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Chola Navy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chola Navy
Depiction of the siege of Kedah, the battle between Beemasenan's Chola
naval infantry and the defenders of Kedah fort.
Founded 3rd century CE
Country Chola Empire
Allegiance Chola Dynasty
Branch Naval
Type Naval Force
Size 600-1000 Ships in the peak period.
Part of Chola military
Engagements War of Pandya Succession (1172)
War of Pandya succession (1167)
Kalinga Campaighn (1081-83)
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The second expedition of Sri
Vijaya(1025-1028)
The first expedition of Sri
Vijaya(1022-1025)
Anexation of Kamboja (?-996)
The invasion of Ceylon/Sri
Lanka.(977 - )
Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-
908)
Commanders
Chakravarthy (Supreme commander)
Notable
commanders
Amarabujangan (12th century)
Beemaseenan - The famous admiral
of the Siege of the Keadh (late 11th
century)
Karunaakaran - Admiral/general (late
12th century)
The Chola Navy (Tamil: ; Cōḻar kadatpadai) comprised the naval forces of the Chola
Empire along with several other naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in the
expansion of the Chola Empire, including the conquest of theCeylon islands and Sri Vijaya (present day
Indonesia), the spread of Hinduism, Dravidian architecture and Dravidian culture to south east Asia and in
curbing the piracy in Southeast Asia in the 900[clarification needed ]
.
The navy grew both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas reign. The Chola Admirals commanded
much respect and prestige in the society. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some
instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power
projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas
fought land battles for subjugating the Chalukyas of Andhra-Kannada area in South India.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o 1.1 Early activity
o 1.2 Ancient navy
o 1.3 Medieval navy
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1.3.1 Interregnum
o 1.4 Imperial navy with blue-water capabilities
2 Trade, commerce and diplomacy
o 2.1 Piracy in Southeast Asia
o 2.2 Cooperation with the Chinese
3 Organization and administration
o 3.1 Administration
3.1.1 Notes
o 3.2 Rank structure
o 3.3 Other naval arms
3.3.1 Customs and excise
3.3.2 Coast guard
3.3.3 Privateers
4 Vessels and weapons
5 Campaigns
o 5.1 Recruitment and service
o 5.2 Ports and fleets
6 Political, cultural and economic impact
7 Popular culture
8 Timeline of events
9 Gallery
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
[edit]History
The Persians are famed for their archers, the Turks for their horsemen, and India for its armies. - An Arab
proverb
This proverb could be still true if not for the periods of Chola Empire whose actions heralded India's Naval
domination of the sub-continent and beyond. Historians divide the Chola Reign into three distinct phases.
The first era is the period of Early Cholas .The second phase is of Vijalaya Cholas and the final phase in
the empire was the Chalukya Chola period.
The Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half of the 9th century until the
beginning of the 13th centuries.[1]
Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty
became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia.[2][3]
During the period 1010 –1200, the Chola
territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of
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the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[4]
Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts
of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives.[3]
Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to
North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also
successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.[5][6]
[edit]Early activity
The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of thecommon era.[7]
The
Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite
a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected
history.
[edit]Ancient navy
The earliest record of Chola Naval activity by an external source is dated around the 1st century, the
Roman report of Kaveripoompattinam(presently known as Poombuhar ) as Haverpoum and a description
of how the Trade vessels were escorted by the King's fleet to the estuary as it was a natural harbor in the
mouth of the river Kaveri.[8]
Little archeological evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated wooden
plaques depicting naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (See Poompuhar for more details).
However, much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas has been gathered from Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of escort-ships assigned to themerchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had some sort of a rudimentary flame-
thrower and or a catapult type weapon.[9]
Colandia, the great ships which was used by Early Cholas. By this they sailed to pacific islands from
Kaveripatnam(as center).[10]
At that time, Pattinathu Pillai is the chief of the Chola's Navy.[11]
[edit]Medieval navy
The model of a Chola Era Ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed
in a Museum in Tirunelveli
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[edit]Interregnum
Main article: Chola dynasty
Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c.
300) up to the time when the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country (c. 600). An obscure
dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around
three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.
