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Eastern
Himalaya Spec
ial Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Society for Conserving Planet And Life (COPAL) Srinagar Garhwal, 246174, Uttarakhand, India
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ECO WHISPER Volume 2, Issue 1. March, 2015
EcoWhisper is published by Society for
Conserving Planet And Life (COPAL)
Address:
Society for Conserving Planet And Life (COPAL)
Badrinath Road,
Srinagar Garhwal, 246174
Uttarakhand
India.
Website: www.copal.org.in
Webpage: www.facebook.com/copal.org
Blog: www.copalindia.blogspot.in
Editor in Chief
Dr. D. Dhyani, India
Copy Editors
Dr. Vikram S. Negi, India
Dr. Anurag Dhyani, Ethiopia
Design and Layout
Dr. D. Dhyani, India
Cover Photo
Lata Kharak in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve,
Uttarakhand, India at 4,000 m asl.
Dr. D. Dhyani, India
Photo at Page 14
Integrated Fish farming in paddy fields of North
East India.
Dr. Mihin Dolo, India
Back Photo
Terraced crop fields of Kedarnath Valley, Uttara-
khand, India.
Dr. Shalini Dhyani, India
Publisher
COPAL publications
Society for Conserving Planet and
Life (COPAL) was founded because of
the need for environmental conserva-
tion and protection of many ne-
glected natural resources and land-
scapes. The mission of COPAL is to
initiate the process of responsible
thinking followed by responsible ac-
tions. This involves incorporating
science and societal participation in
conserving and managing natural
resources. Our process of conserva-
tion and management of natural re-
sources follows sound ecological
principles. These principles are cou-
pled with traditional and indigenous
knowledge, scientific technology and
community involvement. After years
of dedicated research in various ecol-
ogically important as well as sensi-
tive ecosystem,s of India, having sup-
port of like minded enthusiasts we
developed as an organization that
was registered in August, 2010 as a
Public Trust and Society.
i.
IN SIGHT
1 (1-7)
2 (8-15)
3 (16-23)
4 (24-27)
5 (28-32)
6(33-38)
7(39-43)
A sustainable approach of Pine-Bamboo cultivation in Ziro valley, Arunachal Pradesh, India. - Tapi Taka, TonlongWangpan and Sumpam Tangjang
Understanding indigenous irrigation systems in North East India. - Prabal Sen, N. Linthoingambi Devi, Dipendra Singha Story of honey and honey bees from Debre-Nazret, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. - Gebru Equar G.
Let’s satiate our taste buds with tora. -Vasanthi K. Akshaya Samethadka Prospects of Jhumming for indigenous tribes of Arun-achal Pradesh, India. -Tonlong Wangpan, Tapi Taka and Sumpam Tangjang
Sacred Groves: Linking conservation with religion in North East India. -Manjil Hazarika
Community Seed Bank: Conserving wild edible diversity of Himalayas. -D. Dhyani
ii.
Copal Publications, EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Dear Readers,
Let me first wish you all a very peaceful and prosperous New Year 2015 . I extend
my heartfelt gratitude to all the well wishers and readers for providing such a grand open-
ing to our inaugural issue of EcoWhisper, by COPAL in 2014. You all became reasons to
be inspired and motivated. The way you all accepted the e-format of the magazine helped
us reduce the cost input by saving papers and yes!! TREES too. A reason to smile and
keeping our promise to initiate responsible thinking at every possible small step we are
taking. Your kind words of appreciation itself brought a lot of enthusiasm to the entire
COPAL team to compile the second issue of EcoWhisper in bigger and better way. In sec-
ond issue of EcoWhisper we have tried to bring more scientific angle to the kind of
awareness we generate through a variety of research experiences with a special focus on
North East India and Eastern Himalayas. Many of these research experiences have origi-
nated from indigenous practices that are still tested ones.
Present issue opens to you all with an article providing overview about Bamboo
cultivation in Zero valley, one of the important indigenous landscapes of NE India. Next
in the series details about traditional irrigation systems of NE India. A cultural and social
tool that can help a society develop along a desired trajectory. Providing an international
perspective to the magazine is our next article that talks about host plants of Honey bees
in Ethiopia from wild Africa. Present issue is not only about scientific aspects about land-
scapes, practices and species but also about twists. One of such twist is the food page that
is about food values of Chakwad/Cassia tora. I am sure not only women but men are also
going to like this light refreshing article. Again with our special inputs coming from East-
ern Himalayas one of the biodiversity hotspots of India comes insight on prospects and
impacts of Jhumming in NE. Sacred groves are also one of the important articles in pre-
sent context in the issue: a perspective of sacred and conserved landscapes of NE. Foster-
ing a vision of conserving lesser known under utilized wild edibles is one of the new per-
spectives that are to be conserved by setting up community conserved seed banks and our
last story is about this innovative concept being developed in Nanda Devi Biosphere in
India.
I am confident that you all are going to enjoy reading this issue too and like it
much more than previous first inaugural issue. Handing it over to you with the expecta-
tion that you will write back your suggestions and feed backs if you liked and how we can
improve it more.
Dr. D. Dhyani
Editor in Chief
Editorial
iii
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
A Sustainable Approach of Pine-Bamboo
Cultivation in Ziro Valley, Arunachal
Pradesh, India Tapi Taka, TonlongWangpan and Sumpam Tangjang
Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh-791 112, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Ziro is a beautiful valley in the lower
Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh,
Northeast India. The valley is famous for
its pine clad gentle hills, lush green bam-
boo grove and unique form of rice-cum-
fish cultivation is inhabited by the Apatani
tribe. The judicious use of the limited
area is the distinguishing characteristic of
this valley.
The bamboo and pine (Lead Image)
are two inevitable timbers of the Apatanis
which play a major and pivotal role in
their society. Bamboo, a group of peren-
nial evergreen grass belongs to the family
Poaceae is the fastest growing plants in
the world, notable for their strength, hard-
ness, and rate of growth.
Pines are evergreen, resinous trees of
the genus Pinus belonging to the family
Pinaceae growing 3–80 m tall, with the
majority of species reaching 15-45 m tall.
There are different species of bamboo in
the valley like Phyllostachys bambu-
soides, Chimonobam busacallosa, Den-
drocalamus hamiltonii, Bambusatulda,
Cephallostachium capitatum, Pleios blas-
tussimoni, Arundinacia spp, etc of which
Phyllostachys bambusoides is the most
1
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
widely cultivated and extensively used one
in the area. The major pine species is
Pinus wallichiana, with some artificial in-
duction of induction of Pinuskhasianain
the valley. The Apatanis have an age old
practice of growing bamboo and pine to-
gether and separately. The exact reason
for why and when the ethnic Apatani
started the plantation of bamboo and pine
together is still obscure. Nonetheless, it is
believed that the pine tree grew by its own
when the seeds were blown and dropped
in the bamboo grove. They found that no
trees other than pine tree could survive
successfully in the bamboo groves. Simi-
larly, no other shrubs and smaller trees
could grow properly along with the pine
trees except the bamboos. This generation
long observations has led local people to
conclude that the bamboo and pine can be
grown together as sustainable land use
system.
Moreover, the pine trees grown in
bamboo garden helps in aeration of soil-
which enhance the growth of bamboo.
Pine trees have a shallow root system
which makes them prone to toppling over
in high winds. The bamboos growing
around reduce the wind force striking the
tree. Nevertheless, this type of pine-cum-
bamboo plantation is extensively prac-
ticed in the present time.
2
Taipona fungus on Bamboo
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Initially, young pine trees are planted
in the field. The trees are planted keeping
a distance of about three meters from each
other. After about 3-4 years, when the
trees become about 2 meters the bamboos
are inter-planted. Bamboo of about 2-3
years is selected for planting in the new
place. Bamboos are planted in the month
of January or February.
