based on the described methods of searching and assessing cases of inclusive innovation, a
data set of 102 examples has been constructed. In the following, the composition of the case
collection is presented descriptively.
Table 5: Number of inclusive innovations presented by author
Author/s Year Freq. Percent
Angeli & Jaiswal 2016 13 12.75
Burns 2015 1 0.98
Fressoli, Around, Abrol, Smith, Ely & Dias 2014 3 2.94
García, Eizaguirre & Pradel 2015 2 1.96
Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis 2017 15 14.71
Gupta 2006 14 13.73
Hall, Matos, Sheehan & Silvestre 2012 2 1.96
Herrera 2016 4 3.92
Kahle, Dubiel, Ernst & Prabhu 2013 5 4.90
Lal & Lobb 2016 1 0.98
Letty & Walters-Bayer 2010 2 1.96
Lowe & Wolf-Powers 2018 1 0.98
Mendoza & Thelen 2008 26 25.49
Mohan & Potnis 2010 2 1.96
Pansera & Owens 2018 1 0.98
Papaioannou 2014 2 1.96
Rüter & Piepenstock 2008 1 0.98
Schroeder, Dalton-Brown, Schrempf & Kaplan 2016 1 0.98
Swaans, Boogaard, Bendapudi, Taye, Hendrickx & Klerkx 2014 1 0.98
Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist 2014 4 3.92
Yadav 2014 1 0.98
102 100
22
Firstly, the sources included in the study are examined. There are a total of twenty-one
different authors and groups of authors. As can be seen in Table 5, the number of cases
reported in the articles varies greatly between one and twenty-six. That is because detailed
case studies of one particular innovation (e.g. Swaans et al. 2014; Burns, 2015) have been
included as well as broad overviews of the topic and typologies (e.g. Mendoza & Thelen,
2008; Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).
As was presumed beforehand, authors have put distinct focuses on the selection of
innovations they present. This can be with respect to industry, actors involved and models of
inclusive innovations. For example, Angeli and Jaiswal (2016) study inclusive innovations
specifically in India’s healthcare sector, while Mendoza and Thelen (2008) present examples
from various fields and regions. Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) took the
university perspective for their exploratory study and analysed fifteen university-led projects.
In contrast, Herrera (2016) examines different models of how businesses can generate
innovation for impact. Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014) exemplify the formation of
inclusive clusters initiated by scientific and political initiatives, whereas Gupta (2006)
documented exclusively innovations that originated in grassroots structures.
Secondly, the distribution of the types of innovations has been considered. As shown in Table
6, the sample of innovations consists of product and service innovations as well as process
innovations. Service innovations constitute 44%, so almost half of the sample, whereas
product and process innovation account for 29% and 26%, respectively. Consequently, this
sample seems to suggest that most innovations directed at the needs of the disadvantaged are
service innovations. Still, it is important to recognise that the boundaries are not always clear
and there are also combinations of these types of innovation.
Table 6: Types of innovation in the sample
Furthermore, the share of process inclusive innovations for the different types of innovations
has been examined. It is important to clarify that process, product and service innovations are
distinguished for the type of innovation. This is not to be confused with the level of
inclusiveness for which outcome and process inclusiveness are two categories. As these two
levels have been assigned the indicators 0 and 1 respectively, the mean of inclusiveness can
be interpreted as the share of process inclusive innovations.
Consequently, Table 7 shows that for this sample of innovations, product innovations have
the highest share of process inclusive innovations. That is, the marginalised group was
included with product innovations in 37% of the examples. Roughly 26% of the process
innovations have been generated with the marginalised group included. The lowest share of
Type of
innovation
Freq. Percent
Process 27 26.47
Product 30 29.41
Service 45 44.12
Total 102 100.00
23
process inclusive innovations in this sample has been the generation of new services with
roughly 16%.
Thus, while service innovations are the most frequent type of innovation in this sample, they
show the lowest propensity of marginalised individuals to be involved in the innovative
process.
Thirdly, the distribution of regions and countries covered in the sample is presented. Table 8
lists the number of inclusive innovations per continent and country. In this collection of cases,
Africa and Asia are the regions contributing to the vast majority of innovations, namely 34
and 49. It is striking that both contain countries – South Africa and even more so India – with
outstandingly many examples reported. The continent with the third highest number of
inclusive innovations in this sample is Latin America. There are only three examples of
inclusive innovations directed at marginalised groups in industrialised countries of Europe
and North America as well as one from Japan. Unfortunately, this small number of cases does
not allow a meaningful comparison of developed and developing countries. Furthermore,
seven innovations are addressing disadvantaged groups in several or no specific regions and
countries.
Table 7: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation
Type of
Innovation
Inclusiveness
(0 = outcome, 1 = process)
Mean Std. Dev. Freq.
Process .259 .447 27
Product .367 .490 30
Service .156 .367 45
Total .245 .432 102
Table 8: Inclusive innovations by continents and countries
Africa Freq. Asia Freq. Latin America Freq.
Kenya 5 Bangladesh 1 Bolivia 3
South Africa 21 China 1 Brazil 4
Tanzania 1 India 41 Mexico 1
Uganda
Multiple Countries
5
2
Japan
Philippines
1
5
Peru 1
Total 34 Total 49 Total 9
Europe North America Multiple Continents
Spain 2 USA 1 Multiple Countries 7
24
Ultimately, the marginalised groups which are addressed by the inclusive innovations in the
data set are listed in Table 9 (p. 25). As has been mentioned before, the disadvantaged group
addressed by an inclusive innovation is one of the central features assessed for this data set.
Firstly, it is important for the evaluation of inclusiveness because process inclusiveness
demands the participation of members of the marginalised group in the innovative process.
Secondly, it is interesting to see which groups are addressed by the collected innovations and
which barriers they helped to overcome.
The groups which the innovations are directed to are in part defined by highly specific
characteristics. Certain categories could have been merged; however, that would have
prevented to show the broad variety of inclusive innovations developed to address very
specific problems.
What can be seen from the list is that the underprivileged groups are either defined by their
profession or by the barrier that excludes them from participating in society. That is, many
innovations address a particular occupational group, most prominently farmers and specific
subgroups such as livestock farmers. Furthermore, there are other professional groups
addressed, for example, healthcare workers, salt workers or blacksmiths. It can be assumed
that these occupational groups are addressed because of their relatively low income or bad
working conditions. Additionally, many marginalised groups are defined by the barrier which
hinders their participation in society or in the markets. As described by Mendoza and Thelen
(2008), these barriers can be the lack of infrastructures such as electricity, healthcare or
financial services, missing opportunities to develop human capital, for instance, literacy or
simply geographical drawbacks such as remoteness or precarious neighbourhoods. There are
innovations specifically addressing women and female workers as these appear to be in a
disadvantaged position because of their gender. The most prevalent barrier which is
seemingly linked to all the characteristics mentioned are low and irregular income flows
(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Hence, one can state that marginalisation occurs on the horizontal
and even more obviously on the vertical level, as Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014)
suggested.