This period from the 3rd century until 7th century is a blind spot in the maritime tradition of the Cholas. But,
it can be safely assumed from the contemporary activities of the Pandyas and Pallavas. Little is known of
the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second
quarter of the 9th century. In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced toVassals of Pallavas,
though at times they switched sides and allied with Pandyas and tried to dispose their overlords. But, there
is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.
However, even during this time the Cholas had maintained a small but potent Naval force based inland in
the Kaveri river. During this time they dominated the inland trade in the Kaveri basin and Musuri is their
major inland port. Dry-docks built during this period exist to this day .[12]
[edit]Imperial navy with blue-water capabilities
Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) during the reign of Rajendra Chola I.
This phase of the history is the most well documented one, partly due the survival of the edicts and
inscriptions from the time along with reliable foreign narratives. This has enabled historians to interpolate
various accounts and come up with a clear account of Chola Naval activities of the time.
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise
of Vijalaya dynasty. During the Pallavas rule, the Cholas took control of not only the territories, but the
cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and
control seas from the Pallavas.
The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the
development of the Pallava Navy. There were serious effort in the period of the Pallava king Simavishnu to
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control the piracy in South East Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay peninsula.
However, this effort was accomplished only three centuries later by the new Naval power of the Cholas.
The three decades of conflict with the Sinhala King Mahinda V came to a swift end, after Raja Raja Chola
I's (985-1014) ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese.
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned
various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program.[13]
These effort were
continued and the benefits were reaped by his successor, Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra led a successful
expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there
were friendly exchanges between the Sri Vijaya empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times (including
the construction of chudamani Pagoda in Nagapattinam), the raid seems to have been motivated by the
commercial interests rather than any political motives.
[edit]Trade, commerce and diplomacy
A Chinese flame thrower of the 9th century, Designs like this were incorporated into the Chola Navy
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and
Southeast Asia.[14]
A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant
guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the
thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.[15]
The inscription is dated 1088,
indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.[16]
Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial
activity, especially with the Chinese and Arabs.[15][17]
The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the
west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[18][19][20]
The Tang
dynastyof China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and
the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[21]
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The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval
and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade.[22]
The
normal trade voyage of those day involved three legs of journey, starting with the Indian goods (mainly
spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk,
incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption,
the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. Traditionally, this involved transfer
of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination was reached.
[edit]Piracy in Southeast Asia
The Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboj (modern day Cambodia) as a midpoint in the trade route
between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Up to 5th century, the Arabs traded with Chinese directly
using Sri Vijaya as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their potential, the Sri Vijaya empire
began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area.
[23]
The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracywas a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties.
[23] Piracy
also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya, when two princes fought for the throne and
in turn, relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil war .[23]
The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the
loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new
factor. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, with little effect. With
the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were
dependent of horses for their cavalry corps, began to demand high prices for their trade. This led to a slew
of reduction in the Chola army.[24]
The Chinese were equally infuriated by the piracy menace, as they too
were losing revenue.
The culmination of three century's combined naval traditions of Pallavas and Cholas led to the most known
accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter).,[25]
Namely the 1st expedition of
the Chola navy into the Malay peninsula.
In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya kings
(as per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.[citation needed ]
[edit]Cooperation with the Chinese
Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in
the year 1077,[16][26][27]
and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[28]
It is possible
that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture
and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for
articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.[29]
The close diplomatics tie between the Song dynasty of China and the Medieval Cholas facilitated many
technological innovations to travel both ways. The more interesting ones to have reached Chinese shores
are:
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The famous Chola ship-designs employing independent water tight compartments in the hull of a ship.
The mariner's compass
The continuously shooting Flamethrowers for naval warfare.[30]
[edit]Organization and administration
Trade Routes of Southeast Asia around the Srivi jaya Empire and Kediri around the 12th and early 13th century.
The Ancient Chola navy was based on trade vessel designs with little more than boarding implements,
though this changed throughout the history. The later day navy was a specialized force with specially built
ships for each type of combat.
The Imperial Navy of the Medieval Cholas was composed of a multitude of forces in its command. In
addition to the regular navy (Kappal-Padai), there were many auxiliary forces that could be used in naval
combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike many of its contemporaries.
The Army depended on the Naval-fleets for transportation and logistics. The navy also had a core
of marines. Even saboteurs, who were trained pearl-fishermen were used, to dive and disable enemy
vessels by destroying or damaging the rudder .[30]
The Chola Navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,
Peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy.