Generally, the plantation work is car-
ried out on a moist day for moist soil is
preferred but water is added if the soil is
dry. Nevertheless, clay soil is always
avoided for plantation. Interestingly, the
bamboo with roots exposed is selected for
the plantation. The bamboo is uprooted
from the ground with roots running to-
wards both the directions by cutting the
root by about 1 meter on both sides.
In order to plant properly the soil is dug
by about 1 foot deep. The bamboo is cut
from the tip to below by 2 meters to pre-
vent them from falling by the wind. The
support is given to the plant by the bam-
boo frame/stand. The local bamboo, Phyl-
lostachys bamboosoides mature in
3rdyear of plantation.
Surprisingly, the maturity is indi-
cated by the sudden appearance of fungus
on the surface of the culms which is locally
called as ‘Taipona’ (Fig on page 2). The fun-
gus on the surface of culm is eaten as such
by the local people. After 6thor 7thyear the
branches of the pine trees are trimmed to
facilitate the aerial growth of the trees.
When the tree circumference becomes
about half meter then some of the trees
are cut down which are very near to each
3
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
other in order to make the distance of
about 3-6 meters. This is done after about
10-12 years. After about 25-30 years, the
trees are cut for the second time when the
circumference of the trees becomes about
1-1.5 meters to create the space of about
25-30 meters.
Mulch produced by the pine trees is a
natural soil enhancer that reduces erosion
and helps to slow down the evaporation of
moisture in the soil. It can reduce weeds,
protect tender roots and add beneficial
nutrients to the soil. The mulch when de-
cay is likely to attract fungi which can
yield nutrients from the plant debris for
both pine and bamboo.
4 Traditional Weaponry
Traditional Cemetery
The Apatanis make utmost use of the
bamboo and pine grown by them. The ju-
venile shoots of Phyllostachys bamboo-
soides and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii are
consumed as a food source. The tender
stem of Cephalostachyum capitatumis
prescribed to be eaten raw in treatment of
stomach-ache. The fully matured bamboo
serves as timber and fiber. Further, it is
also used in house construction, fence
making, crafts, weaponry, religious alters
and cemetery etc. Soon after harvest, the
tip of the bamboo is used for the fence
while the underground rhizome is dug out
and used as firewood.
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
5
Daily use articles made up of bamboo.
Traditional bamboo house
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
6
Traditional way to use bamboo as bio- fence
Bamboo used in making religious altars
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Besides, the pine wood is primarily
used for the construction purpose. The fat
wood derived from the heartwood of pine
is used as igniter and the torch due to
which they were never in need of the fossil
fuels in their houses right from the olden
days.
The tribe has perfected the co-
existence of man and nature over centu-
ries by an efficient resources management
with rich traditional ecological knowledge,
and their conservative nature, acquired
over the centuries through informal ex-
perimentation, which has been attracting
the UNESCO to propose Apatani or Ziro
valley as World Heritage Site.
Reference Cited
Dollo, M., Samal, P.K., Sundriyal, R. C. &
Kumar, K. (2009). Environmentally
sustainable traditional natural re-
source management and conservation
in Ziro valley, Arunachal Himalaya,
India Journal of American Science. 5
(5), 41-52.
Myers. N. (1998). Threatened biota, hot-
spots in tropical forests, Environmen-
talist, 8, 1-20.
Peay, K. G., Bruns, T. D. & Garbelotto, M.
(2010). Testing the ecological stability
of ectomycorrhizal symbiosis: effects
of heat, ash, and mycorrhizal coloni-
zation on Pinus muricata seedling
performance. Plant Soil, 330, 291-
302.
Sinha, B. (2002). Introduction of the
European pines in the Himalayas: A
brief note. Envis Bulletin Himalayan
Ecology, 10, 1.
7
Understanding Indigenous Irrigation
Systems in North East India Prabal Sen1, N. Linthoingambi Devi2, Dipendra Singha2
1Caritas India, North East Zone, Kharguli, Joypur, Guwahati -781 004, Assam 2Dept. of Forestry, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Irrigation serves as a cultural and social
tool that can help a society develop along
a desired trajectory. Historically, civiliza-
tions have been dependent on develop-
ment of irrigated agriculture to provide
agrarian basis of a society and to enhance
the food security of people. Archaeological
investigation has identified evidence of
irrigation in Mesopotamia and Egypt as
far back as the 6th millennium BCE,
where barley was grown in areas where
the natural rainfall was insufficient to
support such a crop. Ministry of Water
Resources (Govt. of India), on its web site
briefly explains the history of irrigation
development in India which can be traced
back to prehistoric times. Vedas, Ancient
Indian writers and ancient Indian scrip-
tures have made references to wells, ca-
nals, tanks and dams. These irrigation
technologies were in the form of small
and minor works, which could be oper-
ated by small households to irrigate small
patches of land. Irrigation has acquired
increasing importance in agriculture the
world over. From just 8 million hectares
in the year 1800, irrigated area across the
world increased fivefold to 40 Million
8
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Hectares (13.4 Million Hectares in India)
in 1900, to 100 M Ha in 1950 and to just
over 255 M Ha in 1995. Irrigation devel-
opment has a unique role to play in help-
ing indigenous communities meet their
cultural objectives because of its blend of
economic and socio-cultural impacts.
North East (NE) India comprising of the
states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura,
Nagaland and Sikkim is characterised by
rich biodiversity and cultural heritage
conserved through ages.
The whole of the N.E. Region covers
a total geographical area of 25,509 thou-
sand hectares and it is about 7.75 percent
of the total geographical area of India.
Among the seven States, Assam being the
second biggest State accounts for more
than 72 percent of the net sown area in the
region. N.E. region is highly dependent on
natural moisture and rainfall for growing
varieties of crops leading to high degree of
instability in agricultural production. NE
India is highly rich in water resources
available for the benefit of the community.
The region receives an annual rainfall of
2300 mm that drains into the river sys-
tems like the Brahmaputra and the Barak.
Northeast India is the homeland of a
large number of tribes. There are 145 total
communities of which 78 are large, each
with a population of more than 5000.
They constitute around 12 percent of the
total tribal population of India and 25.81
per cent of the total population of North
East India. Ethnic communities of NE In-
dia have developed their own mean of irri-
gation for crops over the years.
The pattern of agricultural growth in
NE region (NER) of India has remained
uneven across regions. Agriculture pro-
vides livelihood support to 70% of the
population of NE region. The agricultural
practices in the region are broadly of two
distinct types, viz., (i) settled farming
practiced in the plains, valleys, foothills
and terraced slopes and (ii) shifting culti-
vation (Jhum) practiced on the hill slopes.
In NER four important agricultural
systems are found prevalent viz., Rice
based farming system of the Apatanis,
Zabo based terrace wet rice cum fish cul-
ture of the Chakhesangs, Bamboo drip ir-
rigation system of Jaintia and Khasi Hills
in Meghalaya and Alder-based jhum sys-
tem of the Angamis of Nagaland8. In spite
of covering 7.9% of the country’s total geo-
graphical area, NER produces only 1.5% of
the country’s total food grain production.
NER continues to be a net importer of
food grains even for its own consumption.
Irrigation is a strategic input in any
development programme of the primary
sector of the NER. NER is lagging behind
in respect of overall development of the
9
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
agricultural sector. The region though pre-
dominantly agrarian has not been able to
free it from the clutches of vagaries of
monsoon through adequate irrigation fa-
cilities.
