ENCYCLOPEDIA ofENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Volume EditorsPeter T. Bobrowsky is a Research Scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada (Sidney, BC) and Adjunct Full Professor at Simon Fraser University (Burnaby, BC)and University of Victoria (Victoria, BC). He received his Ph.D. in Geology in 1988 from the University of Alberta, Canada, and formally registered as a professionalgeologist with Engineers and Geoscientists BC in 1992. During his 30-year career, he has worked extensively in engineering geology with a primary emphasis onmineral resource studies (aggregates) and natural hazards (landslides, paleotsunamis). He was the President of the Geological Association of Canada, President of theCanadian Quaternary Association, Secretary General of IUGS, and is currently the President of the International Consortium on Landslides.
Brian Marker received B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Geology from the University of London, UK, in 1968 and 1972, respectively. He became a Chartered Geologist in1992. He worked for over 30 years for the UK Department of the Environment and its successor departments advising on land use planning issues associated withminerals supply, natural hazards, contaminated land, and waste management. Since retirement in 2006, he had been an independent consultant as well as serving as anEditorial Board member of the Bulletin of the IAEG, a Councillor of the Geological Society (London), and, since 2013, as Chairman of the IUGS PublicationsCommittee.
Editorial BoardMartin G. CulshawBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UKUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
Jerome De GraffDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesCollege of Science and MathematicsCalifornia State UniversityFresno, CA, USA
Laurance DonnellyBurnley, UK
Michael HendryDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
Jeffrey R. KeatonAMEC AmericasLos Angeles, CA, USA
Claudio MargottiniItalian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research – ISPRAGeological Survey of ItalyRome, Italy
Paul MarinosGeotechnical DepartmentSchool of Civil EngineeringNational Technical University of AthensAthens, Greece
Victor I. OsipovLaboratory of Soil and Rock Engineering and MechanicsSergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience RASMoscow, Russia
Abdul ShakoorDepartment of GeologyKent State UniversityKent, OH, USA
Roy J. ShlemonNewport Beach, CA, USA
Aims of the SeriesThe Springer Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volumecomprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists.These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that thevolumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachersand students. Most volumes are also available online.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the Executive Directorof the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the past 35 years. He is also the SeriesEditor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU)(Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes theInternational Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning & Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). Hehas published numerous peer-reviewed technical research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified Professional GeologicalScientist (Arvada, Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and a Chartered MarineScientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida International University (Miami),Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port Everglades, Florida), and Full Professor at FAU.During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica; Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacific islands; southernAfrica; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies including the GeologicalSociety of America; Soil Science Society of America; Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists. He is arecipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor (RussianAcademy of Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career, he has worked as a petroleumgeologist in the Middle East and been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, andNew Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofENGINEERING GEOLOGY
edited by
PETER T. BOBROWSKYSidney, BC, Canada
BRIAN MARKERLondon, UK
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018937970
ISBN: 978-3-319-73566-5
This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-319-73568-9 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-319-73567-2Cover photo: Cheia, Prahova county, Romania. The DN1A is an alternative transit road that goes from Ploiesti to Brasov(Transylvania), through the Carpathian Mountain pass Bratocea (at the peak altitude of 1.263 m). The road was built inthe 60's to accommodate heavy transport trucks that are banned from using the main road - DN1 (E87) that goes throughwell-known touristic cities like Sinaia and Predeal. Image shot in July 2016 using a drone. Photo by Călin-Andrei Stan.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced fromother sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.
All rights reserved for the contributions: Cambering; Dissolution; Earthquake Intensity; Earthquake Magnitude;Engineering Geomorphological Mapping; Evaporites; Glacier Environments; Ground Motion Amplification;Mountain Environments; Quick Clay; Voids
# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material isconcerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book arebelieved to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give awarranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may havebeen made.