Escort trade conveys.
Escort friendly vessels.
Naval battle close to home ports and at high-seas.
Establish a beachhead and or reinforce the army in times of need.
Denial of passage for allies of the state's enemies.
Sabotage of enemy vessels
This multi-dimensional force enabled the Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural
hegemony over their vast dominion.
[edit]AdministrationThe king/emperor was the supreme commander of all the military forces including the navy.
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The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships
assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became
necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a Ganam (Fleet-Squadron) would (the
largest individual unit)be commanded by a Ganathipathy (not to be confused with the elephant headed
god Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are
presented below,
Unit Name CommanderModern-day
equivalentComposition
Functions/Dutie
sNotes
Kanni -
Wartime/spec
ial purpose
formation
Senior Kalapathy,
Normally Kalapathy is the
rank of a commanding
officer of a Ship (akin to
Captain)
Not more
than five
ships of any
role.
' Kanni In Tamilmeans trap.
‡1A
tactical formation,it was used to lure
enemy combatants
to a particular area.
Where larger
bodies (usually, a
Thalam or 2) ships
will ambush the
enemy.
During a
strategicdeployment, the
formation would
be used many
times before
engaging in the
main combat todecimate the
enemy fleet.
Also had a
very badreputation
for losses,since high
numbers of
ships were
lost in this
role if the
friendliesarrival was
delayed in
unfavorable
currents.[31]
Jalathalam o
r
simplyThala
m‡2
- A
permanent
formation.
Jalathalathipathy - The
lord of Thalam
The smallest self-
sustained unit in
naval formation,
consisted 5 main
battle vessels, 3
Auxiliaries and 2Logistics and 1 or 2
Privateers.
A Thalam could beused for
reconnaissance,
patrol or
interdiction.
Normally, 2-
3 Thalam operate
d in a vicinity on
scouting or
search & destroy
missions. while
can search a wide
area, can reach to
each other's aid
in short duration.
A fully
equipped
Chola Thalam is said to
have been
able to
withstand an
attack by
more than
twice its
size. This is
attributed to
the superior
range of
missileweapons in
Chola
Inventory.
Mandalam -
A semi-
permanent
formation.Mostly used
Mandalathipathy - The
lord of Mandalam
Roughly
equivalent
to Task force or Battle
Composed of 40-50
Ships of various
roles.
(Mandalam inTamil and various
They can used as
an individual
combat unit,
especiallyduring pincer or b
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in
battle/Overse
as
deployment.
groups Indian languages is
the word of 48)
reak-
neck maneuverin
g in high-seas.
Ganam - A
permanent
formation
Ganathipathy - Literally,
Athipathy (lord) of
the Ganam, equivalent to
modern-day rear-admiral
Fleet-
Squadron
Composed of 100-
150 Ships of various roles.
(Ganam in Tamil
means volume and t
hree).
A ganam comprisesthree Mandalams.
A self-reliant
unit of the force,
only lesser than
the Fleet. Had
combat,
reconnaissance,
logistics and
resupply/repair
units.
Normally,
this would be the
minimum
strength/size
of the
overseasdeployment.
Ani Anipathy - lord of an Ani Taskforceor b
attle group
Composed of
3 Ganams (Fleet-division) minimum.
Normally
consisting of 300-
500 ships.
Mainly an
Expedition order
than normal
formation. But,
during long
deployments,they were
deployed (only 2
instances of
an Ani being
deployed in a
combat have been
documented.)[32]
Pirivu
Normally headed by a
prince/confidante of theKing, title depends on the
sea where the fleet is based.
For example, The eastern
fleet would be named
asKeelpirivu-
athipathy or Nayagan or Thevan/r, depending on the
person.
Fleet
they functioned
much like modern
Fleets. There were
two to four fleets in
the Chola navyduring various
times. The
principle fleet was
based in the east.
Later on a second
fleet was based onCeylon/Sri Lanka.
During and after
the Rajendra I,
three or four fleets
existed.
The rise
of Chera naval
power gave more
than a little lossin revenue,
prompting the
Cholas to station
a Fleet
permanently in
the Malabar andto engage
Mercenary
navies to support
the Chola
strategic design.