25
Disadvantaged group addressed Freq.
basketers (often women, disabled, HIV victims) 1
blacksmiths and metalworkers 1
children from low-income backgrounds 1
farmers 16
female livestock keepers 2
healthcare workers in underprivileged regions 4
illiterate 1
illiterate and low-income population 2
inhabitants of old worker's district, migrants 2
livestock producers 1
low-income communities 1
low-income patients 6
low-income patients in Mumbai 1
low-income patients in remote areas 4
low-income segments 11
lower-income families outside Manila Region 1
microentrepreneurs from developing countries 1
patients in semi-urban and rural areas 1
population in remote areas 10
population in remote areas, illiterate 1
population in rural areas 1
population in semi-dry areas 1
population in townships 7
population without access to electricity 2
population without access to financial services 4
population without access to fast internet 1
population without access to insurance 1
population without access to safe water sources 2
rural artisans 2
salt workers 2
seaweed farmers (mostly women) 1
slum dwellers and rural inhabitants 1
smallholder farmers 2
subsistence farmers 1
tanners and flayers 1
tuberculosis patients 1
unregistered population 1
women entrepreneurs 1
women from impoverished regions 1
workers with limited formal education 1
Table 9: List of disadvantaged groups addressed by the innovations
26
4.2 Results
In the following section, the data set is analysed with respect to the levels of inclusiveness.
This is necessary to answer the research question (RQ2) of how university and private
business involvement potentially differ.
As a first step, the distribution of inclusive innovations has been examined concerning the
types of involvement of universities and businesses. Table 10 provides an overview of the
distribution of examples for both levels of inclusiveness. It is apparent that the sample of
cases covers every combination of the different types of involvement of universities and
private businesses. Hence, saturation has been reached in the sense that the collection captures
every constellation of these two actors.
However, the number of examples varies greatly. Innovations with leading business
involvement and no or merely documenting university involvement are by far the most
frequent observation. There are forty-three of such examples. In contrast, only one example of
an innovation has both leading university and external business involvement. Sixteen of the
inclusive innovations in the sample have been generated without the involvement of
universities and external businesses. However, it needs to be noted that not all innovations
developed without business and university involvement are necessarily generated by the
marginalised alone; for example, there might be NGOs or public actors involved.
For this study, the difference between outcome and process inclusiveness has been
determined as the significant gradation for the inclusiveness of an innovation. Thus, next, the
distribution in the sample will be regarded for both separately. In the comparison of Tables 11
and 12, it becomes apparent that there is a high disparity between 77 outcome inclusive
innovations and only 25 process inclusive innovations.
Table 11 reveals that the majority of outcome inclusive innovations has been developed with
high involvement of one actor and no involvement of the other. Forty-three innovations have
been initiated by private businesses and did not include universities in the process. Fifteen of
the innovations in the sample have been led by universities and did not involve external
businesses. Seven outcome inclusive innovations have been generated without private
businesses or universities involved. Since the marginalised group is not involved in their
Table 10: Distribution of all inclusive innovations
Private Business
Involvement
None Supporting Leading Total
University
Involvement
None 16 3 43 62
Supporting 9 5 2 16
Leading 18 5 1 24
Total 43 13 46 102
27
generation either, other actors of the innovation system must be leading these projects. In
general, comparatively few outcome inclusive innovations have been developed with
supporting involvement of either universities or external businesses.
Table 12 shows the distribution of process inclusive innovations in the sample. What is
striking is that the number of process inclusive innovations seems to decrease as external
private businesses become more involved. There are no cases of process inclusive innovations
with leading private business involvement. Also for leading university involvement, there are
only three cases. However, there is a total of thirteen examples of process inclusive
innovations generated with supporting university involvement. Nine process inclusive
innovations are generated without the help of either universities or businesses.
Next, the shares of outcome and process inclusive innovations are examined with respect to
the three respective types of involvement of universities and external businesses. Since the
two levels of inclusiveness – outcome and process – have been assigned indicators of 0 and 1,
the means in Tables 13 and 14 can be viewed as shares of the process inclusive innovations in
the total sample.
Table 13 shows that supporting university involvement comes with the highest propensity, of
81%, to accompany process inclusiveness, whereas out of the innovations with no
involvement and leading involvement, 15% and 13% were process inclusive.
Table 11: Distribution of outcome inclusive innovations
Private Business
Involvement
None Supporting Leading Total
University
Involvement
None 7 3 43 53
Supporting 0 1 2 3
Leading 15 5 1 21
Total 22 9 46 77
Table 12: Distribution of process inclusive innovations
Private Business
Involvement
None Supporting Leading Total
University
Involvement
None 9 0 0 9
Supporting 9 4 0 13
Leading 3 0 0 3
Total 21 4 0 25
28
In contrast, Table 14 reveals that no business involvement coincided with 49% and supporting
business involvement with 31% of the innovations being process inclusive. Again, none of the
innovation that originated from leading business involvement was process inclusive.
To sum up, the results presented in this section provide insights in the relation of
inclusiveness and university and private business involvement. The majority of outcome
inclusive innovations in this sample is either led by a university, a private business or another
actor of the innovation system. Comparatively few outcome inclusive innovations have been
supported by universities or external businesses. Among the process inclusive innovations, a
large share has been generated without the involvement of either of the two actors.
Additionnaly, most of the innovations that are supported by a university are process inclusive.
4.3 Discussion of Results
In the discussion, the findings from the previous sections are analysed and critically
discussed. At first, the general composition of the sample is related to the theory.
Consequently, it can be examined if the patterns found in the course of the first research
questions (RQ1, RQ1a) are in accordance with the theoretical presumptions. Furthermore, the
difference between process and outcome inclusiveness is considered. Lastly, the roles of
private businesses and universities are analysed to approach the second research question
(RQ2) of how they differ in promoting process inclusive innovation.
The sample
There are certain striking features in the data set which are caused by the presence of the
concept of inclusive innovation, for example, the outstanding numbers of inclusive
innovations from India and South Africa. Reasons for these could be the prioritisation of
inclusive innovations by the Indian government (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012) resulting
from the fact that India is the country with the highest absolute number of people living in
Table 13: Share of process inclusive innovations
by type of university involvement Table 14: Share of process inclusive innovations
by type of private business invovlement
University
Involvement
Inclusiveness
(0 = outcome, 1 = process)
Mean Std. Dev. Freq.