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This Springer imprint is published by Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature.The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Editorial Board
Peter T. BobrowskyGeological Survey of CanadaNatural Resources CanadaSidney, BC, Canada
Martin G. CulshawBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UKUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
Jerome De GraffDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesCollege of Science and MathematicsCalifornia State UniversityFresno, CA, USA
Laurance DonnellyBurnley, UK
vi EDITORIAL BOARD
Michael HendryDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
Jeffrey R. KeatonAMEC AmericasLos Angeles, CA, USA
Claudio MargottiniItalian Institute for EnvironmentalProtection and Research – ISPRAGeological Survey of ItalyRome, Italy
Brian MarkerLondon, UK
Paul MarinosGeotechnical Department, School of Civil EngineeringNational Technical University of AthensAthens, Greece
Victor I. OsipovLaboratory of Soil and Rock Engineering and MechanicsSergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience RASMoscowRussia
EDITORIAL BOARD vii
Abdul ShakoorDepartment of GeologyKent State UniversityKent, OH, USA
Roy J. ShlemonNewport Beach, CA, USA
Contents
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Preface x
Acknowledgments
AbrasionBrian R. Marker
AccreditationRobert E. Tepel
Acid Mine DrainagePaul L. Younger
Acidity (pH)I. V. Galitskaya
Aeolian ProcessesBrian R. Marker
Aerial PhotographyRichard Guthrie
Aeromagnetic SurveyWendy Zhou
AggregatePeter T. Bobrowsky
Aggregate TestsPeter T. Bobrowsky
Alkali-Silica ReactionBrian R. Marker
AlterationYonathan Admassu
Angle of Internal FrictionJeffrey R. Keaton
Angle of ReposeNian-Sheng Cheng
AquiferMaurizio Guerra
AquitardMaurizio Guerra
Armor StoneJeffrey R. Keaton
ArtesianMaurizio Guerra
Artificial GroundColin N. Waters
Atterberg LimitsAbdul Shakoor
AvalanchePeter T. Bobrowsky
Barton-Bandis CriterionNick Barton
Beach ReplenishmentD. E. Reeve and H. Karunarathna
Bearing CapacityJeffrey R. Keaton
BedrockMihaela Stãnciucu
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Biological WeatheringMaria Heloisa Barros de Oliveira Frascá andEliane Aparecida Del Lama
BlastingGregory L. Hempen
Borehole InvestigationsEduardo Kruse, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari and Sayedeh ZahraHosseini-Teshnizi
BoreholesNoureddine Gaaloul, Saeid Eslamian andKaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari
BouldersPeter T. Bobrowsky
BridgesVasant Matsagar, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Mohammad Raeisi, George Lee,Sona Pazdar and Aida Bagheri-Basmenji
Brownfield SitesBrian R. Marker
Building StoneMaria Heloisa Barros de Oliveira Frascá andCid Chiodi Filho
Bulk ModulusJeffrey R. Keaton
California Bearing RatioJeffrey R. Keaton
CamberingPeter Hobbs and A. J. Mark Barron
Cap RockRosalind Munro
CapillarityMihaela Stãnciucu
Casagrande TestGwyn Lintern
CasingRon C. K. Wong
CatchmentJerome V. De Graff
CementJohn L. Provis
Characterization of SoilsAbdul Shakoor
Chemical WeatheringIsabel M. R. Duarte, Celso S. F. Gomes andAntónio B. Pinho
Chézy FormulaRosalind Munro
Classification of RocksArpita Nandi
Classification of SoilsIsabel M. R. Duarte, Carlos M. G. Rodrigues andAntónio B. Pinho
ClayArpita Nandi
Climate ChangePaola Mercogliano, Edoardo Bucchignani,Alfredo Reder and Guido Rianna
CoalLaurance Donnelly
Coast DefensesH. Karunarathna and D. E. Reeve
Coastal EnvironmentsEnzo Pranzini and Allan Williams
Coefficient of UniformityJeffrey R. Keaton
CofferdamQin Qian, Saeid Eslamian, Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari,Maryam Marani-Barzani, Farnaz Rafat andAli Hasantabar-Amiri
Cohesive SoilsTej P. Gautam
Collapsible SoilsMartin Culshaw and I. Jefferson
CompactionAbdul Shakoor
CompressionJoseph B. Adeyeri
ConcreteRosalind Munro
ConductivityMichael de Freitas
Cone PenetrometerWendy Zhou
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CONTENTS xi
ConsolidationRenato Macciotta
ContaminationI. V. Galitskaya
Cross SectionsMichael de Freitas
Crushed RockBrian R. Marker
Current ActionJeffrey R. Keaton
Cut and CoverZeynal Abiddin Erguler
Cut and FillHisashi Nirei and Muneki Mitamura
DamsWilliam H. Godwin and William F. Cole
Darcy’s LawRenato Macciotta
DatabasesDavid Christopher Entwisle
DeformationAndrea Manconi
DensityD. Jean Hutchinson
Desert EnvironmentsMartin Stokes
DesiccationJayantha Kodikara
Designing Site InvestigationsWilliam H. Godwin
Deviatoric StressJeffrey R. Keaton
DewateringMartin Preene
DiagenesisDavid J. Burdige
DilatancyJeffrey R. Keaton
DispersivityJeffrey R. Keaton
DissolutionMartin Culshaw and Anthony H. Cooper
DrillingZeynal Abiddin Erguler
Drilling HazardsAndrew J. Stumpf
DurabilityAntónio B. Pinho and Pedro Santarém Andrade
Dynamic Compaction/CompressionFook-Hou Lee
EarthquakeShengwen Qi
Earthquake IntensityJohn F. Cassidy and Maurice Lamontagne
Earthquake MagnitudeJohn F. Cassidy
Effective StressMichael T. Hendry
ElasticityMichael T. Hendry
Engineering Geological MapsMartin Culshaw
Engineering GeologyJerome V. De Graff
Engineering Geomorphological MappingBrendan Miller, Deepa Filatow, Anja Dufresne,Marten Geertsema and Meaghan Dinney
Engineering GeomorphologyJan Klimes and Jan Blahut
Engineering PropertiesRosalind Munro
Environmental AssessmentJerome V. De Graff
EnvironmentsBrian R. Marker
Equipotential LinesMichael de Freitas
ErosionRoland H. Brady III
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xii CONTENTS
EthicsSilvia Peppoloni and Giuseppe Di Capua
EvaporitesAnthony H. Cooper
ExcavationJeffrey R. Keaton
Expansive SoilsLee Jones
Exposure LoggingJames P. McCalpin
ExtensometerJan Klimes
FaciesBrian R. Marker
Factor of SafetyRenato Macciotta
Failure CriteriaSina Javankhoshdel and Brigid Cami
FaultsLaurance Donnelly
Field TestingZeynal Abiddin Erguler
FiltrationGiovanni B. Crosta
FloodsFabio Luino
Fluid WithdrawalGiuseppe Gambolati