[edit]Notes
‡1. Kanni May mean any of the following in Tamil, the application on the meaning is in context of the
usage. Virgin/Unmarried Girl, First timer, the Eastern corner/direction. A trap is also called as 'kanni'
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2. Thalam being both the name of a tactical formation of the army and navy. Thalapathy meaning the lord
of a Thalam, roughly a division, and the rank is comparable to a modern-day colonel.
[edit]Rank structure
The Chola navy used a hybrid rank structure. There were dedicated naval ranks as well as army-derived
ranks.[33]
The Chola Navy used both naval ranks and army-style ranks. While some of the modern-day
convention of ranks did apply, for example, the army captain is equal to a lieutenant in the navy and a navy
captain is equal to a colonel in the army; others were totally different. So a small comparison is provided for
comparison.
The supreme commander :Chakravarthy - The emperor
The commander-in chief of navy :Jalathipathhi - roughly, the admiral of the navy.
The commander of the fleet : Pirivu+ Athipathy or Devar/n or Nayagan - The equivalent of an
admiral
The commander of the fleet-squadron : Ganathipathy - roughly the equivalent of a rear-admiral
The commander of a group : Mandalathipathy#(refer below) - the equivalent of a vice-admiral
The commander of the ship : Kalapathy -The equivalent of a captain in modern navies.
The officer in-charge of arms in a ship : Kaapu - Roughly the executive officer and weapons officer
rolled into one.
The officer in-charge of the oarsmen/masts : Seevai - roughly the equivalent of the master chief and
engineering officer.
The officer in-charge of boarding party (marines) : Eeitimaar - major or captain in marines.
[edit]Other naval arms
The auxiliary forces of the Chola Navy In addition to the standing navy of the state, there were other
services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the customs department, militia and
the state monopoly of pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were
maintained by various trade-guilds, these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and
reinforcements in times of need.[34]
[edit]Customs and excise
The Customs force, called Sungu (SUNGA ILLAKA) was highly organized and unlike anything in the
ancient world. It was under the command of a Director-general like position called Thalai-Thirvai. Thalai -
Head, Thirvai - duty (customs). It was highly evolved and had various departments[35]
Some are
Department Duties Assets
Thirvai(Customs duty &
Exercise)
This unit employed some of the
brilliant merchants of the time andmost were professional economists.
They normally had boarding officers,
boarding crafts and some sea vessels;
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They deduced and fixed the
percentage of the Customs duty of a
commodity for a particular season.
(trade-voyages were influenced by
ocean currents and hence the pricechanged accordingly)
as most of their duty was inland.
Aaivu(Inspection &enforcement)
This unit was the Action arm of the
trade law, they inspected ships for
contraband, illegal goods, wrong
declaring of tonnage, small crimes
control and the protection of the
Harbors under Chola dominion.
These units employed some of the fast
assault and boarding vessels of the
time and in more than one reported
occasion, the navy had sought its help
in intercepting rogue vessels.†
Ottru(intelligence corps)
They were the intelligence corps of
the territorial waters of the Chola
dominion. They normally tailed
foreign vessels, performed path-
finding for larger forces or conveysand gave periodic updates for the
kings and the trade-guilds of the
happenings in the sea.
They operated highly capable vessels
which are noted for stealth and speed,
rather than brute force and weapons
platforms. Most of the ships they
operated were privateers and contained
no national markings. We have some
understandings of their crafts, whichseemed to have been equipped with
concealable catapults
and napalm throwers
(not trebuchets like the ones employed
by the naval ships.)
Kallarani( piratesquad)
Technically, they weren't employed by either the sovereign or the state.But rather, they
are pirates themselves who have
received the Royal Pardon on the
pledge of their support of the Chola
Empire. They had been used in more
than a few instances to deal with theArab piracy in the western water.
They have also been used as Coast
Guard.
These mercenaries operated anything
that they could capture and composed
of multi-national-ethnic corps. Notable
among them are the Arabian Amirs,
who were highly respected upon their
oath of allegiance and their fervor incombat.
Karaipirivu(Coastal defense)
They performed duties akin to the
modern coast-guard, search & rescue
and costal patrols. But mainly they
were land-based and scattered along
the long coast-line to provide a
seaward defense.
they operated substantially smaller
crafts and occasionally
even catamarans . Nevertheless, they
were feared by petty crooks andcoastal thieves.