None .145 .355 62
Supporting .813 .403 16
Leading .125 .338 24
Total .245 .432 102
Private
Business
Involvement
Inclusiveness
(0 = outcome, 1 = process)
Mean Std. Dev. Freq.
None .488 .506 43
Supporting . 308 .480 13
Leading 0 0 46
Total .245 .432 102
29
poverty (Mohan & Potnis, 2010). Also South Africa continues to be among the world’s most
unequal countries with respect to income (Brundenius, 2017) and the African National
Congress government has engaged in the promotion of inclusive innovations (Phiri et al.
2016). There are two mechanisms through which the prioritisation of inclusive innovation in
specific countries could lead to more visibility in the literature. Firstly, the efforts might have
promoted the development of more inclusive innovations. Secondly, the popularity of the
issue might have shifted the focus to inclusive innovators who had been there before.
Presumably, both explanations hold to a certain degree.
It is peculiar that the sample only contains one inclusive innovation explicitly directed at
China’s marginalised population even though its government aims to promote the concept
(Schroeder et al. 2016). It might be a coincidence that only one inclusive innovation from
China has been found in the literature search conducted. Alternatively, it might indicate that
the idea has not received as much attention as in India, for instance.
Similarly, more economically developed countries are sparsely represented in the sample.
Again, this might be a coincidence or show that deliberate action for inclusive growth is not
prioritised as much as in some developing countries. A possible explanation for fewer
inclusive innovations in developed countries could be that these states have well-functioning
structures in the public sector to cushion the market failures which cause the exclusion of
parts of the population (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Moreover, it is striking that various
relevant stakeholders from the Global North engage in inclusive innovations in the Global
South. Examples are the cluster initiatives in Uganda and Tanzania that had been advanced by
the Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist,
2014), microinsurance offered by the German Allianz in southern India (Kahle et al. 2013) or
US-based Procter & Gamble that developed an in-home water purifier for emerging markets
(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008).
Also the shares of types of innovation from Table 6 might not be representative. The fact that
only the tip of the iceberg is captured with this method of literature search becomes apparent
when looking at the disparity of process innovations as opposed to products and services.
Accordingly, it can be assumed that particularly small-scale and incremental process
innovations in developing countries remain below the radar (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef,
2018). Nonetheless, it seems reasonable that services constitute a major share in the total of
inclusive innovations (Table 6) as they help to serve such basic needs as registration (Yadav,
2014).
Also the share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation (Table 7) needs to be
viewed critically. It is very likely that the share of process inclusive product innovations is
overestimated compared to the other types because this constellation is very dominant in the
examples taken from Gupta (2006).
Level of inclusiveness
Importantly, the gradation of the levels of inclusiveness is based on the distinction between
outcome and process inclusiveness. Even though process inclusiveness is understood as
superior by many authors or even as the only way in which an innovation can be inclusive
30
(Sengupta, 2016), in the eyes of Kahle et al. (2013) outcome inclusiveness is also essential for
improving the lives of underprivileged individuals.
There is an apparent disparity between 77 outcome inclusive innovations as opposed to 25
process inclusive innovations. The reasons for that possibly result from the mechanisms that
promote the publication of a case. The highest absolute numbers of process inclusive
innovations are found in combination with no business involvement and no or supporting
university involvement. Accordingly, these are innovations which are initiated by members of
the marginalised group alone or perhaps in cooperation with a different actor of the
innovation system. It is reasonable to assume that these examples are less likely to gain
prominence unless they are deliberately searched for and documented, for example, by
Gupta's (2006) Honey Bee Network. Without the interest of powerful actors like universities
and corporations to advertise their ideas, innovations are more likely to remain below the
radar. That is also why various authors (e.g. Fressoli et al. 2014; Hall et al. 2012) call for a
stronger focus on process instead of outcome innovations.
Furthermore, as has been mentioned before, the definition of outcome inclusiveness in one
category is strict and rather simplistic. The measure does not distinguish between providing
the poor with a product of consumption or a product that enables its users to increase their
agricultural yields, for example, agricultural sprayers (Gupta, 2006). Similarly, there is no
further distinction between regular services and services like formal registration (Yadav,
2014) which allow the marginalised to participate in society and markets. Moreover, also job
opportunities or training, for example, provided by the Sulabh International Institute of Health
and Hygiene (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016) are included in this category even though they
potentially contribute to the empowerment of individuals.
Private business involvement
What can be clearly seen from Table 9 is that the described method of case search yielded a
majority of cases with business involvement. Thus, the findings are in accordance with the
prevalence of studies from a company perspective, which Hall et al. (2012) mention.
The analyses seem to indicate that process inclusiveness is more likely when private
businesses are not involved or only supporting. However, this is partly due to the strict
definition of business involvement as external. In many cases, the innovators may well be
organised in corporations and benefit from the private business structure; however, that has
not been assessed in this study. Table 12 reveals that no process inclusive innovations from
the sample have been generated with leading external business involvement and just a few
with supporting business involvement. Still, many corporations contribute to the inclusion of
the marginalised at the level of outcomes, for example, by developing an affordable mobile
phone that is accessible for the illiterate as has been done by Motorola (Mendoza & Thelen,
2008). Moreover, a multitude of innovations have the potential to improve living conditions
in the long run, for instance, by buffering crop failures with insurances (Mendoza & Thelen,
2008), providing rural artisans with employment (Herrera, 2016) or making healthcare more
affordable by optimising processes (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).
31
These cases seem to prove that the motive of private businesses to strive for profitability can
be aligned with social interests. Moreover, it can even drive the development and
advancement of new ideas. However, it is crucial to consider Mohan and Potnis' (2010) plea
that the pressure for profitability can be particularly harmful in a field that deals with the
livelihood of disenfranchised individuals.
University involvement
Concerning the engagement of universities and other research facilities, the trend of
increasing interest in the field of inclusive innovation (Fressoli et al. 2014) can be confirmed.
There are many initiatives started and led by university actors to purposefully develop
innovations for disadvantaged groups (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014; Grobbelaar,
Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017). However, it is intrinsic to these university-led initiatives to be
planned top-down and generate primarily outcome inclusive innovations. In contrast,
supporting university involvement in this sample was highly associated with process
inclusiveness. Examples are projects which are initiated by members of the marginalised
group and taken up by a research institute (Gupta, 2006) or innovations that were jointly
designed by university actors and end-users (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017).