History of Irrigation in North East India Distribution of rainfall in North East India
is highly uneven. During the period from
October-February, rainfall is scanty and
the quantity varies from 5 to 10% of the
annual rainfall. In this period average
evaporation exceeds average precipitation
by 8 to 357 mm. Therefore, conservation
and supplementation of soil moisture by
irrigation becomes necessary during this
period of moisture stress.
Farming systems mainly depends on rain,
minor irrigation, and gravitational irriga-
tion in certain pockets of the perennial
hilly streams under govt. or individual
community initiative while wetland rice
based farming systems, dependent upon
monsoon rains supplemented by irriga-
tion.
Basic Statistics of North Eastern Re-
gion, 1992 published by the North Eastern
Council, Shillong indicated that about 22
percent of the net area sown in the region
was irrigated (Table). Irrigation water is
distributed to the fields through pipe out-
lets placed in the banks of main canals,
branch canals, distributaries and minors.
Most of the outlets are ungated and a
number of them are temporary.
Table Source: Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region, 1992. Note: Figures in parentheses denote percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area.
10
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Irrigation facilities by sources reveals that
the seven States in the N.E. Region are not
equally endowed with different irrigation
facilities. Thus, it can be said that the
creation of irrigational facilities is not up
to the mark and probably it is yet to create
an impact on the total production and
productivity in agriculture in the region.
Traditional Irrigation Systems in
NER
Traditional irrigation and water harvest-
ing system are an age old practice carried
out by the different communities of NER.
These systems are prevalent in the hills as
well as in the riverine plains of NER are-
Zabo, Dong, Cheo-ozihi, Bamboo Drip Ir-
rigation and Rice-cum-fish farming sys-
tem of the Apatanis. A brief description of
these systems is discussed below.
1.Bamboo Drip Irrigation: Meghalaya
has an ingenious system of tapping of
stream and spring water by using bamboo
pipes to irrigate plantations. About 18-20
litres of water entering the bamboo pipe
system per minute gets transported over
several hundred metres and finally gets
reduced to 20-80 drops per minute at the
site of the plant. This 200-year-old system
is used by the tribal farmers of Khasi and
Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black
pepper cultivation.Hard Bamboo pipes are
used to divert perennial springs on the
hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.
The channel sections, made of bam-
boo, divert and convey water to the plot
site where it is distributed without leakage
into branches, again made and laid out
with different forms of bamboo pipes. Ma-
nipulating the intake pipe positions also
controls the flow of water into the lateral
pipes. Reduced channel sections and di-
version units are used at the last stage of
water application.
The last channel section enables the
water to be dropped near the roots of the
plant. Bamboos of varying diameters are
used for laying the channels. Other com-
ponents are small pipes and channels of
varying sizes used for diversion and distri-
bution of water from the main channel.
About four to five stages of distribution
are involved from the point of the water
diversion to the application point.
Drip Irrigation in Meghalaya/ Gautam Das
11
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
2. Zabo: The word “Zabo” means im-
pounding of water. Zabo, an indigenous
farming system that combines forestry,
agriculture, fishery and animal husbandry
appears to have originated in Kikruma vil-
lage having an annual rainfall of 1613 mm
and located at an altitude of 1270 m above
mean sea level in Phek district of Na-
galand13. The Chakhesang community
who inhabited this village have developed
this system and it is being practised in an
area of 957.9 hectare.
3. Dong: The age old indigenous irriga-
tion system called dong enables the villag-
ers to meet their water needs throughout
the year but its utility is felt more during
the prolonged dry winters when water be-
comes scarce even for drinking purposes.
This traditional system is in practice in
parts of Lower Assam14. It is being prac-
ticed by Assamese, Boros & Nepalese etc.
Dongs operate on sound principles of wa-
ter management, ensuring that there is no
waste and water is distributed judiciously
and equitably especially for irrigation.
4. Cheo-ozihi: The River Mezii flows
along the Angami village of Kwigema in
Nagaland. The river water is brought
down by a long channel. From this chan-
nel, many branch channels are taken off,
and water is often diverted to the terraces
through bamboo pipes. One of the chan-
nels is named Cheo-oziihi - oziihi means
water and Cheo was the person responsi-
ble for the laying of this 8-10 km-long
channel with its numerous branches. This
channel irrigates a large number of ter-
races in Kwigwema, and some terraces in
the neighbouring village. There are
three khels and the village water budget is
divided among them.
5. Wet Rice Irrigation: There are two
important traditional irrigation systems in
Arunachal Pradesh-the irrigation of rice
terraces with bamboo pipes, and the
Apatani system of wet rice irrigation. In
the former method, water is transported
through an intricate system of Bamboo
pipes to agriculture fields. But this system
is now becoming obsolete and is being re-
placed by iron pipes and channel irriga-
tion.
Wet rice cultivation by Apatanis/Mihin Dollo
12
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
6. Pukhris or Ponds: Pukhris or Ponds
in Manipur Pukhris are the most preva-
lent traditional water harvesting struc-
tures. Till a few decades ago, one pond
was shared by two or three households.
Community ponds are also commonly
found in the settlements. A substantial
amount of the vegetables produced in the
state are grown in private kitchen gardens,
which use water from ponds. It was quite
common to have a small pond at the lower
end of the plot in paddy fields. It was use-
ful during the dry spells between the rains
after sowing.
7. Kholas: In Sikkim, local people have
evolved efficient water harvesting systems
together with land management systems.
Irrigation is mostly confined to rice fields
and cardamom plantations. In rice fields,
irrigation is done in bench terraces. In the
case of cardamom, irrigation water is al-
lowed to flow without proper distribution
channels. Construction of water channels,
regulation of water flow, and drawing of
drinking water were traditionally done
through community participation. The
common sources of drinking water are
streams and kholas (tanks).
8. Tuikhur: In Mizoram people used to
harvest the water from small hilly streams
by constructing tanks or Tuikhur at the
foot hills. The harvested water is trans-
ported or transferred by different means
for use in different purposes. Bamboo
pipes, rubber/iron pipes are some of the
means of transport. Harvested water is
used for irrigation, drinking, washing etc.
9. In the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys
of Assam, there had been a long tradition
of artificial irrigation, by the means of ar-
tificial channels in the sub-mountainous
tracts. In certain parts of the state, par-
ticularly in Golaghat, Sibsagar, Cachar,
Hailakandi and Jorhat areas, there was
also a tradition to dig ponds which were
mostly used for drinking water.
Puhkhri in Manipur/ N Linthoingambi Devi
Tuikhur in Mizoram / Dipendra Singha
13
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
14
Integrated Fish farming in paddy fields of NE India/ Mihin Dolo
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Conclusion
There exists enough scope to increase the
production and productivity of food grains
and other crops by putting more emphasis
on the creation of irrigation facilities and
through optimal combination of various
agricultural inputs such as irrigation,
cropping intensity, and improved seeds
and fertilizers. Further the irrigation sys-
tem can be improved by adopting water
harvesting and river-based irrigation sys-
tem in NER. Vast water resources of the
region should not be allowed to be drained
into the sea along with valuable top soil.
In this regard, the government should be
focussed on the integration of traditional
and modern scientific technologies for
harvesting the water in order to maintain
the farmlands, enhancement of farmer’s
livelihood and securing the food security.
Reference Cited
Ali Irshad, A.N.M. and Das, I., Tribal
Situation in North East India. Stud.
Tribals., 2003, 2, 141-148.
Anonymous, North East Data Bank. North
Eastern Development Finance Corpo-
ration Limited. http://db.nedfi.com/
content/agriculture, Guwahati, As-
sam. Ministry of DoNER, Government
of India 20082.
In: Datta Ray and Athparia (eds.).
Omsons Publications, New Delhi,
1999, pp. 170-176
Pulamte, L., Indigenous Agricultural Sys-
tems of Northeast India. India, Sci-
ence and Technology. NISTADS/
CSIR, Government of India. http://
www.nistads.res.in/indiasnt2008/
t6rural/t6rur18.htm , 2008.