[edit]Coast guard
In the later years of the 1100[clarification needed ]
, the navy was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola
commercial, religious and political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a
change in the of outlook Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to
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reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized auxiliary force of fast and heavily
armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this expansion
and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial
waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
[edit]Privateers
The state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the powerful Trade-
guilds, some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors .[36]
And in the increasingly
competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded
Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of privateer navies. Like its
European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.
But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the
seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few
occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the
thousand directions"
Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam - The merchants from the high-country in three
worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)
Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu - The pearl exporters form the Kanchipuram
[edit]Vessels and weapons
A Song Dynasty junk ship, 13th century; Chinese ships of the Song period featured hullswith watertight compartments.
Some of these vessels are believed to have been employed by the Chola Navy too.[37]
Even before the accounts of the 1st century BCE, there were written accounts of shipbuilding and war-craft
at sea. Professor R.C. Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of naval-architecture in
India dating back to 2nd century BCE, if not earlier.
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During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its
utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.[38]
Dharani - The equivalent of modern-day destroyers designed to take combat to high-seas.
Loola - The equivalent of modern day corvettes; designed to perform light combat and escort duties.
Vajra - The equivalent of a frigate maybe, a fast attack craft lightly armored.
Thirisadai - Probably the battle cruisers or battleships of the day, they are reported to be armored
heavily and could engage more than 2 targets in combat, and relied on its built rather than speed to
survive and attack.[39]
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship
seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.[40]
This ship also is said to be able to
engage in asymmetrical warfare.
Dharani
The primary weapons platform with extensive endurance (up to 3
months), they normally engaged in groups and avoided one on one
encounters.
Probably equivalent to
modern day Destroyers.
LolaThey were lightly armored, fast attack vessels. Normally performed
escort duties. They could not perform frontal assaults.
Equivalent to modern
dayCorvettes.
VajaraThey were highly capable fast attack crafts, typically used to
reinforce/rescue a stranded fleet.
Probably equivalent to
modern day Frigates.
Thirisadai
The heaviest class known, they had extensive war-fighting
capabilities and endurance, with a dedicated marine force of around400 Marines to board enemy vessels. They are reported to be able
to engage three vessels of Dharani class, hence the
name Thirisadai, which means, three braids. (Braid was also the
time's name for oil-fire.)
This class can beattributed/compared to
modern Battle
cruisers or Battleships.
This is the Anchor of an Unknown LOLA class Chola ship, excavated by the Indian Navy diversoff the coast of
Poombuhar.
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Apart from class definitions, there are names of Royal Yachts and their architecture. Some of which are,
Akramandham - A royal Yacht with the Royal quarters in the stern.
Neelamandham - A royal Yacht with extensive facilities for conducting courts and accommodation for
hi-officials/ministers.
Sarpammugam - these were smaller yachts used in the Rivers (with ornamental snake heads)
In addition to these, we find many names of Ship classes in Purananuru and its application in both inland
waters and open oceans. Some of them are,
Yanthiram - Hybrid ship employing bot sails and oars or probably Paddle wheels of some type
(as Yanthiram is literally translated to mechanical wheel)
Kalam - Large vessels with 3 masts which can travel in any direction irrespective of winds.
Punai - medium sized vessels that can be used to coastal shipping as well as inland.
Patri - Large barge type vessel used to ferrying trade goods.
Oodam - Small boat with large oars.
Ambi - Medium sized boat with a single mast and oars.
Toni - small boat used in rocky terrain.
[edit]Campaigns
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its documented existence, the Chola Navy was involved in
confrontations for probably 500 years.[41]
There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to
mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between
the Pandyas and Cholas for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many legends and folktales. Not to
mention the heroes in both sides. The notable campaigns are below[42][43][44]
War of Pandya Succession (1172)
War of Pandya succession (1167)
The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081-1083)
The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031-1034)
The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027-1029)
The Annexation of Kedah (1024-1025)
Annexation of the Kamboja (?-996)
The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977-?)
Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8)
[edit]Recruitment and service
The chola emperors gave a free hand to the admirals in recruiting and training of sailors, engineers,
oarsmen and marines. There were no complicated tests and evaluation process. Any citizen or even
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non citizen could sign up for the naval service. But, one did not end up in the work of his choice.