FluidizationOsamu Kazaoka and Hisashi Nirei
Fluvial EnvironmentsJames E. Evans
FoundationsAlessandro Flora, Renato Lancellotta andCarlo Viggiani
GabionsRosalind Munro
GasesBrian R. Marker
GeochemistryI. V. Galitskaya and E. P. Yanin
GeohazardsMartin Culshaw
Geological StructuresRafi Ahmad
GeologyBrian R. Marker
Geophysical MethodsGeorge W. Tuckwell
GeopolymersBrant Walkley
Geostatic StressRosalind Munro
Geotechnical EngineeringMichael T. Hendry
GeotextilesSaeid Eslamian, Majedeh Sayahi, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Sayedeh Zahra Hosseini-Teshnizi,Sayed Alireza Zareei and Niloofar Salemi
Geothermal EnergyValentina Svalova
GISMarko Komac
Glacier EnvironmentsB. Menounos, Alexandre Bevington andMarten Geertsema
Gradation/GradingJeffrey R. Keaton
Ground AnchorsAlberto Ortigao
Ground Motion AmplificationDavid A. Gunn
Ground PreparationJeffrey R. Keaton
Ground PressureRobert (H. R. G. K.) Hack
Ground ShakingGiuliano F. Panza and Concettina Nunziata
GroundwaterCarlo Percopo and Maurizio Guerra
Groundwater ReboundGiovanni B. Crosta and Mattia De Caro
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CONTENTS xiii
GroutingKerry Cato
HazardRichard Guthrie
Hazard AssessmentClaudio Margottini and Scira Menoni
Hazard MappingRosalind Munro
Hoek-Brown CriterionWendy Zhou
Hooke’s LawJeffrey R. Keaton
Hydraulic ActionJeffrey R. Keaton
Hydraulic FracturingErik Eberhardt and Afshin Amini
HydrocompactionRosalind Munro
HydrogeologyCarlo Percopo and Maurizio Guerra
HydrologyArpita Nandi
Hydrothermal AlterationZeynal Abiddin Erguler
International Association of Engineering Geologyand the Environment (IAEG)
Scott Burns
Igneous RocksMaria Heloisa Barros de Oliveira Frascá andEliane Aparecida Del Lama
InclinometerGiorgio Lollino, Paolo Allasia and Daniele Giordan
Induced SeismicityErik Eberhardt and Afshin Amini
InfiltrationEmna Gargouri-Ellouze, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Rim Chérif, Maroua Bouteffehaand Fairouz Slama
InfrastructureBrian R. Marker
InSARMarko Komac
InstrumentationDavid E. Y. Elwood
International Association of Hydrogeologists(IAH)
John Chilton
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)Luís Lamas
International Society for Soil Mechanics andGeotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)
Rosalind Munro
Jacking TestRosalind Munro
KarstTony Waltham
Lacustrine DepositsG. Vessia and D. Di Curzio
Land UseJerome V. De Graff
LandfillBrian R. Marker
LandformsFrancisco Gutiérrez and Mauro Soldati
LandslideReginald L. Hermanns
Laplace EquationJeffrey R. Keaton
Laser ScanningHeinz Rüther
Lateral PressureJeffrey R. Keaton
LeveesJ. David Rogers
LidarWilliam C. Haneberg
LimestoneBrian R. Marker
LinersDavid Korte
LiquefactionThomas Oommen
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xiv CONTENTS
Liquid LimitJeffrey R. Keaton
LoessMihaela Stãnciucu
Manning FormulaJeffrey R. Keaton
Marine EnvironmentsBrian R. Marker
Mass MovementJames S. Griffiths
Mechanical PropertiesRobert (H. R. G. K.) Hack
Metamorphic RocksEliane Aparecida Del Lama and Maria HeloisaBarros de Oliveira Frascá
Mine ClosureJerome V. De Graff
MineralizationDavid H. Huntley
MiningLaurance Donnelly
Mining HazardsLaurance Donnelly
ModellingJosé Antonio Fernández-Merodo
Modulus of DeformationJeffrey R. Keaton
Modulus of ElasticityJeffrey R. Keaton
Mohr CircleJeffrey R. Keaton
Mohr-Coulomb Failure EnvelopeRobert (H. R. G. K.) Hack
MonitoringAndrea Manconi
Mountain EnvironmentsAlexandre Bevington, Marc-André Brideau andMarten Geertsema
Nearshore StructuresSusan Gourvenec
Noncohesive SoilsJeffrey R. Keaton
Normal StressJeffrey R. Keaton
Organic Soils and PeatsSina Kazemian
PeelsHisashi Nirei and Osamu Kazaoka
PercolationSaeide Parvizi, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Alireza Yazdani andVijay P. Singh
PermafrostWendy Zhou
Petrographic AnalysisMaria Heloisa Barros de Oliveira Frascá
PhotogrammetryK. S. Sajinkumar and Thomas Oommen
Physical WeatheringAntónio B. Pinho, Pedro Santarém Andrade andIsabel M. R. Duarte
PiezometerMichael de Freitas
Pipes/PipelinesRichard Guthrie
Plastic LimitJeffrey R. Keaton
Plasticity IndexJeffrey R. Keaton
Poisson’s RatioJeffrey R. Keaton
PollutionBrian R. Marker
Pore PressureMichael T. Hendry
PressureJeffrey R. Keaton
Probabilistic Hazard AssessmentRosalind Munro
ProbabilityRosalind Munro
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CONTENTS xv
Professional PracticeRuth Allington
Quick ClayMarten Geertsema
QuicksandGwyn Lintern
Reduced StressJeffrey R. Keaton
Remote SensingJanusz Wasowski, Daniele Giordan andVern Singhroy
ReservoirsSaeid Eslamian, Ali Reza Gohari,Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari and Negin Sadeghi
Residual SoilsIsabel M. R. Duarte and Carlos M. G. Rodrigues
RestorationJerome V. De Graff
Retaining StructuresRosalind Munro
Risk AssessmentRüdiger Escobar-Wolf, El Hachemi Boualiand Thomas Oommen
Risk MappingCees J. Van Westen
Rock BoltsAlberto Ortigao
Rock CoastsAllan Williams and Enzo Pranzini
Rock Field TestsYonathan Admassu
Rock Laboratory TestsTatiana Rotonda and Paolo Tommasi
Rock Mass ClassificationWilliam H. Godwin
Rock MechanicsD. Jean Hutchinson and Mark Diederichs
Rock PropertiesAbdul Shakoor
Run-OffJeffrey R. Keaton
SabkhaMatthew McMackin and William H. Godwin
Saline SoilsFrank Eckardt
SandGwyn Lintern
SaturationSaeid Eslamian, Majedeh Sayahi, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Shamsa Basirat, Mohsen Ghaneand Mohammed Matouq
Sea LevelMax Barton
Sedimentary RocksPaulo César Boggiani
SedimentsNicolas R. Dalezios, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, Shahab Rabbani andAli Saeidi-Rizi
Sequence StratigraphyDavid H. Huntley
ShaleZeynal Abiddin Erguler
Shear ModulusJeffrey R. Keaton
Shear StrengthMichael T. Hendry
Shear StressRenato Macciotta
Shear ZoneRenato Macciotta
ShotcreteJeffrey R. Keaton
SiltGwyn Lintern