Sharma, M.K., Institutional Framework of
River Basin Management in North
East India-History, Experience and
the Way Forward. Background Paper
No. 8. Input to the Study
Shrisath, P.B., Irrigation Development in
India: History & Impact. http://
indiairrigaion.blogspot.com/2009/
01/history-of-irrigation-development
-in_01.html 2009.
Sanjeev, M.V., Venkatasubramanian, V.
and Singha, A.K., Farming Systems
of North East India. In: Farming
Systems of North East India Re-
search and Development Strategies
for KVKs. Pub: The Zonal Project Di-
rector, Zonal Project Directorate,
Zone – III, ICAR, Umiam, Megha-
laya, India, 2010.
http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/
detailsnew.asp?id=feb2110/at091,
(http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/
Assessment/index.htm) 2005.
15
Story of Honey and Honey Bees from
Debre-Nazret, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia
Gebru Equar G. Department of Biology, Botany, Mekelle University, Ethiopia.
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
The honeybee is one of the most studied
of all animals, other than man, yet the re-
search has been entirely on the European
honeybee Apis mellifera. Amazingly how-
ever, only within the past 15 years a num-
ber of ‘new’ honeybee species have been
recorded, following are the eleven species
in genus Apis.
Apis andreniformis Apis binghami
Apis breviligula Apis cerana
Apis dorsata Apis florea
Apis koschevnikovi Apis laboriosa
Apis mellifera Apis nigrocincta
Apis nuluensis
The species of honeybees nesting behavior
determines whether or not the bees will
tolerate being kept inside a man-made
hive. Some of the species make nests con-
sisting of a series of parallel combs, other
species nest on just one, single comb. The
species that build a series of parallel
combs usually nest inside cavities, and
this behavior enables them to nest inside
man-made containers and therefore opens
up possibilities for keeping and manage-
ment of these bees inside hives.
Bees that produce enough honey to be
worth harvesting belongs to the two sub
16
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
families of the family Apidae: Apinae
(honeybees) and Meliponinae (stingless
bees). Apinae has only one genus, Apis,
and about nine species of which the Apis
mellifera species is of greater economic
importance.
Apis mellifera is now the most pro-
ductive and widely distributed around
world. Tropical subspecies of Apis mel-
lifera are smaller than temperate zone
subspecies, and they have a slender abdo-
men. They are generally less amenable to
handling and management, swarm read-
ily; also, the whole colony may abscond as
a result of damage and disturbance of
their nest or shortage of food. Moreover,
the bees are easily alerted to sting and this
characteristic allows their survival in the
African tropics where they were apt to be
attacked by many 'enemies'.
Honeybees are one of the most im-
portant pollinators of angiosperms be-
cause of their diet, flower visiting habits
and hairy bodies that readily pick up pol-
len grains, and the fact that they exclu-
sively visit many flowers of the same spe-
cies during a single trip . Crop pollination
is also the most important economic out-
come of honeybee activities.
Bees and trees belong together. The
honeybees and stingless bees have origi-
nally developed in forest biotopes. Given
bees and trees belong together. The hon-
eybees and stingless bees have originally
developed in forest biotopes. Given the
choice, wild honeybees selects nesting
places in trees rather than in an open
landscape. Most often the honeybees pre-
fer to build their combs or nests high in
trees instead of close to the ground, but
bees nests can be found everywhere in a
tree. When beekeeping is present in a for-
est, the beekeepers will be interested in
protection of the forests and especially the
tall trees preferred by the bees. When
enough bees are present in a forest, they
provide a better pollination that leads to
improved regeneration of trees and con-
servation of the forest’s biodiversity.
Bees and most flowering plants have
developed a complex interdependence
during millions of years. It is estimated
that half of the pollinators of tropical
plants are bees. The efficiency of honey-
bees is due to their great numbers, their
morphology and their behaviour of forag-
ing on only one plant species at one time.
The bees have to find their food in flowers.
The food can be nectar or pollen. Nectar
is produced to attract the bees. Pollen is
also attracting the bees, but it is produced
also to ensure the next generation of
plants. Bee pollinated flowers have
evolved in such a way that a visiting bee
17
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Man made honey hives Local honey market
has to brush against the flower’s anthers
bearing pollen, or there may be a special
mechanism to release the anthers to
spring up or down to cover the bee with
pollen. Compared with other insects, bees
are extremely hairy. Each hair has a
branched structure that makes it highly
effective at catching pollen.
The present research work has been
carried out in Debre-Nazret, a part of the
south eastern zone of Tigray about 27 km
west of Mekelle, capital of Tigray Regional
state. It is situated between 130 26'N -
130 30'N latitude and 390 16' - 390
20'E longitude at an altitudinal range of
1508 to 2160 meter above sea level.
Honeybee is also believed to play a
significant role in the economy of Ethiopia
through pollination services. Pollination
is crucial factor that influence seed pro-
duction in agricultural crops. In Ethiopia,
an experiment was conducted to deter-
mine the consequence of pollination on
Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) and the result
Looking after the hives Pollen investigation
18
Leucas abyssinica
Carduus nyassanus Hypoestes forskaolii
Euclea racemosa subsp. schimperi Dodonaea angustifolia
Cordia africana
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
19
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
showed that honeybee increased the seed
yield of Niger by about 43% and Onion
(Allium cepa) by 2%. Bombus affinis
been shown to be an excellent pollinator
of cranberry.
Honey is natural sweet substance
produced by Apis mellifera bees from the
nectar of plants or from secretions of liv-
ing parts of plants or excretions of plant-
sucking insects on the living parts of
plants which the bees collect and trans-
form by combining it with specific sub-
stances of their own, deposit, dehydrate,
store and leave in honeycombs to ripen
and mature.
Honey is a complex mixture and pre-
sents very great variations in composition
and characteristics due to its geographical
and botanical origin, its main features de-
pending on the floral origin or the nectar
foraged by bees. Honey characterization is
based on the determination of its chemi-
cal, physical or biological Properties. The
composition of honey depends on the
plant species visited by the honeybees and
the environmental processing and storage
conditions.
The carbohydrates are the major
components of honey. The Monosaccha-
rides such as fructose and glucose are the
dominant fraction and occur for 85 -
95% of honey sugars. Honey also contains,
water and certain minor constituents such
as proteins, enzymes, amino and organic
acids, lipids, vitamins, volatile chemicals,
phenolic acids, flavonoids, and carotenoid
-like substances.
Production of honey and other prod-
ucts depend on availability of floral re-
sources (bee forage) and is a very impor-
tant field for most beekeepers in the
world. Most of the methods for obtaining
information about plants used in an area
are based on direct field observations of
foraging honeybees on flowers. These food
sources provide the nutritional require-
ments of the bee colonies: nectar as
sources of honey provides heat and en-
ergy for honey bees and pollen provides
protein, vitamins, fatty substance, and
other nutrients.
The findings of the study suggest that
owing to its varied ecological and climatic
conditions, Ethiopia is homing to some of
the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa.
Debre-Nazret (the study area) is endowed
with diversity of plants that are important
for honey production. Local farmers of
the area generate their income by deploy-
ing the beehives around the diversified
plants. The honey produced from the De-
bre-Nazret is white in colour, tasty and
high in demand.