Preference were given to ex-servicemen, their sons and noblemen. But, this attitude changed in later
days. And many class of soldiers / sailors distinguished themselves, irrespective of rank and class.
[edit]Ports and fleetsthe most ancient of ports used by Cholas was Poompuhar . Later on, they used many more ports and
even built some new ones. Some of the famous ports are:
Arikamedu
Poombuhar.
Kancheepuram
Nagapattinam
Kulachal
Korkai
Kadalur.
Thoothukudi
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by
Rivers Kaveri and Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate
mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
Musuri
Worayur or Urayur
The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished
ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign
of Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The
main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a
small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were two fleets of logistics and transport ships to serve
the needs of the army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in southeast Asia.
In the later years these numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During
the late 11th century, there were a total of nine battle fleets, based in various dominians across the
vast expanses of the Chola empire ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern
reaches of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
[edit]Political, cultural and economic impact
The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra
Chola I is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished
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by the tireless efforts and pains of the navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the sub-
continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors
initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it,and they used it more than just wars.
The Chola navy was a potent Diplomatic symbol,It was the carrier of Chola might and prestige. Itspread the Dravidian culture, the literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was
just the equivalent of the " Gunboat diplomacy " of the modern day Great powers and super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent an ornamental
chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him so that his strategic attention does not extend
further than the Malay peninsula.
[edit]Popular culture
From the Sangam age poems to commemorate the victory of the sovereign of the day to theimmortalized Kalinga Campaign of the Kulothunga Chola I in the Kalingattuparani. Parani is a special
type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of Tamizh can only be
composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.
In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil
Language and literature.
Yavana rani : A historical novel by Sandilyian surrounding the events of the Karikala's
Ascendence to throne.
Ponniyin selvan : The crowning glory of the Rajaraja is idolized in this Novel surrounding the
assassination of his brother and crown prince Aditha Karikalan. More than a passing note is given
of the navy and its organization in this Magnum opus by Kalki. Krishnamoorthy.
Kadal pura : Another historical novel by sandilyan surrounding the foundation of the Chalukya
Chola dynasty in India and the Song Dynasty in china. Sandilyan gives more than a passing
evidence to prove that the song-emperor and Kulothunga chola were friends. By far, this work
gives the most intricate details of the navies of the day and naval warfare. In this work he
describes the various weapons and tactics employed by the Cholas and Chinese navies and their
combined efforts to overthrow the Sri Vijaya dynasty.
Kanni Maadam : A historical novel by Sandilyan in the time of Rajathiraja Chola. The work
describes the Pandyas' civil war .It elaborates the war by proxy, between the sinhalese and
cholas. The pallavas are all but gone, they are in the service of both Cholas and pandyas. It
features some of the most detailed tactical maneuvering in battlefield. It also highlights the
importance of the Naval power and logistics in an overseas campaign.
[edit]Timeline of events
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The major events which had direct impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed
here, which is in no case comprehensive. But, some of the events had deep impact nevertheless.
Archeological evidence: The dated excavations,
3000 BCE - Dugboats were found in Arikamedu, what is now in Puducherry.[citation needed ]
2400 BCE - Highly functional port is in operation in Lothal of what is now Gujarat.[citation needed ]
700 BCE - The first mention of the word Yavana in pottery around korkai.(meaning Greeks or
Romans)
300 BCE - A load-stone compass with Chinese inscriptions is found off the coast of
Kaaveripoompatnam.[citation needed ]
100 BCE - A settlement of Tamil/Pakrit speaking merchants founded in Rome.[citation needed ]
Late 1st century BCE - Roman glass was found in southern coastal regions of Tamilnadu.[citation
needed ]
Literary references and recordings
356-321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian
coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great
from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established
commercial route.[45]
334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and
the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.[46]
207-190 BCE: In a puranaanuru song, there is an advice for enterprising soldiers, which when
translated literally comes to "He should ride the horse like the Phalavas, Muster the elephant like
cherals, and must organize the defense of a fort like the Yavanas, this brings to light the
existence of Roman settlements.