SinkholesVictor P. Khomenko and Vladimir V. Tolmachev
Site InvestigationJerome V. De Graff
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Slurry TrenchYu-Chao Li and Peter John Cleall
Soil Field TestsJerome V. De Graff
Soil Laboratory TestsBinod Tiwari and Beena Ajmera
Soil MechanicsJeffrey R. Keaton
Soil NailsJeffrey R. Keaton
Soil PropertiesJerome V. De Graff
StabilizationJeffrey R. Keaton
StrainJeffrey R. Keaton
StrengthRenato Macciotta
StressJeffrey R. Keaton
SubsidenceMilan Lazecky, Eva Jirankova and Pavel Kadlecik
Subsurface ExplorationPaula F. da Silva
Surface RuptureJames P. McCalpin
SurveyingThomas Oommen
TailingsJerome V. De Graff
Tension CracksMichael de Freitas
ThermistorXiaoqiu Yang and Weiren Lin
ThermocoupleJan Vlcko
TiltmeterDaniele Spizzichino
Tropical EnvironmentsRafi Ahmad
TsunamisKazuhisa Goto
TunnelsWilliam H. Godwin and Richard Escandon
Vegetation CoverJerome V. De Graff
Velocity RatioAleksandr Zhigalin
VibrationsAleksandr Zhigalin
ViscosityRobert (H. R. G. K.) Hack
VoidsAnthony H. Cooper
Volcanic EnvironmentsDavid K. Chester and Angus M. Duncan
Waste ManagementBrian R. Marker
WaterSaeid Eslamian, Saeide Parvizi, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari and Hossein Talebmorad
Water TestingAndrew J. Stumpf
WellsGiovanni Barrocu, Saeid Eslamian, KavehOstad-Ali-Askari and Vijay P. Singh
Young’s ModulusJeffrey R. Keaton
Zone of InfluencePavel Kuklik
Author Index
Subject Index
Contributors
Joseph B. AdeyeriFaculty of Engineering, Department of Civil EngineeringFederal University Oye-Ekiti, Ikole CampusOye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
Yonathan AdmassuGeology and Environmental ScienceJames Madison UniversityHarrisonburg, VA, USA
Rafi AhmadMona GeoInformatics InstituteUniversity of the West IndiesKingston, JamaicaandDepartment of GeographyJamia Millia University (A Central University)New Delhi, India
Beena AjmeraCalifornia State UniversityFullerton, CA, USA
Paolo AllasiaResearch Institute for Hydrogeological Prevention andProtectionTorino, Italy
Ruth AllingtonGWP Consultants LLPCharlbury, Oxfordshire, UK
Afshin AminiGeological Engineering, Department of EarthOcean and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, BC, Canada
Pedro Santarém AndradeGeosciences Centre (UID/Multi/00073/2013),Department of Earth SciencesUniversity of CoimbraCoimbra, Portugal
Aida Bagheri-BasmenjiDepartment of Water Resources EngineeringTabriz UniversityTabriz, Iran
Giovanni BarrocuDepartment of Civil Engineering, EnvironmentalEngineering and Architecture, Faculty of EngineeringUniversity of CagliariCagliari, Italy
A. J. Mark BarronBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UK
Max BartonFaculty of Engineering and The EnvironmentUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
Nick BartonNick Barton & AssociatesOslo, Norway
Shamsa BasiratDepartment of Civil Engineering, Najafabad BranchIslamic Azad UniversityNajafabad, Iran
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Alexandre BevingtonNatural Resources and Environmental Studies Institute andGeography ProgramUniversity of Northern British ColumbiaPrince George, BC, CanadaandMinistry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resources Operationsand Rural DevelopmentPrince George, BC, Canada
Jan BlahutInstitute of Rock Structure and MechanicsCzech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czech Republic
Peter T. BobrowskyNatural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of CanadaSidney, BC, Canada
Paulo César BoggianiDepartment of Sedimentary and EnvironmentalGeology, Instituto de GeociênciasUniversidade de São PauloSão Paulo, SP, Brasil
El Hachemi BoualiDepartment of Geological and Mining Engineering andSciencesMichigan Technological UniversityHoughton, MI, USA
Maroua BouteffehaUniversity of Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationaled’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR99ES19 Laboratoire deModélisation en Hydraulique et EnvironnementTunis, Tunesia
Roland H. Brady IIIBrady and Associates Geological ServicesSacramento, CA, USA
Marc-André BrideauDepartment of Earth SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnaby, BC, Canada
Edoardo BucchignaniCMCC Centro Mediterraneo per i Cambiamenti ClimaticiCapua, ItalyandCIRA Centro Italiano Ricerche AerospazialiCapua, Italy
David J. BurdigeDepartment of Ocean, Earth and Atmospheric SciencesOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, VA, USA
Scott BurnsDepartment of GeologyPortland State UniversityPortland, OR, USA
Brigid CamiRocscience IncToronto, ON, Canada
John F. CassidyGeological Survey of CanadaNatural Resources CanadaSidney, BC, Canada
Kerry CatoDepartment of Geological SciencesCalifornia State University San BernardinoSan Bernardino, CA, USA
Nian-Sheng ChengSchool of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore, Singapore
Rim ChérifUniversity of Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationaled’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR99ES19 Laboratoire deModélisation en Hydraulique et EnvironnementTunis, Tunesia
David K. ChesterDepartment of Geography and Environmental ScienceLiverpool Hope UniversityLiverpool, UK
John ChiltonInternational Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH)Reading, UK
Cid Chiodi FilhoKistemann and Chiodi – Consultancy and ProjectsBelo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
Peter John CleallSchool of EngineeringCardiff UniversityCardiff, UK
William F. ColeGeoinsite Inc.Los Gatos, CA, USA
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Anthony H. CooperBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham, UK
Giovanni B. CrostaDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversità degli Studi di Milano BicoccaMilano, Italy
Martin CulshawBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UKandUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