20
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Yellow Honey Red Honey
Thick raw White Honey Raw Honey in store
Local value added Honey Raw Honey packaging
21
Value added Honey products Raw honey in store
S. No
Scientific name
Family
Local Names
Life form
Source (P/N) Tigrigna Amharic
1 Acacia pilispina Fabaceae Cha’a ACQ-Grar T,S N,P
2 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Muchele Attuch H P,N
3 Agave sisalana Agavaceae Eqa Kacha H N,P
4 Aloe berhana Aloaceae Ire Iret H P,N
5 Andropogon abyssinicus Poaceae Demahale Beleme H P
6 Anethum graveolens Apiaceae Shilan ‘Nslal H P,N
7 Argemone Mexicana Papaveraceae Medafe-Tl Medafe H P
8 Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Nim T P,N
9 Becium grandiflorum Lamiaceae Tebeb Matosch H P,N
10 Carduus nyassanus Asteraceae dander kosheshla H P,N
11 Carica papaya Caricaceae Papaye Papaye T P,N
12 Carissa edulis Apocynaceae Agamsa Agam S P,N
13 Cordia africana Boraginaceae Awhi Wanza T N
14 Craterostigma plantagineum
Scrophulariaceae Fosi-Anqrbit Babun H P,N
15 Croton macrostachys Euphorbiaceae Tambuck Bsanna T P,N
16 Cynadon doctylon Poaceae Tehag H P
17 Dodonaea angustifolia Sapindaceae Tahses Kitkta S,T P,N
18 Erythrina abyssinica Fabaceae Zwaw Quara T P,N
19 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Myrtaceae Kelamitos Qey-bahrzaf
T P,N
20 Euclea racemosa subsp. schimperi
Ebenaceae Kuliow S P,N
21 Ficus vasta Moraceae Da’ro Warka T N
22 Guizotia abyssinica Asteraceae Nihug Nug H P,N
23 Hagenia abyssinica Rosaceae Habbi Koso T P,N
24 Helianthus annus Asteraceae Suf ferenji Suf H P,N
25 Heliotropium cinerascens Boraginaceae Aman gmel Sheko S P
26 Hypoestes forskaolii Acanthaceae Girbya H,S P,N
27 Leucaena leucocephala Fabaceae Lukina Lukina S P,N
28 Leucas abyssinica Lamiaceae Siwakerni S P,N
29 Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Mango Mango T P N
30 Musa X paradisiaca Musaceae Muz Muz H P,N
31 Ocimum lamiifolium Lamiaceae Damakher Dama-Kesie
S,H P,N
Table : Honey bee flora of Debre-Nazret
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
22
Key: H= Herb, S= Shrub,T= Tree, P= Pollen, N= Nectar
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Reference Cited
Admasu Addi and NuruAdgaba
(2002).Effect of honeybee pollination
on seed yield and oil content of Niger
(Guizotia abyssinica): Proceedings of
the first National Conference of
Ethiopian Beekeepers Association,
June 7-8, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethio-
pia.pp.67-73.
Cane, J. H. and D. Schiffhauer. 2003.
Dose-response relationships between
pollinationand fruiting refine polli-
nator comparisons for cranberry
Vacciniummacrocarpon).American
Journal of Botany 90: 1425-1432.
Jacobs, F. Simoens, C. Graaf, D and Deck-
ers, J. (2006). Scope for non-wood
forest products income generation
from rehabilitation areas: focus on
beekeeping. Journal of theDry-
lands1: 171-185.
Saxena, S. Gautam, S and Sharma, A.
(2010).Food Chemistry.118, 391.
Lead Image: : http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Template:POTD/2007-06-07
(http://www.flagstaffotos.com.au/
error_docs/update.htm)
23
Let’s Satiate our Taste Buds with Tora Vasanthi K. Akshaya Samethadka
Puttur 574201,South Canara Karnataka, India
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
During the monsoon season a wild plant
appears to be grown in profuse amount on
dry waste lands across India. Villagers col-
lect its tender leaf and prepare stir fry, a
dip and pakoras (snacks) and they believe
it protects them against fever during mon-
soons. Locally the plant is called Chakwad
in Hindi, Thagathe in Kannda, Tagari in
Tamil, Chakramandarkam in Malayalam .
Botanically the plant is knows as
Cassia tora and commonly known as
sickle senna, sickle pod, tora, coffee pod,
tovara, chakvad and foetid cassia. It is
mostly found in South- East Asia and the
South West Pacific as an important weed.
It is considered a wild weed, wild peanut
or pistache that has many healing benefits.
The plant is an herbaceous annual foetid
herb.
The plant can grow 30-90 centime-
ters high and consists of alternative pin-
nate leaves with leaflets mostly with three
opposite pairs that are obovate in shape
with a rounded tip. The leaves grow up to
3-4.5 centimeters long. The stems have
distinct smelling foliage when young. The
flowers are in pairs in axils of leaves with
five petals and pale yellow in colour.
24
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Cassia tora yellow flowers occur in pairs
with stamens of unequal length producing
pods that are somewhat flattened or four
angled, 10–15 cm long and sickle shaped,
hence the common name sickle pod.
There are 30-50 seeds within a pod.
Casia tora is very stress tolerant and
is an easy plant to grow. In India, it occurs
as a wasteland rainy season weed. Its
flowering time is favourable after the
monsoon rain. C. tora can grow in dry soil
throughout tropical parts and high hills of
elevation (Himalayas) of up to 1800 me-
ters as well as the plains. It mainly grows
during the period of October to February.
The seed has vast soil reserves that can
remain viable for up to twenty years and
can produce up to 1000 emerged plants
per square meter following a precise ger-
minating rain. Once the seed has matured,
it is gathered and dried in the sun.
Food value
The seeds, roots and leaves from this plant
have been shown to be very beneficial to
the modern system of herbal medicines.
The young leaves can be cooked as a vege-
table while the roasted seeds are a good
substitute for coffee. Cassia tora tea is a
herbal, pure, natural and non-polluted
green health beverage. In the Republic of
Korea, it is believed to rejuvenate human
vision. Additionally, the tea has created a
new term “coffee-tea”, because of its mys-
terious but very rich taste and its coffee
aroma. It is made from 100% Cassia tora,
with no artificial colouring and no caf-
feine, and could be a healthier substitute
for coffee and sodas.
Medicinal Value
Manipal University in India also con-
firmed its anti viral and anti bacterial
properties. Due to its moist quality sweet
flavour and cold property it acts on liver
and large intestine, clear the heat and liver
fire. The herb acts as kapha and vata
dosha suppressant, acts as a nerve tonic.
Helps in maintaining normal level of cho-
lesterol
Since Cassia tora has an external ger-
micide and antiparasitic character, it has
been used for treating skin diseases such
as leprosy, ringworm, itching and psoria-
sis and also for snakebites. Other medici-
nal provisions from plant parts include
balm for arthritis using leaves of Cassia
tora.
Nutritional value
A natural gelling agent that has indus-
trial and food benefits is made from the
seed. The primary chemical constituents
of the seed include cinnamaldehyde, gum,
tannins, mannitol, coumarins and essen-
tial oils (aldehydes, eugenol and pinene).
25
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
The seeds also contain sugars, resins and
mucilage, among other elements.
Other uses
It is used as a natural pesticide in organic
farms and its powder is most commonly
26
used in the pet food industry. Alterna-
tively, it is mixed with guar gum for use in
mining and other industrial applications.
The seeds and leaves are also used to treat
skin disease and its seeds can be utilized
as a laxative.
RECIPE
Ingredients
Washed and cleaned Cassia tora leaves,
1/4 Spoonful of spilt or powdered white rice,
Shredded coconut,
1 Green/ Red chilli,
1/4 Teaspoon of mustard seeds oil.
Heat oil in a thick bottom pan, put 1 red chilli, mustard seeds. Once it crackles use curry
leaves (optional). Add one table spoon water and add spilt or powdered rice. Allow it to
cook for 1 minute. Now add Cassia tora leaves and cook for another 2 minutes, add salt
to taste, cook for another 1 minute. Add shredded coconut and cook for 1 more minute.