Accordingly, there are many examples of universities aiming to comply with the Third
Mission and contribute to social development (Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009).
Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that this cannot only be achieved by innovating
for the disadvantaged group but also by recognising their own innovative capabilities and
providing support. Promoting meaningful innovations generated outside the academic context
can be a way to enable a more inclusive discourse (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014).
To sum up, interesting conclusions can be drawn from the sample of inclusive innovations
presented in this study. They largely confirm the theoretical considerations from previous
research. However, there are limits to the explanatory power of the study that lie in the
buildup of the sample and the simplicity of the underlying categories. Furthermore, it needs to
be considered that no conclusions can be drawn with respect to the quality of an innovation or
the actual impact it has on the marginalised group.
32
5 Conclusion
The concluding chapter will relate back to the initial considerations and summarise the
findings. Additionally, it will cover policy implications and suggestions for further research.
5.1 Research Aim
A significant contribution of this study is the aggregation of a hundred and two (102)
inclusive innovations that has been conducted following predetermined guidelines. An
analysis of so many cases across different sectors, continents and with no specific model of
innovation has, to the best of knowledge, not been done before.
However, it needs to be considered that this proceeding has certain shortcomings. Inclusive
innovations that are collected in a literature search like this are biased towards above-average
success and prominence. In general, the sample of cases found should be interpreted as an
indicator of the popularity of documenting these cases rather than an indicator of their actual
occurrence. It can be assumed that the innovations reported in scholarly articles represent only
the tip of the iceberg; especially because inclusive innovation may include every small-scale
incremental improvement. Thus, this proceeding cannot completely make up for the
deficiencies of the construct of inclusive innovation, which is difficult to operationalise and
measure. Furthermore, it can only provide selective insights into innovation processes in
developing countries.
Even though they potentially simplify complex cases, the strict definitions set in advance
allowed the unequivocal categorisation of inclusive innovations. Moreover, the large number
of examples and the multitude of models and perspectives provide a broad overview of the
topic. Thus, despite the various points of critique of the method and severe limitations to the
data set, it could represent a first, preliminary step towards making inclusive innovations
quantifiable.
5.2 Implications
The number of cases has proved that inclusive innovations are a prominent issue across many
regions and sectors. Firstly, this could be due to the increasing popularity of the concept,
which promotes the acknowledgement and documentation of examples. Secondly, it might be
the consequence of the prioritisation of the issue by policymakers, universities and private
33
businesses. Importantly, the recognition of innovative processes other than conventional STI
is fostered.
Even though the quality and impact of innovations could not be assessed in this study, many
examples show that inclusive innovations improved the living conditions of marginalised
individuals and thus contribute to the reduction of poverty and exclusion. Accordingly,
inclusive innovations are a means to counteract the increasing inequalities that occur
worldwide and especially within countries.
Important practical implications for countering inequality can be derived from this
preliminary study. Both universities and private businesses have proved to contribute to the
generation and implementation of inclusive innovations, primarily at the level of outcomes.
When it comes to process inclusive innovation, the results seem to indicate that universities
are more likely to promote it when involved in a supporting function. Yet, more quantitative
research is required to confirm the findings. To generate innovations which are inclusive with
respect to the process, it seems that neither universities nor private businesses are needed in
leading roles but rather supporting the development. In general and particularly in innovation
systems research, more attention should be paid to the issue and to innovators from excluded
groups.
5.3 Future Research
Because the field of inclusive innovations is not very advanced, there are multiple
opportunities to expand the research in the future, especially following new quantitative
approaches. Accepting a high amount of time and effort, representative primary data can be
collected and analysed with respect to different contexts of inclusive innovations. Primary
data from developing countries can provide more insights in the innovative processes outside
mainstream research or following DUI approaches. Moreover, comparisons between
developing and developed countries might yield more insights in the challenges they face and
how to best counteract growing inequalities in both settings. Detailed cases of inclusive
innovation in industrialised countries can shed more light on the question if public institutions
compensate for private businesses and universities to fulfill the basic needs of the
disadvantaged. Apart from governments, universities and private businesses, other actors of
the innovation system like NGOs can be examined with respect to the promotion of inclusive
innovation. Importantly, future research should develop methods to assess and evaluate the
outreach of inclusive innovations.
34
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Yadav, V. (2014). Unique Identification Project for 1.2 Billion People in India: Can it fill institutional voids and enable ‘inclusive’ innovation, Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.38–48, Available through: LUSEM Library website http://www.lusem.lu.se/library [Accessed 27 May 2019]
39
Appendix
# Innovation Description Author Year Country
1 brine treatment
against
contagious virus
(animals)
cures for foot and mouth disease, a highly contagious virus that causes ulcers in
the hooves and mouths of infected animals. Farmers are reluctant to use vaccines
and medicines to prevent and treat the disease; they may balk at the high cost or
mistrust the medication, scientist approved method (p. 52)
Gupta 2006 India
2 hot sand practice
against
contagious virus
(animals)
forced his infected animals to walk on hot sand. The farmers who practice this
technique believe that the hot sand kills the organisms responsible for the disease,
scientist approved method (p. 52)
Gupta 2006 India
3 Shodh Yatris journey of exploration, meet farmers, learn about their experimental techniques,
and share what we learned, promote informal learning among children (p. 53-55)
Gupta 2006 India
4 three-wheeled
tractor
three-wheeled tractor, Bhanjibhai Mathukia, who has the equivalent of a 4th
grade education and comes from a small village in the Jungarh district, developed
the 10 horsepower tractor out of various readily available components, He used
the gearbox and rear wheels of an old Mahindra jeep, and the front tires of a Fiat
Padmini, a miniature car popular in India, along with a fixed-speed “stationary”
engine normally used to pump water (p. 54)
Gupta 2006 India
5 Aruni-tilting
bullock cart
tilting cart, earned a patent from the United States Patent and Trademark Office
(USPTO) (p. 55)
Gupta 2006 India
6 knapsack
agricultural
sprayer
knapsack sprayer in which a spring-loaded dead weight taps into the user’s
natural body movements to generate the compression needed for spraying. The
innovative design makes the user more productive by lowering his or her fatigue
(p. 55)
Gupta 2006 India
7 agricultural
sprayer
uses the rotational energy of a wheel to power the spraying (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India
40
8 lightweight
backpack sprayer
designed to suit the needs of small farms, nursery owners and women (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India
9 motorized micro-
sprayer
motorized micro-sprayer (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India
10 motorcycle-based
tractor
motorcycle-based tractor, use for sowing, plowing, and, with a quick changeover,
for transportation, patented by USPTO, farmers have relied on bullocks to pull
plows, but fodder there has also been scarce, local mechanic created a multi-use
machine out of a motorcycle by developing removable attachments (p. 55-56)
Gupta 2006 India
11 washing machine
operated by foot
pedals
a washing machine operated by the same kind of foot pedals used in a bicycle,
total cost of her machine was under $40 (p. 58)
Gupta 2006 India
12 water level
monitor and
pump switch-off
a system that could monitor the water level, indicate when the water level
dropped beyond permissible limits, and then automatically: to attach a box with a
rope to the pipe that discharges the wastewater switch off the pump, most salt
making families in the area began using it (p. 58-59)
Gupta 2006 India
13 milk as a natural
inhibitor of plant
viruses
farmer’s practice of dipping his hands in milk before sowing tobacco seeds,
mechanism approved by scientists, combination of milk and pesticides more
effective than pesticides alone (p. 59-60)
Gupta 2006 India
14 gas that emanates
from cow urine
cooking with the gas that emanates from cow urine, keeps the tank full to 9 feet,
draining the excess into the garden as fertilizer. The gas that forms from the urine
occupies the top 2 feet of the tank and he pipes it into the kitchen through a
regulated valve mechanism (p. 61)
Gupta 2006 India
15 Farmer-led
documentation
(FLD)
in Bolivia AGRECOL Andes Foundation introduced farmer-led documentation
to rural communities, the documentation process starts at the community level (p.