Paula F. da SilvaGeoBioTec (UID/GEO/04035/2013) and Department ofEarth SciencesFaculty of Sciences and Technology, University NOVA ofLisbonCaparica, Portugal
Nicolas R. DaleziosDepartment of Civil EngineeringUniversity of ThessalyVolos, Greece
Mattia De CaroDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversità degli Studi di Milano-BicoccaMilano, Italy
Michael de FreitasImperial College LondonLondon, UKandReader Emeritus in Engineering GeologyFirst Steps Ltd.London, UK
Jerome V. De GraffCollege of Science and Mathematics, Department of Earthand Environmental SciencesCalifornia State UniversityFresno, CA, USA
Maria Heloisa Barros de Oliveira FrascáMHB Geological ServicesSão Paulo, SP, Brazil
Eliane Aparecida Del LamaInstitute of GeosciencesUniversity of São PauloSão Paulo, SP, Brazil
Giuseppe Di CapuaIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRome, ItalyandInternational Association for Promoting Geoethics – IAPGRome, Italy
D. Di CurzioEngineering and Geology Department (InGeo)University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-PescaraChieti Scalo/Chieti, Italy
Mark DiederichsDepartment of Geological Sciences and GeologicalEngineeringQueen’s UniversityKingston, ON, Canada
Meaghan DinneyDepartment of GeographySimon Fraser UniversityBumaby, BC, Canada
Laurance DonnellyManchester, UK
Isabel M. R. DuarteGeoBioTec Research Centre(UID/GEO/04035/2013), Department of GeosciencesSchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Anja DufresneEngineering Geology and HydrogeologyRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany
Angus M. DuncanDepartment of Geography and PlanningUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool, UK
Erik EberhardtGeological Engineering, Department of Earth, Ocean andAtmospheric SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, BC, Canada
Frank EckardtUniversity of Cape TownCape Town, South Africa
David E. Y. ElwoodUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoon, SK, Canada
xx CONTRIBUTORS
David Christopher EntwisleBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UK
Zeynal Abiddin ErgulerDepartment of Geological EngineeringDumlupinar UniversityKütahya, Turkey
Richard EscandonKleinfelderRiverside, CA, USA
Rüdiger Escobar-WolfDepartment of Geological and Mining Engineering andSciencesMichigan Technological UniversityHoughton, MI, USA
Saeid EslamianDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
James E. EvansDepartment of GeologyBowling Green State UniversityBowling Green, OH, USA
José Antonio Fernández-MerodoGeological Survey of Spain (IGME)Madrid, Spain
Deepa FilatowKnowledge Management BranchMinistry of EnvironmentKelowna, BC, Canada
Alessandro FloraUniversity of Napoli Federico IINapoli, Italy
Noureddine GaaloulWater Resource ManagementINRGREFAriana, Tunisia
I. V. GalitskayaSergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience RussianAcademy of Sciences (IEG RAS)Moscow, Russia
Giuseppe GambolatiDepartment of Civil, Architectural and EnvironmentalEngineeringUniversity of PadovaPadova, Italy
Emna Gargouri-EllouzeUniversity of Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationaled’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR99ES19 Laboratoire deModélisation en Hydraulique et EnvironnementTunis, Tunesia
Tej P. GautamDepartment of Petroleum Engineering and GeologyMarietta CollegeMarietta, OH, USA
Marten GeertsemaMinistry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resources Operationsand Rural DevelopmentPrince George, BC, Canada
Mohsen GhaneDepartment of Civil Engineering, South Tehran BranchIslamic Azad UniversityTehran, Iran
Daniele GiordanResearch Institute for Hydrogeological Prevention andProtectionTorino, ItalyandCNR-IRPITorino, Italy
William H. GodwinCarmel, CA, USA
Ali Reza GohariDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
Celso S. F. GomesGeoBioTec Research Centre (UID/GEO/04035/2013),Department of GeosciencesUniversity of AveiroAveiro, Portugal
Kazuhisa GotoInternational Research Institute of Disaster ScienceTohoku UniversityTohoku, Japan
Susan GourvenecFaculty of Engineering and the EnvironmentUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
James S. GriffithsSoGEES University of PlymouthPlymouth, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Maurizio GuerraDepartment Geological Survey of ItalyISPRA, Italian National Institute for EnvironmentalProtection and ResearchRome, Italy
David A. GunnBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, UK
Richard GuthrieGeohazards and GeomorphologyStantecCalgary, AB, Canada
Francisco GutiérrezDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversidad de ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain
Robert (H. R. G. K.) HackEngineering Geology, ESA, Faculty of Geo-InformationScience and Earth Observation (ITC)University of TwenteEnschede, The Netherlands
William C. HanebergKentucky Geological SurveyUniversity of KentuckyLexington, KY, USA
Ali Hasantabar-AmiriDepartment of Civil Engineering, Lenjan BranchIslamic Azad UniversityIsfahan, Iran
Gregory L. HempenEcoBlast, LCSt. Louis, MO, USA
Michael T. HendryDepartment Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
Reginald L. HermannsGeohazard and Earth Observation teamGeological Survey of Norway, NGUTrondheim, NorwayandDepartment of Geology and Mineral ResourcesEngineeringNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheim, Norway
Peter HobbsBritish Geological SurveyNottingham, UK
Sayedeh Zahra Hosseini-TeshniziDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
David H. HuntleyGeological Survey of CanadaVancouver, BC, Canada
D. Jean HutchinsonDepartment of Geological Sciences and GeologicalEngineeringQueen’s UniversityKingston, ON, Canada
Sina JavankhoshdelRocscience IncToronto, ON, Canada
I. JeffersonUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