Now remove the pan from flame. Serve hot with rice or chapatti during lunch or dinners.
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
27
References Cited
Smita Jain and Patil, U.K. 2010. Phyto-
chemical and pharmachological profile
of Cassia tora, Indian Journal of Natural
products and resources, Vol 1(4): 430
-437
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/
a1567e/a1567e05.pdf
Raw leaves and prepared Cassia tora dish
Prospects of Jhumming for Indigenous Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, India
Tonlong Wangpan, Tapi Taka and Sumpam Tangjang Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh-791 112, Arunachal Pradesh, India
The North East region has its own unique
combination of living species, habitats
and ecosystems, which together make up
its diversity rich resource. Environmental,
biological, social-cultural and economic
factors prevailing in the Indian Himalayan
region (IHR) have resulted in the evolu-
tion of diverse agro-ecosystems. Shifting
cultivation is the major agricultural prac-
tice of a large number of tribal popula-
tions of north-eastern Himalaya and is the
most extensive and highly organized land
use based on empirical knowledge accu-
mulated through centuries, in harmony
with the environment. Slash and burn ag-
riculture or shifting cultivation is a crucial
form of agriculture in undulating hilly ter-
rains of Arunachal Pradesh, North-
Eastern India. One hand the State has set-
tled agriculture whereas, on the other
hand constitutes very small portion which
are restricted only to river valleys. This
highly organized agro-ecosystem is trans-
ferred from their indigenous fore fathers
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
28
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
through centuries, in harmony with the
environment. Jhum is the form of agricul-
ture in which a piece of forest land is
slashed, burnt and cropped without tilling
the soil, and the cropped land is subse-
quently fallowed to attain preslashed for-
est status through natural succession. The
State is recognized for its rich biodiversity
and myriad of colorful tribes with their
rich cultures. Generally, indigenous popu-
lation of the state is agrarian and more
than 80% of the population is still using
agriculture as a source of livelihood and
sustenance. They are very rich in tradi-
tional knowledge regarding their peculiar
landscape and agriculture system curved
out from generations of experiments.
Shifting cultivation involves series of
steps such as selection of a site in slopes,
slashing, burning and clearing of vegeta-
tion followed by preparing field for grow-
ing crops of agricultural importance. Af-
ter completion of the cycle, the soil loses
its fertility and a fresh site is chosen for
cultivation and same cycle is repeated.
Nevertheless, the used plots is likely to
keep fallow for about 8-10 years till it re-
gains its fertility.
About 8-35 crops are grown together
and harvested sequentially from July to
December while the crop compositions
depends upon the sites and cycles length
of the shifting cultivation Mixed farming
is a general rule of jhumming where they
integrate cereals like rice (Oryza sativa
L.), millets (Setariaitalica L., Pani-
cummiliaceum L., Eleusine coracana L.
and Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.),
Maize (Zea mays L.); with other impor-
tant domesticated and subsidiary edible
plant species such as Topioca
(Manihotesculenta crantz.), Dioscorea
sp., Colocasia esculenta L., sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.), Ginger
(Zingiber officinale L.) and local vegeta-
bles such as pumpkin (Cucurbita mo-
schata Poir.), white gourd (Beninca sa-
hispidaThunb.), coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.), soybean (Glycine max L.
(Merr.), brinjal ( Solanum melongena
Linn.), Solanum nigrum L., chilli pepper
(Capsicum spp.), bitter gourd
(Momordica charantia L.), tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum L.), and ses-
ame (Sesamum indicum L.). The farming
of subsidiary crops and vegetables enable
29
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Different landscape showing Jhum (Slash and Burn)
cultivation in Noth-East India.
30
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
them to sustain the lean season when
there is scarcity of food grains in granary.
The entire traditional society re-
volves around the taboos, beliefs, folktales
and legends. For instances, they perform
many rituals during the time of sowing
and harvesting within the family, among
villagers and also in the entire commu-
nity. However, the methods of farming
and rituals performed during the cultiva-
tion of crops may vary slightly with the
ethnic people and communities inhabiting
different social, physical, environmental
and climatic condition.
On the other hand, the reduction of
Jhum cycle in many regions from about
20-30 years to 2-3 years owing to mod-
ernization, human population growth and
increasing anthropogenic pressure are the
current burning issue. It is often consid-
ered responsible for causing soil erosion,
flash floods, landslide and degradation of
primary land resources, depletion of forest
resources and environment. Further, de-
pletion of vegetation also pushes many
important floral as well as faunal species
to extreme limits of extinction. However,
due to inhospitable hilly geographical fea-
tures, high rainfall, poor irrigation facili-
ties and inaccessibility of plain land, the
settled agriculture or terrace cultivation is
not successful in this area. Therefore in
spite of implementation of many govern-
ment policies and lack of other possible
alternates shifting cultivation still plays a
pivotal role and primary means for suste-
nance for thousands of villages in remote
areas.
The entire Jhumming process may
be assumed as a wise strategy planned and
prepared by the ethnic people which they
have learnt from years of experiment and
subsequently transferred to the next gen-
eration to present generation. Their strat-
egy focus on deriving maximum possible
sustainable output from the hilly slopes in
terms of production of adequate food
items from cultivation of crops, collection
of timber from Jhum fields, practice of
mix farming ensuring crop diversity, judi-
cious use of land for cultivation, perform-
ing community feasts for get-together,
rituals to ensure good harvest, ceremonies
and finally continuing the legends by
passing it to next generation. Besides
farming, activities such as fishing, hunting
and harvesting of non-timber forest prod-
ucts (NTFPs) indirectly helping in enhanc-
ing sustainability of Jhum among them.
The indigenous people considered
this system is not just as a means of liveli-
hood, but a way of life as it is deeply
rooted into their traditional and socio-
cultural norms. Thus, currently it is very
31
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
hard to eliminate this practice since it is
associated with the core of their culture
and socio-economic conditions.
However, effort may be given to en-
courage improved Jhum cultivation on
scientific foundation and adoption of eco-
friendly techniques. In this region, the ag-
ricultural practices may be assumed as an
assortment of inherited ideas, techniques
and knowledge that makes us more aware
about the predominant and successful
journey of Jhum in Arunachal Pradesh till
date.
Reference Cited
Ramakrishnan P S, Linking natural
resource management with sustainable
development of traditional mountain
societies, Trop Ecol, 44 (1) (2003), 54.
Sharma TC (1976). The pre-historic back-
ground of shifting cultivation in North-
East India. North-East Indian Council
for Social Science Research.
Singh N P, Singh A K & Patel D P, Shift-
ing cultivation and its alternate ap-
proaches towards sustainable develop-
ment in North East India, J North
Eastern Council, 20 (2) (2000), 30.
Thangam E S, Shifting Cultivation in
Arunachal Pradesh, Proc Agrofor-
estry, Imphal, India, 1979.
32
Sacred Groves: Linking Conservation with Religion in North East India
Manjil Hazarika1,2
1Institute of Paleoenvironment and Heritage Conservation, Department of Heritage Conservation,
Mekelle University, Ethiopia. 2Himalayan Languages Project, Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität Bern, Switzerland
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
India’s northeast along with the eastern
Himalayan region forms a distinctive
transitional zone between the Indian, the
Indo-Malayan and the Indo-Chinese bio-
geographical realms. Northeast India
forms a significant portion of two biodi-
versity hotspots among 34 hotspots of the
world: the Himalayan (covering Sikkim,
Bhutan, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh)
and the Indo-Burman (southern part of
the Brahmaputra river). This region is a
treasure trove of huge forests, natural
products and numerous species of mam-
mals, birds, reptiles and amphibians.