27)
Rüter &
Piepenstock
2008 Bolivia
16 Alerta leveraged existing telephone lines and internet servers in order to create a shared
information platform, called Alerta. Alerta allows Peruvian health officials and
practitioners to share up-to-the-minute information on health issues, thus
enabling them to respond faster to health emergencies and better serve many
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Peru
41
remote rural communities (p. 440)
17 SMART Money over-the-air payment system for mobile phones, It allows a retailer to load a
customer’s airtime electronically and therefore helps minimise physical product-
distribution costs. Also, product distribution becomes faster, more efficient and
more secure and enables consumers to reload and purchase airtime even in
remote rural areas, Subscribers can then use a SMART Money card like a debit
card to pay for goods and services at a network of retail stores and restaurants, or
to make withdrawals from
ATMs (p. 440-441, 443)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Phillipines
18 G-Cash offers a service which allows customers to send and receive money via a mobile
phone, facilitates money remittances, and many other transactions, with just a
text message or SMS, cost of money transfer decreases substantially and access
to transfer services for remittances is extended to geographically remote areas,
message. Funds can then be deposited and cashed at G-Cash affiliates and GTel
offices throughout the network. Funds transfers (from sender to recipient and
from G-Cash account to payout in cash) are
communicated via text message. A 1% processing fee is charged both to deposit
and to receive funds (p. 441-442)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Phillipines
19 WIZZIT phone banking (or m-banking), enhance access to banking services, An account
offered by WIZZIT costs less than the lowest-cost full-service bank accounts
offered by the Big 4 (p. 441)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 South
Africa
20 WIZZ Kids markets its services through more than 2,000 ‘WIZZ Kids’, who are typically
young individuals from the lower-income population who know the target market
well , educating potential customers about WIZZIT, the WIZZ Kids earn a
commission for each new customer (p.441-442)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 South
Africa
21 market
information
system
market information system (MIS) which harnesses the power of modern ICTs to
empower smallholder farmers to negotiate more efficiently and participate more
successfully in markets, access market information (for example, via mobile
phone and internet) and advertise their stocks for sale or their demands for farm
inputs, such as fertilisers and seeds, using the KACE website’s sell-and-bids
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Kenya
42
function (p. 441)
22 GrameenPhone provides women entrepreneurs in rural villages in Bangladesh with the
opportunity to earn a living from retail access to phone services in the villages
where they live. 2004, 75,000 ‘phone ladies’, each generating average additional
income of some $1,000 per year, were providing phoneservice access to about
half the country’s rural population (p. 442)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Bangladesh
23 Celpay SIM-based mobile phone payment system, Funds are deposited in a Celpay
account, using the cell phone to transfer from a bank account or, if the user is
unbanked, depositing cash at a partner (p. 442)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Multiple
24 NTT-DoCoMo i-
Mode FeliCa
Cell phones with embedded multi-application smart chips, Phones are loaded
with cash deposits at terminals. Phones can be used as pre-paid electronic cash,
credit cards, travel tickets, access control cards, authorisations to access corporate
networks, or entry cards such as for club memberships or loyalty programmes (p.
442)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Japan
25 DrumNet an emerging network of rural farm-business support centres delivering
agricultural extension, credit, and marketing services to smallholder farmers, a
cashless microcredit programme that links commercial banks, smallholder
farmers, and retail providers of farm inputs, and, second, market services offered
through an integrated marketing and payment system with large-scale buyers,
farmers, transporters and field agents, address both credit and market limitations
by integrating the two services in order to augment farm productivity and
improve efficiency in the overall business chain (p. 444)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Kenya
26 e-Choupals internet kiosks, serve both as a social gathering place for exchange of information
and an e-commerce hub, internet-ready computer, typically housed by one
farmer, serves an average of 600 farmers in 10 surrounding villages (p. 444-445)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 India
27 Microsoft
FlexGo
microleasing and pay-as-you-go solutions, prepaid scheme for obtaining a
computer (p. 445)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Brazil
28 Patrimonio Hoy Through a well-planned savings programme Patrimonio Hoy allows lowincome
families to obtain access to services, cement and other building materials on
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Mexico
43
credit , put differently (and perhaps more creatively), the flexible payment
scheme allows them to ‘purchase their house in instalments (p. 445)
29 Bushnet's tiered
pricing approach
For access to its High Speed Data Network Ten By Ten, Bushnet charges those
who can afford it (for example, financial and commercial enterprises) $200 per
month, but non-commercial institutions like schools, clinics and local community
centres only $50 per month (p. 445)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Uganda
30 Coarsucam,
tiered pricing for
anti-malaria pill
Plans are also under way to use tiered pricing in Sanofi-Aventis’ initiative to sell
the branded version of a new, easy-to-take pill to treat malaria, called Coarsucam,
in poor countries. Sanofi announced that it will incentivise pharmacists’
organisations in poor countries to sell Coarsucam at two different prices – less
than $1 to low-income customers and $3 to $4 (p. 445)
to those who can afford it
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Multiple
31 Jijenge savings
account
personalised contractual savings product with an emergency loan facility
attached, Customers in the lower-income market segments define the length of
the contract and the periodicity of the deposits. If taking out longerterm contracts
customers are offered a premium rate, but penalties are imposed for premature
withdrawals from the account, On demand, all Jijenge savings-account holders
can access an emergency loan of 90% of the value saved in their Jijenge savings
account (p. 448)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Kenya
32 BASIX’s
weather-index-
insurance product
index-insurance contracts, like the ones offered by BASIX, are different from
more traditional insurance contracts because they combine a number of useful
features: involves relatively fewer administrative and operational costs (Its
payout is based on rainfall levels), one of the chief benefits from weather index
insurance is that moral hazard problems and instances of claims manipulation are
minimised to the extent that farmers have no control over what triggers the
insurance, one of the chief benefits from weather index insurance is that moral
hazard problems and instances of claims manipulation are minimised to the
extent that farmers have no control over what triggers the insurance (p. 448-449)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 India
33 Global Index
Insurance
Global Index Insurance Facility (GIIF) has been conceptualised bythe World
Bank to help close the gap between the often unmet demand for access to
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Multiple
44
Facility (GIIF) insurance products in developing countries, and global insurance (and
reinsurance) markets, The objective of the GIIF is to jump-start a commercial
market for index-based insurance products in developing countries by ‘crowding
in’ the private sector (p. 449)
34 Mzansi Account offer a basic card-based transactional and savings account, the account is
primarily a collaborative effort, in which the participating banks shared the
marketing costs to develop the brand and establish the standard, clients enjoy the
network of an expanded banking platform at relatively low cost, thus potentially
contributing to the expansion of access to financial services in South Africa (p.