Eva JirankovaInstitute of Geodesy and Mine SurveyingVSB-Technical University of OstravaOstrava, Czech Republic
Lee JonesBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, Notts, UK
Pavel KadlecikInstitute of Rock Structure and MechanicsAcademy of Sciences of the Czech RepublicPrague, Czech RepublicandFaculty of ScienceCharles University in PraguePrague, Czech Republic
H. KarunarathnaUniversity of SwanseaSwansea, UK
Osamu KazaokaResearch Institute of Environmental GeologyChiba City, Japan
Sina KazemianDepartment of Civil EngineeringPayame Noor UniversityTehran, Iran
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Jeffrey R. KeatonAmec Foster WheelerLos Angeles, CA, USA
Victor P. KhomenkoNational Research Moscow State University of CivilEngineeringMoscow, Russia
Jan KlimešInstitute of Rock Structure and MechanicsCzech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czech Republic
Jayantha KodikaraDepartment of Civil EngineeringMonash UniversityClayton, VIC, Australia
Marko KomacResearch Institute for Geo and Hydro Hazards - RIGHTUniversity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Civil and GeodeticEngineeringLjubljana, Slovenia
David KorteDepartment of GeologyKent State UniversityKent, OH, USA
Eduardo KruseNational Research Council La Plata National UniversityArgentinaLa Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Pavel KuklikDepartment of Mechanics, Faculty of Civil EngineeringCTU in PraguePrague, Czech Republic
Luís LamasInternational Society for Rock MechanicsLisboa, Portugal
Maurice LamontagneGeological Survey of CanadaNatural Resources CanadaOttawa, ON, Canada
Renato LancellottaDepartment of Structural, Geotechnical and BuildingEngineeringPolitecnico di TorinoTorino, Italy
Milan LazeckyIT4InnovationsVSB-Technical University of OstravaOstrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Fook-Hou LeeNational University of SingaporeSingapore, Singapore
George LeeInstitute of Bridge EngineeringUniversity at BuffaloNew York, NY, USA
Yu-Chao LiCollege of Civil Engineering and ArchitectureZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Weiren LinGraduate School of EngineeringKyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
Gwyn LinternGeological Survey of CanadaSidney, BC, Canada
Giorgio LollinoCNR – IRPITorino, Italy
Fabio LuinoCNR IRPI (National Research Council, Institute forGeo-Hydrological Protection and Prevention)Turin, Italy
Renato MacciottaSchool of Engineering Safety and Risk ManagementDepartment Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada
Andrea ManconiDepartment of Earth SciencesSwiss Federal Institute of TechnologyZurich, Switzerland
Maryam Marani-BarzaniDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Malaya (UM)Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Claudio MargottiniGeological Survey of ItalyItalian Institute for Environmental Research andProtection – ISPRARome, Italy
Brian R. MarkerLondon, UK
Mohammed MatouqChemical Engineering Department, Faculty ofEngineering TechnologyAl-Balqa Applied UniversitySalt, Amman, Jordan
Vasant MatsagarDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology (IIT) DelhiNew Delhi, India
James P. McCalpinGEO-HAZ ConsultingCrestone, CO, USA
Matthew McMackinGardnerville, NV, USA
Scira MenoniDepartment of Architecture and Urban StudiesPolitecnico di MilanoMilano, Italy
B. MenounosNatural Resources and Environmental Studies Institute andGeography ProgramUniversity of Northern British ColumbiaPrince George, BC, Canada
Paola MercoglianoCMCC Centro Mediterraneo per i Cambiamenti ClimaticiCapua, ItalyandCIRA Centro Italiano Ricerche AerospazialiCapua, Italy
Brendan MillerMinistry of Forests, Lands, and Natural ResourceOperationsPrince George, BC, Canada
Muneki MitamuraGeosciences, ScienceOsaka City UniversityOsaka, Japan
Rosalind MunroAmec Foster WheelerLos Angeles, CA, USA
Arpita NandiDepartment of GeosciencesEast Tennessee State UniversityJohnson City, TN, USA
Hisashi NireiNPO Geopollution Control Agency, JapanChiba City, JapanandMedical Geology Research Institute (MGRI)Motoyahagi, Katori City, Japan
Concettina NunziataDipartimento di Scienze della Terra, dell’Ambiente edelle RisorseUniversitá di Napoli Federico IINapoli, Italy
Thomas OommenDepartment of Geological and Mining Engineering andSciencesMichigan Technological UniversityHoughton, MI, USA
Alberto OrtigaoTerratekRio de Janeiro, Brazil
Kaveh Ostad-Ali-AskariDepartment of Civil Engineering, Isfahan (Khorasgan)BranchIslamic Azad UniversityIsfahan, Iran
Giuliano F. PanzaInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationBeijing, ChinaandInternational Seismic Safety Organization (ISSO)Rome, ItalyandAccademia Nazionale dei LinceiRome, ItalyandAccademia Nazionale delle Scienze detta deiXL, Rome, Italy
Saeide ParviziDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Sona PazdarCivil Engineering DepartmentAghigh UniversityShahinshahr/Isfahan, Iran
Silvia PeppoloniIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRome, ItalyandInternational Association for Promoting Geoethics – IAPGRome, Italy
Carlo PercopoMinistry of the Environment and the Protection of Landand SeaRome, Italy
António B. PinhoGeoBioTec Research Centre (UID/GEO/04035/2013),Department of Geosciences, School of Sciences andTechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Enzo PranziniDepartment of Earth ScienceUniversity of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
Martin PreenePreene Groundwater ConsultingWakefield, UK
John L. ProvisDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of SheffieldSheffield, UK
Shengwen QiKey Laboratory of Shale Gas and Geoengineering,Institute of Geology and GeophysicsChinese University of GeosciencesBeijing, China
Qin QianCivil and Environmental EngineeringLamar University, Texas State University SystemBeaumont, TX, USA
Shahab RabbaniDepartment of Civil EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