The recurrent news about the discovery of
a new plant or animal species, previously
unknown to science, strongly underscores
the urgency of scientific investigations in
this hidden and much neglected part of
the world.
The Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) has identified this region
as a centre of rice germplasm, whilst the
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Re-
sources (NBPGR) has highlighted the re-
gion as being rich in the wild relatives of
domesticated crops. Almost 50% of the
total flowering plants in India have been
33
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
recorded here. The Regional Station of the
NBPGR at Shillong has collected 10,000
accessions of the wild relatives of crops
from the region. The estimated diversity
of some of the major food plants are: rice
(9650+), maize (15 varieties and 3 sub-
varieties), banana (14 species), Citrus (17
species + 52 varieties), sugarcane and
their wild relatives (15 species). Many of
the food crops have a rich variety of germ-
plasm such as upland rice (298), brinjal or
eggplant (37), ginger (60), chilly (68),
maize (674), turmeric (60), grain legumes
(200), sweet potato (5), cucurbits (76),
taros (250) and yams (242).
Russian scientist Nikolai Ivanovich
Vavilov identified several regions of the
world as original centres for domestica-
tion of a number of plants. N.E. India is a
part of such Vavilovian centres of biodi-
versity and is considered by the botanist
as the place of origin of many important
cultivated plant species and some domes-
ticated animals. It is also well known for
high endemism of rare flora and unique
fauna. The region has been called as the
cradle of flowering plants because of its
diversified angiosperm flora. Four out of
26 micro-endemic centres in India are
found here. More than 5000 plant species
have been reported from this region, and
the Northeast harbours about 132 out of
686 wild relatives of crops reported from
the Indian subcontinent. Moreover, one
study reveals that out of 800 species of
food plants occurring in the whole of In-
dia, about 300 species occur in the eastern
Himalayan region. This wide diversity of
flora forms a part of the rich natural heri-
tage of Northeast India.
Most textbooks would define heritage
as anything which someone wishes to con-
serve or collect. It refers to something that
we inherit and that we want to preserve. It
is the legacy from the past, what we live
with today, and what we pass on to future
generations. The whole gamut of heritage
can be divided into two broad types:
natural and cultural. Cultural heritage is
not only limited to the material manifesta-
tions such as monuments and other ar-
chaeological and historical structures
which have been build and preserved over
a period of time. It also encompasses the
living expressions and the traditions that
countless groups and communities of dif-
ferent parts of the world have inherited
from their forefathers and transmit to
their descendants.
The natural heritage encompasses
the natural environment, including the
surrounding flora and fauna, natural sites
having cultural significance such as cul-
tural landscape, physical, biological and
34
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
certain age-old rules and regulations
strictly followed by the indigenous com-
munities for maintaining the ecological
balance of the biodiversity. Hence, the re-
gion may be considered to be an arche-
typal region for understanding man and
his relationship to the environment in a
systemic cultural context.
Northeast India is spread across over
262,000 km2 and comprises the eight In-
dian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim and Tripura. This vast region is
also known for ethno-linguistic and cul-
tural diversity. It is an ethnic mosaic con-
sisting of different tribal groups of various
ethnic stocks, speaking diverse languages,
maintaining their traditional customs and
practices, having self-sufficient econo-
mies, and thus creating a multicultural
constellation of tribes and peoples. This
region harbours more than 130 major
tribal communities out of the total of 427
tribal communities found in India.
Many of the tribes observe certain
taboos in conserving wild resources, as
recorded in their folklore and myths.
These cultural beliefs and customs reveal a
deep respect for the natural world. For ex-
ample, small patches of virgin forest are
preserved by indigenous communities in
keeping with their religious beliefs. This
practice provides a great example of
and geological formations. Areas with rich
biodiversity and habitats of threatened
plants and animal species have value on
scientific or aesthetic grounds or from a
conservation perspective. In view of the
identification and protection of represen-
tative wild habitats across all the ecosys-
tems in India, including the forests, the
Government of India has created a net-
work of 668 Protected Areas comprising
102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuar-
ies, 47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Com-
munity Reserves. Five of the Protected Ar-
eas have been declared by the UNESCO to
be World Heritage Sites.
Out of the total area falling within
the territory of Northeast India, more
than 60 percent of the geographical area is
under forest cover. Most of the people re-
siding in and around the natural ecosys-
tems and protected areas exploit the wild-
life for satiating their needs for sustenance
and shelter. Apart from this recently
adopted government initiatives; there are
35
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
the town of Jowai in the Jaintia Hills, are
used by the Jaintia tribe to host their an-
nual religious festival Beh dein khlam. Ia-
long and Raliang are other well-known sa-
cred groves of the Jaintia Hills.
The sacred groves, whether they be-
long to an individual, a clan or the com-
munity as a whole, are traditionally man-
aged by a religious head or by a person en-
trusted with the role of custodian in accor-
dance with customary religious practice,
such as the Lyngdoh amongst the Khasi
and the Doloi amongst the Jaintia. The
terms for sacred grove in the Jaintia,
Khasi and Garo languages are Khloo U
Blai, Law Kyntang and Asong Kusi respec-
tively.
The sacred groves of the Meghalaya
are of three types such as the Law Lyng-
doh ‘forest of the priests’, the Law Niam
‘ritual forests’ and the Law kyntang
‘forests of the clan’. There are several tra-
ditional institutions that manage commu-
nity forests, whereby the duty is passed on
from one generation to the next. People in
Nagaland have until recently worshipped
the sylvan spirits of their sacred groves by
offering animals and eggs as sacrifice. The
associated taboos and beliefs related with
these groves have prevented not only the
felling of trees, but even the lopping off
branches, twigs and leaves or the removal
of dried wood. Violating these rules is
community awareness and involvement
for the conservation of natural resources
through the native cultural practice in
Northeast India of instituting and respect-
ing a sacred grove.
A sacred grove is created when a
patch of forest near the village is declared
sacred so that it must be protected on reli-
gious and cultural grounds. The sacred
grove and even individual trees or animals
may be designated for preservation
through this traditional practice. There
are as many as 79 sacred groves in the
Meghalaya, owned by individuals, clans or
communities, and under direct control of
the clan or village councils. The religious
beliefs associated with sacred groves are
that certain deities reside in these forests.
In this way, traditional wisdom contrib-
utes to forest protection and the conserva-
tion of biodiversity in the region.
The institution of the sacred grove is
common to most of the ethnic groups of
Northeast India. There are certain reli-
gious practices observed by the Meithei of
Manipur to propitiate forest deities such
as Lai Harouba, a ritual celebrated in hon-
our of the sylvan deities or Umanglais,
who are believed to protect them from
sickness, harm and natural disaster. For
example, the sacred groves which go by
the names of Khloo Paiu Ram Pyrthai,
Urkhla, and Khloo Langdoh, located near
36
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
believed to provoke the presiding deity
who may punish the offender. The Bodo-
Koch language communities such as the
Deori, Tiwa, Sonowal Kachari and Rabha
live on the Brahmaputra plains rather
than in the hills, but they too maintain sa-
cred groves which they call thaan. In some
areas, these groves are regarded to be the
abode of the spirits of the ancestors, and
they are accordingly used as burial groves.
The practice of maintaining these sa-
cred groves is an indigenous institution
which has the effect of conserving forest
areas by local inhabitants. Sacred groves
are also known as shrine forests, and
strong cultural and traditional values are
associated with them. In view of the wide-
spread nature of the institution and the
complexity of the way that this institution
is embedded in the local belief systems,
some scholars believe that this form of
‘nature worship’ is of hoary antiquity. As
evinced by the sacred grove institution,
the prudent utilisation of forest products
for sustainable development has been im-
plicitly understood by the inhabitants of
the Northeast through their long and inti-
mate association with their natural envi-
ronment.