450)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 South
Africa
35 weather index
insurance
weather index insurance for castor and groundnut farmers in India. It was the first
time that an agricultural finance institution passed the systemic risk of its crop
lending portfolio on to the international weather-risk markets, weather-linked
insurance serves as a hedge for BASIX’s portfolio in regions where crop yields –
and hence repayment rates – show a high correlation with rainfall (p. 450-451)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 India
36 Cash Agent
Model
ICICI Bank’s Cash Agent Model was piloted via existing internet kiosks owned
by local entrepreneurs. The kiosks were transformed into cash agents and kiosk
owners became distributors of remittances to the rural public, This leads to lower
production costs than these would otherwise have been if the bank had had to set
up its own infrastructure; and it also taps an existing retail and marketing network
with which the target consumers are already familiar (p. 451)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 India
37 Motofone F3 cell phone that is designed to be affordable and accessible for illiterate people,
and includes long-lasting batteries and durable design (p. 451)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Multiple
38 Smart cards and
digital fingerprint
recognition
technology
a privately held financial fund, deployed new technology-based products and
systems in Bolivia in order to expand its markets and improve its service. Smart
cards and digital fingerprint recognition technology are implemented in all
Prodem FFP branch offices and so-called ‘Smart ATMs’, as well as stand-alone,
voice-driven Smart ATMs in local languages with colour-coded screens (p. 451-
452)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Bolivia
45
39 user-friendly,
low-cost village
ATM
use fingerprint scanning to identify savers, designed to withstand the difficult
conditions – for example, extreme weather conditions and power outages –
encountered in rural areas (p. 452)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 India
40 PuR Purifier of
Water
affordable in-home water purification technology, which produces high-quality
drinking water from otherwise unsafe sources and is easy to use and distribute in
rural areas where access to safe drinking water is often limited (p. 452)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Multiple
41 credit-life
insurance
the outstanding loan balance is written off in the event of the borrower dying,
which results in better risk management for the client’s family, the client’s group,
and ultimately, the MFI itself (p. 452)
Mendoza &
Thelen
2008 Uganda
42 System of raised
grass baskets in
which her hens
lay eggs
system of raised grass baskets in which her hens lay eggs (p. 30) Letty &
Walters-
Bayer
2010 South
Africa
43 effective means
of ensuring that
her goats return
home every
evening
effective means of ensuring that her goats return home every evening (p. 29-30) Letty &
Walters-
Bayer
2010 South
Africa
44 Swayam Krishi
Sangam (SKS)
Microfinance
it stood out in the microfinance industry in India for the scale it had achieved in
providing microcredit to the rural poor suffering from financial exclusion,
converted to a for-profit company in August 2005 (p. 220)
Mohan &
Potnis
2010 India
45 Microlending
(Kiva.org)
peer-to-peer lending portal in 2005 where profiles of microentrepreneurs from
developing countries are posted, Kiva partners with existing MFIs in the
developing world,
who choose qualified borrowers, distribute the loan and collect repayments, loans
as small as 25$ (p. 222)
Mohan &
Potnis
2010 Multiple
46 eco-friendly yarn,
naturally
coloured cotton
A key product sold in this and other nearby tourism locations is locally produced
naturally coloured (and sometimes organic) cotton used in garments, hammocks,
and other textile products. The underlying technology was also locally developed
Hall et al. 2012 Brazil
46
by the nearby Campina Grande research station of the government controlled
Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (p. 799-800)
47 brocade sewing women from impoverished communities are now participating in the value chain
by sewing brocades based on local culture on garments for the tourism market (p.
800)
Hall et al. 2012 Brazil
48 microinsurance general insurance in South India with life and accident elements for about
US$2.50 a year (p. 226)
Kahle et al. 2013 India
49 microinsurance microinsurance for 6.5 million are low-income and excluded, and five million are
women and children (p. 226)
Kahle et al. 2013 Multiple
50 Digital Green produces videos of innovative farmers in India for other farmers to learn from
and improve their farming techniques and productivity (p. 226-227)
Kahle et al. 2013 India
51 Rural internet
kiosks
self-contained, solar-powered terminals with several computers and mobile
phone-charging possibilities. Often they employ local entrepreneurs as
franchisees who manage the kiosk and provide support to users, These kiosks
offer tutorials, education, or transaction possibilities and thus provide
connectivity to remote areas (p.227)
Kahle et al. 2013 India
52 ColaLife social business and non-profit organization that works at the BoP by providing
social products via Coca-Cola’s distribution channels to remote areas (p. 227-
228)
Kahle et al. 2013 Multiple
53 Money Maker
Irrigation Pump
This innovation was designed by the KickStart International non-governmental
organization (NGO), and has been used by some poor Kenyan farmers at a cost
of US$100. This foot-powered pump costs less than a diesel pump and can
irrigate up to two acres of land per day, helped a number of poor farmers to move
from rain-fed agriculture to irrigated farming (p. 8-9)
Papaioannou 2014 Kenya
54 Goat Farmers
Innovation
Platform
Innovation platforms (IPs) represent an example of putting an inclusive
innovation system approach into practice by bringing different types of
stakeholders together to address issues of mutual concern and interest with a
specific focus on the marginalized poor (p. 239)
Swaans et
al.