Mohammad RaeisiDepartment of Civil Engineering, Khomeinishahr BranchIslamic Azad UniversityKhomeinishahr/Isfahan, Iran
Farnaz RafatDepartment of Civil Engineering, Khomeinishahr BranchIslamic Azad UniversityIsfahan, Iran
Alfredo RederCMCC Centro Mediterraneo per i Cambiamenti ClimaticiCapua, Italy
D. E. ReeveUniversity of SwanseaSwansea, UK
Guido RiannaCMCC Centro Mediterraneo per i Cambiamenti ClimaticiCapua, Italy
Carlos M. G. RodriguesCONSTRUCT Institute of R&D in Structures andConstruction (UP), School of Technology andManagementPolytechnic Institute of Guarda (IPG)Guarda, Portugal
J. David RogersDepartment of Geosciences and Geological and PetroleumEngineeringMissouri University of Science and TechnologyRolla, MO, USA
Tatiana RotondaDepartment of Structural and Geotechnical EngineeringSapienza Università di RomaRome, Italy
Heinz RütherZamani Research GroupUniversity of Cape TownCape Town, South Africa
Negin SadeghiUrban Engineering Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan)BranchIslamic Azad UniversityIsfahan, Iran
Ali Saeidi-RiziDepartment of Civil EngineeringShahid Bahonar University of KermanKerman, Iran
K. S. SajinkumarDepartment of GeologyUniversity of KeralaThiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Niloofar SalemiCivil Engineering DepartmentIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
Majedeh SayahiDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
Abdul ShakoorDepartment of GeologyKent State UniversityKent, OH, USA
Vijay P. SinghDepartment of Biological and Agricultural Engineeringand Zachry Department of Civil EngineeringTexas A & M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA
Vern SinghroyNatural Resources CanadaCanada Centre for Remote SensingOttawa, ON, Canada
Fairouz SlamaUniversity of Tunis El Manar, Ecole Nationaled’Ingénieurs de Tunis, LR99ES19 Laboratoire deModélisation en Hydraulique et EnvironnementTunis, Tunesia
Mauro SoldatiDepartment of Chemical and Geological SciencesUniversity of Modena and Reggio EmiliaModena, Italy
Daniele SpizzichinoDepartment of Geological Survey of ItalyISPRARome, Italy
Mihaela StãnciucuDepartment of Engineering Geology, Faculty of Geologyand GeophysicsUniversity of BucharestBucharest, Romania
Martin StokesSchool of Geography, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of PlymouthPlymouth, Devon, UK
Andrew J. StumpfIllinois State Geological Survey, Prairie Research InstituteUniversity of Illinois Urbana-ChampaignChampaign, IL, USA
Valentina SvalovaSergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience RussianAcademy of Sciences (IEG RAS)Moscow, Russia
Hossein TalebmoradDepartment of Water EngineeringIsfahan University of TechnologyIsfahan, Iran
Robert E. TepelSan Jose, CA, USA
Binod TiwariCalifornia State UniversityFullerton, CA, USA
Vladimir V. TolmachevNizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture andCivil EngineeringNizhny Novgorod, Russia
Paolo TommasiInstitute for Environmental Geology and Geo-EngineeringNational Research CouncilRome, Italy
George W. TuckwellRSKHemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UKandDepartment of Civil EngineeringUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
Cees J. Van WestenFaculty of Geo-Information Science and EarthObservation (ITC)University of TwenteEnschede, The Netherlands
G. VessiaEngineering and Geology Department (InGeo)University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-PescaraChieti Scalo/Chieti, Italy
Carlo ViggianiUniversity of Napoli Federico IINapoli, Italy
Jan VlckoComenius UniversityBratislava, Slovakia
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Brant WalkleyDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringThe University of SheffieldSheffield, UK
Tony WalthamNottingham, UK
Janusz WasowskiCNR-IRPI (National Research Council – Institute forGeohydrological Protection)Bari, Italy
Colin N. WatersSchool of Geography, Geology and the EnvironmentUniversity of LeicesterLeicester, UK
Allan WilliamsFaculty of Architecture, Computing and EngineeringUniversity of WalesSwansea, Wales, UKandCICA NOVANova Universidad de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
Ron C. K. WongUniversity of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada
Xiaoqiu YangCAS Key Laboratory of Ocean and Marginal SeaGeologySouth China Sea Institute of OceanologyGuangzhou, ChinaandGraduate School of EngineeringKyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
E. P. YaninVernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and AnalyticalChemistry of the RAS (GEOKHI RAS)Moscow, Russia
Alireza YazdaniCivil Engineering Department, Najafabad BranchIslamic Azad UniversityNajafabad, Iran
Paul L. YoungerSchool of EngineeringUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
Sayed Alireza ZareeiDepartment of Civil Engineering, Isfahan (Khorasgan)BranchIslamic Azad UniversityIsfahan, Iran
Aleksandr ZhigalinThe Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth of theRussian Academy of Sciences (IPE RAS)Moscow, Russia
Wendy ZhouDepartment of Geology and Geological EngineeringColorado School of MinesGolden, CO, USA
Preface
Engineering geology provides a vital link between the formal definitions and descriptions in the format of the