1st century BCE : When Vennikkuyithiar mentions about Karikala, he mentions several class of
inland vessels by Name some are Kalam, Punai & Patri.
[edit]Gallery
An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas[47][48]
[edit]See also
Chola dynasty
Chola Military
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Dravidian Architecture
[edit]References
1. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 175
2. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 115
3. ^ a b Keay, p 215
4. ^ Majumdar, p 407
5. ^ The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year.
The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri,The
CōĻas, pp 211 –220
6. ^ Meyer, p 73
7. ^ "History of India by Literary Sources" , Prof. E.S. Narayana Pillai, Cochin University
8. ^ "South India Handbook" , Robert Bradnock, pp 142.
9. ^ "The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean" , William Vincent, Page
517-521
10. ^ "periplus mentions 3 ports in tamil country of which kaveripatnam as center, as the places from
which great ships which calls colondia sailed to pacific islands" - K.M.Panikkar in "geographical
factors in indian history", page-81.
11. ^ 'Mayillai.Seeni. VenkataSwamy', (TAMIL
BOOK), page-149
12. ^ The Archaeological Survey of India's report on Ancient ports, 1996, Pages 76-79
13. ^ "India and China- Oceanic, Educational and technological cooperation" , Journal of Indian Ocean
Studies 10:2 (August 2002), Pages 165-171
14. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 116 –117
15. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 118
16. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 117
17. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 12
18. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 124
19. ^ Tripathi, p 465
20. ^ Tripathi, p 477
21. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 604
22. ^ "Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan" , Lionel D.
Barnett, Page 216.
23. ^ a b c Prakash Nanda,ISBN 81 7062 297 2, Pages:56-57. Rediscovering Asia: Evolution of India's
Look-East Policy .
24. ^ The Military History of south Asia, By Col. Peter Stanford, 1932.
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25. ^ Military Leadership in India: Vedic Period to Indo-Pak Wars By Rajendra Nath, ISBN 81-7095-
018-X, Pages: 112-119
26. ^ Keay, p 223
27. ^ See Thapar, p xv
28. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 316
29. ^ The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor , sandalwood, rhinoceros horns, ivory, rose
water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper , cloves, etc. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South
India, p 173
30. ^ a b istorical ilitary eritage of the amils y Ca. . Cuppiramaiyan a.a.
irunāvukkaracu International Institute of amil Studies
31. ^ "Indian Ocean Strategies Through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps" , Moti Lal Bhargava,
Reliance publication house, ISBN 81-85047-57-X
32. ^ "The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present", Page 1470-73 by Richard
Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986,
33. ^ The history of the navies of India, BY William Shaf 1996, Pages-45-47
34. ^ The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras
University Press, Available online at http://deas.repec.org/b/hay/hetboo/majumdar1920.html
35. ^ Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, Kenneth Hallp.34, citing
Pattinapalai, a Sangam poem of the 1st century, quoted in K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyer, 'Largest
provincial organisations in ancient India', Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 65, 1 (1954-55):
38.,
36. ^ The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras
University Press,
37. ^ Southeast Asia, Past and Present By D. R. Sardesai, Page 47
38. ^ The History and Culture of the Indian People, By Prof R.C. Majumdar Pages, 642-646
39. ^ The History shipbuilding in the sub-continent , By Prof R C Majumdar, Pages, 521-523, 604-616
40. ^ A History of South-east Asia - Page 55 by Daniel George Edward Hall - Asia, Southeastern
Publishers, 1955, Pages 465-472, 701-706
41. ^ The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon,George W. Spencer,The Journal
of Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (May, 1976), pp. 405-419, Summary available online
athttp://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-
9118(197605)35%3A3%3C405%3ATPOPTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U
42. ^ "An atlas and survey of south Asian History" , By M E Sharpe, 1995, Published by Lynne
Rienner, Pages 22-28
43. ^ The geo-Politics of Asia,By Michael D. Swaine & Ashley J. Tellis, Published by Konark
publishers for the center for policy research, New Delhi,Page 217-219
44. ^ D The Chola Maritime Activities in Early Historical Setting, By: Dr. K.V. Hariharan
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45. ^ http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.html
46. ^ http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/spice/textobjects/moreonmaps.htm
47. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 18.
48. ^ Chopra et al., p 31
[edit]External links
http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-
grandeur/
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html