2014 Multiple
55 Computer-based teach an illiterate individual to read in a fraction of time, only 40 h of training, at Papaioannou 2014 India
47
Functional
Literacy (CBFL)
US$2 per individual (p. 8)
56 Unique
Identification
(UID)
building the world’s biggest and advanced biometric based database of identities
for 1.2 billion people at a remarkable pace (p. 38)
Yadav 2014 India
57 Lake Katwe Salt
Cluster Initiative
formed a local leadership group in the village, find ways to refine the salt Katwe,
representing salt workers, Researchers at Mbarara and Makerere Universities
have conducted research on how to refine the salt to table salt quality (p.432)
Trojer,
Rydhagen &
Kjellqvist
2014 Uganda
58 Zanzibar
Seaweed Cluster
Initiative,
Tanzania
aims both to improve cultivation and increase income through production of
seaweed products locally, Meetings between farmers and buyers of dried
seaweed for export were arranged, which led to constructive dialogue about
pricing and optional market orientations. Cluster activities include research into
novel farming techniques and new species (p. 434)
Trojer,
Rydhagen &
Kjellqvist
2014 Tanzania
59 Basketry Cluster,
Luwero, Uganda
cultural heritage of basketry, training, pattern sharing and establishment of a
venue for joint activities, registration, was initiated in October 2005 in Bombo
and Wobulenzi, Luwero District, and had the following rationale as expressed in
the business plan of the basketry cluster , basketry is mainly done by women and
it is a key catching activity for the disabled, HIV/AIDS victims and youth who
are directly affected by the unemployment waves (p. 433)
Trojer,
Rydhagen &
Kjellqvist
2014 Uganda
60 Katwe Metal
Cluster,
Kampala,
Uganda
cluster firms employ more than 3 000 people and the product range is wide, from
repairs of heavy lorries to security gates and restoration of used refrigerators,
Much of the activities have been informal, but the cluster initiative made many of
the firms realise the benefits of registration, get assistance on how to address the
local government on issues such as power supply, water and sanitation,
Occupational health is one of the most apparent issues (p. 433-434)
Trojer,
Rydhagen &
Kjellqvist
2014 Uganda
61 Mitticool fridge constructed out of clay and working without electricity on the principle of
evaporative cooling, invention was granted Indian patent (p. 282-283)
Fressoli et
al.
2014 India
62 One Million
Cisterns
build simple cement-layered containers that collect rainwater from the roof, with
a capacity of around 16,000 litres, enough to sustain a family’s needs through the
Fressoli et
al.
2014 Brazil
48
Programme
(P1MC)
region’s drought season, self-building aspect of the cisterns is intended to foster
relationship-building in the community (p. 284)
63 vegetable-based
tanning
technology
cleaner vegetable-based techniques for leather processes, developed in the 1950s
by the Central Leather Research Institute, but remained filed on a shelf,
unimplemented in practice (p. 286)
Fressoli et
al.
2014 India
64 Fabra i Coats Fabra i Coats building became a collective site for cultural and social initiatives
emerging in the district, to offer other spaces for the recreation of social-cultural
relationships, because the absence of services for almost two decades prompted a
strong social solidarity and stimulated bottom-up strategies (p. 97)
García,
Eizaguirre
& Pradel
2015 Spain
65 Ateneu Popular 9
Barris
Ateneu Popular 9 Barris created in the old industrial premises, has become a
referential cultural centre for the promotion of arts, especially circus arts (p. 98)
García,
Eizaguirre
& Pradel
2015 Spain
66 M-PESA M-PESA has played in accelerating the development of Kenya’s financial
system, Today, there are more than 26.2 million M-PESA accounts, representing
more than two-thirds of the Kenyan population, The pilot project that eventually
evolved into M-PESA began as a partnership between Safaricom, a local
microfinance institution (MFI), and the Commercial Bank of Africa (p. 2, 7)
Burns 2015 Kenya
67 Phinma
Education
Network (PEN)
comprises four universities' catering primarily to lower-income families outside
National Capital Region, PEN's toughest challenge inmaking tertiary education
accessible to lower-income families is deficiency in secondary school education.
PEN has an open enrolment policy, requiring only a secondary school diploma.
PEN has a student-centered approach to education, the ‘Success Ladder’,
dividing each course into ‘success chunks’, a set of competencies necessary to
progress to the next step (p. 1727-1728)
Herrera 2016 Phillipines
68 Phinma
Properties
first commercial developer to focus on low-priced medium- and high-rise
housing in urban locations (p. 1728)
Herrera 2016 Phillipines
69 mHealth project provides a medical information booking service using SMS, providing navigation
assistance (location of and directions to hospitals) and information on hospitals,
doctors, departments, and medical policies. China Mobile is also developing
Herrera 2016 China
49
several projects offering remote consultation and diagnostic services (p. 1728-
1729)
70 Filip + Inna brand's mission is to revive and preserve ancient traditions by working with
indigenous groups of artisans, providing opportunities for livelihood and
capability enhancement (p. 1729)
Herrera 2016 Phillipines
71 Sulabh
International -
public toilets
successful business model to install toilets after carefully understanding the value
that consumers could attach to the product, creation of a service experience in
public toilets, where also bath, laundry, and accommodation were offered, health
promotion and education activities (p. 493)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
72 Vaatsalya
(Karnatakabased
budget hospital
chain)
gain the trust of its patients by ensuring long-term commitment to the local
community (p. 493-494)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
73 Aravind Eye
Hospital (AEH)
providing finest quality eye care to a maximum number of patients at minimum
cost, AEH overcame these constraints through a well-planned outreach program
that centred on the use of eye camps, organized with the help of local business or
social organizations, bus travel (p. 494)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
74 Tejas XR 6000
X-ray
provide high resolution digital images for superior radiology diagnosis, low-cost,
easy-to-use (p. 495)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
75 Mac 400 ECG
machines
cost less than a fifth of conventional machines available in the market, and
produce ECG reports at less than US$1.00 (p. 495)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
76 care units
(CCUs)
providing low-cost quality cardiac care to all, connected with the main hospital
through video conferencing (p. 495)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
77 Aurolab indigenous production of intraocular lenses (IOLs), brought down the price of the
IOL at nearly US$ 6 per each without any compromise in quality (p. 495)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
78 Vaatsalya's
doctor incentive
leveraging the intrinsic motivation of health professionals, attract doctors who
grew up in rural and semi-urban area but had moved to large towns (p. 496)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
79 Task reallocation a shift of caregiving from higher skilled to lesser skilled professionals, as part of
the necessary transition to enable low-cost business models in health care, create
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
50
an intermediate level of expertise to deal with emergency and nonintervention
heart procedures (p. 496)
80 Large bed
capacity
treat a maximum number of patients, affordability through scale effects (p. 497) Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
81 Deskilling in
surgical process,
assembly line
model
shortage of qualified ophthalmologists, trained support staff and nurses perform
all the activities before and after the operations, 1/1000 of the cost of eye surgery
in UK (p. 497, 501)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
82 Tiered pricing,
cross-
subsidization
philosophy
mix of wealthy and low-income patients, affluent consumers pay relatively
higher price for a product or service compared to their underprivileged
counterpart (p. 497)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
83 Dial 1298 a paramedical service, provides well-equipped fine quality ambulance services in
the city, patients were charged as per their ability to pay (p. 497-498)
Angeli &
Jaiswal
2016 India
84 Group lending BancoSol targeted Bolivia's poor entrepreneurs, providing these clients with
access to the types of lending services typically available only to the wealthy,
continued to focus on group loans (p. 3)
Lal & Lobb 2016 Bolivia
85 nanodrug for
tuberculosis
Researchers in South Africa are therefore working on a way to incorporate
tuberculosis drugs into nano-particles so that they are released slowly into a
patient’s bloodstream, raising the possibility that a regime of daily pills could be
replaced by a single weekly dose (p. 183)
Schroeder et
al.