Against this backdrop, it may be in-
ferred that the Northeast has been able to
maintain the richness of its biological re-
sources until recently, in part due to the
reverence and involvement of the local in-
habitants in the maintenance of a recipro-
cal relationship between man and his en-
vironment. In recent years, due to an in-
crease of accessibility and the demand for
forest products such as timber and bam-
boo, considerable ecological degradation
has set in throughout the Northeast in
pace with growing economic development.
Demographic realities and the opening up
of the Northeast have destroyed the sacred
relationship between man and his envi-
ronment utmost.
To sum up, the exploitation of the
natural environment through sustainable
utilisation of the resources, which the eco-
system affords, is in keeping with the body
of traditional knowledge accumulated over
generations. The taboos and customary
laws regarding the exploitation of natural
resources show their respect towards na-
ture. The institutions of sacred groves,
which are believed to be the residence of
forest deities, indicate the involvement of
the community in sustainable exploitation
37
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Khumbongmayum, A.D., M.I. Khan and
R.S. Tripathi. 2005. Sacred groves of
Manipur, Northeast India: Biodiversity
Value, Status and Strategies for their
Conservation. Biodiversity and Con-
servation 14: 1541–1582.
Syngai, D. 1999. Sacred Groves of Megha-
laya, In Biodiversity- North East India
Perspectives, eds. B. Kharbuli, D.
Syiem, and H. Kayang, 70-76. Shillong:
North Eastern Biodiversity Research
Cell, North-Eastern Hill University.
Tiwari, B.K., S.K. Barik and R.S. Tripathi,
1998. Biodiversity Value, Status, and
Strategies for Conservation of Sacred
Groves of Meghalaya, India. Ecosystem
Health 4: 20-32.
Tripathi, R.S. 2005. Sacred Groves of
North-East India and their Floristic
Richness and Significance in Biodiver-
sity Conservation. EnviroNews
(Newsletter of ISEB India) 11 (3).
Upadhaya, K., H.N. Pandey, P.S. Law and
R.S. Tripathi. 2003. Tree Diversity in
Sacred Groves of the Jaintia Hills in
Meghalaya, Northeast India. Biodiver-
sity and Conservation 12: 583–597.
through the traditional laws regarding the
prohibition on the use of certain re-
sources. Such indigenous practices of pre-
serving natural heritage appear to be of
great antiquity and needs detailed investi-
gations by natural scientists and heritage
professionals.
Reference Cited
Barua, I. 2009. Conservation and Man-
agement of Community and Natural
Resources: A Case Study from North
East India. Studies of Tribes and Tri-
bals 7(1): 39-46.
Gupta, A. and K. Guha. 2002. Tradition
and Conservation in Northeastern In-
dia: An Ethical Analysis. Eubios Jour-
nal of Asian and International Bio-
ethics 12: 15-18.
Jamir, S.A. and H.N. Pandey. 2003. Vas-
cular Plant Diversity in the Sacred
Groves of Jaintia Hills in Northeast
India. Biodiversity and Conservation
12: 1497–1510.
Khan, M.L., A.D. Khumbongmayum and
R.S. Tripathi. 2008. The Sacred Groves
and Their Significance in Conserving
Biodiversity - An Overview. Interna-
tional Journal of Ecology and Envi-
ronmental Sciences 34 (3): 277-291.
38
Community Seed Bank: Conserving Wild
Edible Diversity of Himalayas D. Dhyani
Society for Conserving Planet And Life, Srinagar Gahrwal, 246174, India
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
Hundreds of millions of poor people
around the world depend directly or indi-
rectly on forests for their livelihoods and
subsistence. There is huge demand of
natural food products to fulfil nutritional
requirements of many living amid forests
in remote and inaccessible tracts. Most of
the times nutritional and food security
questions of communities especially
dwelling in mountains are ignored or ap-
propriately answered. Indian Himalayan
Region (IHR) is tough, fragile with undu-
lating terrain that faces crucial but the
pertinent issue related to food security
and poverty.
Garhwal part of IHR is home to a va-
riety of tribal population and a hub of a
variety of wild fruits, berries, ferns, yams,
roots, green leafy edibles, seeds etc. Most
of the villages of Garhwal Himalaya don’t
have organized market supplies hence; lo-
cals use wild fruits and vegetables as a ma-
jor source of their food source, nutrition
and medicinal support. Most of them are
not available in the markets and if col-
lected in large quantity from forests are
o 39
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
conservation of Seabuckthorn in Himala-
yas.
Under the umbrella of this project I
am developing seed bank of lesser known
wild edibles through participation of local
Bhotiya indo mongoloid tribal community
in Tolma. Tolma village mainly inhabited
by tribal community, is important to be
quoted because people have immense
knowledge about natural resources but in
last few years people are leaving their vil-
lage for livelihood needs.
Developing a seed bank of lesser
known wild edibles of Himalayan region is
an interesting and innovative part of the
project that is planned to be linked to
are bartered. Lesser possibilities for devel-
opment, economy generation, migration
of locals in Garhwal for education and em-
ployment, is leading to erosion of tradi-
tional and indigenous use practices linked
with utilization of wild edibles. Most of
the seasons many of these wild edibles go
waste without any proper utilization by
locals due to lack of proper know how.
I am leading a project on Conserving
Lesser Known Wild Edible Biodiversity
and Indigenous Traditional Knowledge of
Locals in North Istern Himalayas, India,
funded by Rufford Small Grant, UK in
Tolma village of Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve after a long stint of research and
40 Group meeting to discuss importance of seed bank
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
41
Fruits of Viburnum cotinifolium Micro seeds of Rubus ellipticus
Fruits of Berberis aristata Hard coat seeds of Prunus persica
Field survey for wild edibles Syzygium cumini still raw on trees
Rosa webbiana in flowering stage Prunus armenica on tree
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
42
Community is helping with collection
of seeds and developing a seed bank of
lesser known wild edibles in Suraithota
village in Nanda Devi Biosphere. Capacity
building programmes are being organised
and on ground training is imparted to lo-
cals for bio-prospecting of semi-domestic
fruits and some lesser known underutil-
ised wild edibles to enhance the under-
standing about value added products and
how they can be developed by sustainable
utilization for initiating conservation.
Local mapping of lesser known wild
edibles present in the region, their con-
sumption pattern Local mapping of
national seed repository of lesser known
plants on the lines of Kew Botanical Gar-
den Seed Bank Project. This Innovative
approach also includes involving locals,
developing literary material in local lan-
guage for school going children.
My work includes regular inventori-
zation, monitoring of forests for wild edi-
bles by visiting the forests, pastures and
alpines at a regular interval, collection of
seeds, documentation of knowledge etc.
General meetings and valuable discussion
along with field visits to forests with locals
especially elders, women and children are
important involvements with this project.
EcoWhisper Vol. 2. Issue 1., March, 2015
wild edible plants in local nursery is also
promoted under ex-situ conservation ef-
forts.
This project at large will communi-
cate the value of food security by utilizing
cost effective local resources and linking
conservation with livelihood enhancement
approach. I trying to endorse low cost, lo-
cal food products by using wild edibles so,
that food mile are reduced, low cost food
practices are initiated and food security
and poverty issues are answered.
lesser known wild edibles present in the
region, their consumption pattern and ex-
tent of usage is also recorded to develop
detailed statistics and pressure agents on
particular wild edibles in forests. Children
of the village are motivated to explore
their own forests, planning by having eco-
clubs with diverse interesting efforts for
having a clear understanding of wild edi-
ble diversity and how they can ensure in-
situ as well as ex-situ conservation of
these species by their own small efforts.
Technical knowhow of propagating these
43
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