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Relative stability of nuclei is expressedin terms of binding energy per nucleon
nuclei of intermediate mass numbers aremore stable than those w. either smalleror larger mass numbers
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Ex: What is the b.e. & b.e./nucleonfor 57Co?
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When 235U undergoes fission to producetwo lighter nuclei the b.e./nucleon inc.
This is the energy releasedin the fission process.
Note: When a neutron induces fissionnot only is a tremendous amt. ofenergy released but also 2 or 3more neutrons.
If mass of 235U is small, mostof product neutrons escape(subcritical mass).
At a certain critical mass, enoughneutrons come in contact w. otherfissionable nuclei so a chain reaction canbe sustained (constant rate of fission).
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In atomic bombs, a supercritical mass issuddenly brought together. Most productneutrons cause another fission.
=> branched chain
Tremendous amts. of energyreleased in short period of time
In a nuclear reactor, no more than ONE ofthe product neutrons is allowed to comein contact w. another fissionable nucleus.
- Control rods of Cd or B are usedto absorb some neutrons
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Fusion
Refer to curve of nuclear b.e.
Conversion of very light nucleiinto heavier ones results in an evengreater inc. in b.e./nucleon
21H + 21H v 32He + 1
0n2.01345 2.01345 3.01493 1.00867
)m = 4.0236 ! 4.0269 = ! 0.0033 amu
)E = (!3.3 x 10!6 kg)(2.9979 x 108 m/s)2
= !2.9 x 108 kJ
Can provide large amt’s of energy& fusion products are generallynot radioactive
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One problem w. fusion rxnsis getting them started
- Requires extremely high energies to force 2 nuclei close enough to fuse
- in terms of temp. ~ 108 °C
Thermonuclear rxn (H-bomb)
- fission rxn used to provide high energies needed for fusion
- have achieved sustained fusion for < 1 sec.
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Biological Effects of Radiation
Radiation is generally harmful:
- Energies of radiation are far in excess of chem. bond energies
- As radiation travels through matter, it gives up its energy to molecules it encounters
- leaves a trail of ions & molecular fragments (radicals)
living + ", $, ( ions &tissue radiation radicals
(high energy)
Ions & radicals are very reactive &disrupt the normal operations of the cell
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Damage from a source outside thebody depends on penetrating abilityof the radiation.
(-rays penetrate very effectively
" & $ emitters dangerous w/in body
- a lot of damage in a localized area
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Radiation Doses
Gray (Gy)
SI unit of absorbed dose
absorption of 1 J/kg tissue
rad (radiation absorbed dose)
absorption of 1 x 10!2 J/kg tissue
1 Gy = 100 rad
RBE (relative biological effectiveness)
- multiplication factor to account for relative damage by different forms of radiation.
~1 for γ and β ~10 for α
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RBE varies with dose rate, total doseand type of tissue affected.
rem (roentgen equivalent for man):
- effective dosage
# rem = (# rad) (RBE)
- used in medicine
SI unit: sievert (Sv) 1 Sv = 100 rem
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Background Radiation
Average exposure for a person in1 year due to all natural sourcesof ionizing radiation.
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Radon
Radon-222, 222Rn
one decay product of 238U
accounts for ~ half backgrd radiation
Noble gas - unreactive, readily inhaled
22286Rn v 218
84Po + 42He(t1/2 = 3.82 days)
Po-218
chemically active (trapped in lungs)
21884Po v 214
82Pb + 42He(t1/2 = 3.11 min)
Causes ~ 10% lung cancer deaths
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Radon-222 levels should not exceed4 pCi/L air in homes (EPA)
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Medical Uses
Diagnosis
1) Must be effective at low conc.
2) Short half-life
3) Readily eliminated
4) Emit (-rays - detected outside body
5) Selectively go to part of body desired
I-131 diagnosing thyroid activity
Na-24 detecting problems in circulatingsystem - NaCl soln injected intoblood stream
Tc-99 concentrates in abnormal hearttissue - survey extent of damagefrom heart disease and locatingbrain tumors
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Treatment
Must be an " or $ emitter (internal)
- do not have great penetrating power
- cells are damaged in a localized area
Works because radiation is mostdamaging to rapidly dividing cells
- cancer cells
Ir-192 taken internally as “seeds”
Co-60 $ & ( emitter (external)Used for high intensity cancertreatment from outside body
- beamed directly at affected area