established, traditional, and relevant disciplines that linkits identity and name; that is, “engineering” and “geology.”More recently, a variety of other fields of study are viewedas synonymous with engineering geology including butnot limited to geotechnics, geological engineering, envi-ronmental engineering, environmental geology, appliedgeology, and so on. Although generally related, each ofthese “labels” do indeed represent different aspects ofspecialization that reflect their own sets of objectives,skills, and approaches, as adopted by the respective prac-titioners, in their goals of understanding and managing thecomplex relationship between geosciences, engineering,and society. In contrast, the practitioners of engineeringgeology rely fundamentally on the basic principles andtenets of geosciences. Secondly, they extract, compile,and assess critical knowledge and information about theEarth’s properties and the behavior of nature. Next, theyanalyze the available evidence and then translate the resultsinto a practical format used by others such as civil, struc-tural, mining, construction, geotechnical, and environmen-tal engineers, who are pursuing answers to their own ques-tions and obligations.Engineering geology deals with a broad but uniquespectrum of topics: environments of deposition; types,compositions, and relevant physical and chemical proper-ties of rocks and soils; the behavior of materials underchanging climatic conditions; the influence of naturalhazards on the natural and built environment; performancemodeling; etc., on land and in the water, are a few of themany aspects that characterize the scope of the practice ofengineering geology.
Although a long-standing discipline, engineering geo-logy is currently experiencing a surge and peak in visibi-lity, utility, relevance, and appreciation. A great manystudents are now pursuing this exciting field of study asboth employment and research prospects for specialistsgrow considerably. In response to this positive trend, theneed and critical timing for providing a compendium of
Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology was obvious.The aim of this volume is to provide technical definiti-
ons of the most basic and common terms, principles, phra-ses, concepts, and issues influencing the field of enginee-ring geology. This treatise defines and provides a readysource of explanation of those primary topics that enginee-ring geologists often cross in their daily lives. This volumedoes not replace the technical rigidity and knowledgeprovided by a great many essential and useful educationaland practical textbooks that students and professionalsdepend upon in their careers. Rather, this encyclopediaminimizes the efforts needed when searching for a clearand concise explanation and understanding of particulartopics, and how those topics are related to other terms.Definitions include recent and relevant technical referencesfor further information including well-illustrated graphic,detailed tabular, or striking visual images that also explainthe term or concept in question.
The Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology comprisesthree categories of definitions. Our flexibility for the lengthof contributions was constrained by the practical limit tothe length of the printed volume. This required us to assignindividual terms to one of the three “length” categories.Topics that require a lengthy, elaborate, and well-illustratedexplanation are included but are limited in their number.Broader issues and terms that need less explanation andillustration are more frequent, whereas those concepts andterms that are straight forward and easily explained infewer words and illustration are the most numerous.Collectively, just under 300 topics are included herein forthe sake of completeness. Each topic is accompanied by auseful cross-reference list of topics related to the term itselfand defined elsewhere within the volume.
Individual editorial teammembers were assigned a num-ber of topics from the total list that aligned most closelywith their areas of expertise. Each editor was responsiblefor appointing qualified authors, managing the editorialprocess, and seeing the works to their completion.
xxviii PREFACE
The Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology provides asingle platform for contributions from an internationalcross-section of some 200 specialists whose range ofexpertise competently addresses the nearly 300 topics thatare most pertinent to the field of engineering geology.A common structure and format is used for each of thetopics to ensure that readers did not experience changes instyle that is common to some works written by multipleauthors. The volume benefits considerably from an excep-tional number of tables, illustrations, and numerous colorimages to ensure our aim of communication and education
is satisfactorily achieved. This Encyclopedia of Enginee-ring Geology provides a standard reference of technicalreliability and should remain a primary choice for yearsto come.
The EditorsPeter Bobrowsky
Brian MarkerFebruary 2018
Acknowledgments
The editorial team is extremely grateful to the many aut-hors who graciously contributed their time, knowledge,and expertise to this volume. This effort, over severalyears, was efficiently and patiently handled by themanaging staff at Springer International Publishing, inparticular Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, KavipriyaVenkataraman and Johanna Klute. Their doggeddetermination and relentless reminders provided the driveto complete the book in time for the 2018 IAEG Congressto meet our primary goal, when starting this project severalyears ago, to make this treatise accessible to a large gathe-ring of engineering geologists under the umbrella ofthe IAEG.
Peter Bobrowsky expresses his sincere thanks to hiswife Theresa for her understanding and tolerance duringhis execution of duties associated with the publication ofthis book. Special thanks also to Michiko and Toba, forproviding a stress release during certain times in the pro-duction of this work.
Brian Marker also thanks his wife, Barbara, who wasequally tolerant of the demands of this work.
We very much hope that this book delivers a ready andreliable source of information and facts for practicingengineering geologists, students, and all other related pro-fessional communities who rely on our profession forproviding society with a healthier, safer, and more prospe-rous existence.