2016 South
Africa
86 Water Quality
Reporting Tool
A mobile phone application for collecting and sharing water quality information
(p. 9, 12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
87 Low-bandwidth
video solution
Real-time video solutions for lowbandwidth environments, offers a completely
new technology to a previously excluded market. The project’s commercial spin-
off company, uses the platform to new markets and to give smaller content
providers access to these markets (p. 11-12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
88 Waste-based The implementation and testing of a waste-based energy generation system (p. 9) Grobbelaar, 2017 South
51
energy
generation
system
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
Africa
89 IT-based home
care system
A web- and mobile based administration system for home-based care, mobile-
based health treatment adherence project, researchers from the local university
and a European university worked together with staff from a local health centre
to develop the solution (p. 12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
90 Mobile health
risk assessment
app
A mobile phone health risk assessment application, mobile phone application to
test its impact on the training of community health workers and the health
screening process in a low-resource setting, community health workers were
taught how to measure cardiovascular risk using a mobile phone application (p.
11-12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
91 Emergency
Guidelines
Application
A mobile phone application giving healthcare practitioners easy access to South
African emergency guidelines (p. 9, 12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
92 Urban Planning
Project
Urban planning for informal community, including re-blocking, breaking down
and rebuilding shacks, In the urban planning project, community members gained
knowledge about urban planning and building processes, and learned how to
organize and mobilize themselves; direct transfer of knowledge and know-how to
community members, to empower them in their role of codesigner, co-producer
or consumer, helps engage communities in interactive learning trajectories (p. 9,
14)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
93 Multi-purpose
water platform
Multi-purpose water platforms for informal settlements, the multi-purpose water
platforms developed by faculty and students at a university’s department of
architecture. In the Imizamo Yethu community where the platforms were built,
an estimated 9464 households make use of shared toilets and taps, with a service
ratio of 61:1 households per toilet and 394:3 households per tap, aim of the
washing platforms project was to provide more dignified places for water
collection, spaces for the washing of clothes and the integration of these with
shared toilet facilities. The platforms also serve as social gathering spaces and
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
52
clean areas for children to play (p. 11)
94 Fire detector
device
A low cost fire detecting and an early warning system for urban informal
settlements, the very concept of fire detection had to be rethought as available
technologies are very sensitive to smoke, which make them less suitable for a
township environment, offers a completely new technology to a previously
excluded market. The project’s commercial spin-off company, uses the platform
to new markets and to give smaller content providers access to these markets (p.
9, 11-12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
95 Suitable fence A fencing material that is ‘unstealable’ (i.e. cannot be used for fuel, contains no
metal – taken for recycling), cheap and safe, provide a preschool with low-cost
fencing that would not be at risk to be stolen or vandalized, i.e. used as fuel (such
as wood used for heating), had no scrap metal value (such as steel or wire which
could easily be stolen) and the material would not block visibility (which might
hide criminal activity in the area) (p. 10, 12)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
96 Last mile
telephone
connectivity
projects
Solution for last mile telephone connectivity for rural areas in South Africa,
systems for access to power and a backup system were located at the head office
of a partnering NGO, the proposed network will be installed by the locals, after
being trained in basics of wireless networking, VoIP, dimensioning of solar
system, and the billing system as a way to increase local buy-in of the network
(p. 13-14)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
97 Solar based
mobile power
station
A solar-based mobile power station (p. 9) Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
98 Mobile-based
health treatment
app
An automated, mobile phone-based treatment adherence support solution,
software platforms used are open source (i.e. low cost) and widely available, easy
to customize and suitable for use by non-technical staff (p. 9, 13)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
99 Sustainable
housing
An affordable, energy-efficient and owner building-based housing solution (p. 9) Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
53
100 Water purfication
solution
A simple and safe water purification solution, aim of this project was to develop
clay pots that could purify water in a simple and safe way. The technology that
was developed would transform the use of the pots, but their look and feel
(‘architecture’) would remain the same (p. 9, 11)
Grobbelaar,
Tijssen &
Dijksterhuis
2017 South
Africa
101 Mother Earth Mother Earth (ME) arose in 2011 from Industree Crafts, a social enterprise
founded in 1994 to support rural artisans that were considered a sunset sector by
the government, lever urban markets to create demand for Indian rural crafts,
business model is based on a nationally-distributed network of Self-Help Groups
(SHGs), an idea borrowed from Grameen Bank (p. 26)
Pansera &
Owens
2018 India
102 co-location of
manufacturing
and R&D
In North Carolina’s Biotechnology Center, one finds an example of a workforce-
centred institutional ‘policy platform’ – an integrating governance mechanism
that brings together a variety of local institutional actors with the goal of ‘joining-
up’ diverse interests and perspectives, From its inception in 1981, the Biotech
Center has adopted a range of strategies in support of high-paying job growth for
recent university graduates, Equally important, it has helped pull down the
bioscience career ladder so that it now includes ‘rungs’ for those with modest
technical training beyond secondary education, including workers displaced from
North Carolina’s traditional manufacturing industries, textiles, furniture and
tobacco processing (p. 833)
Lowe &
Wolf-
Powers
2018 USA