Chapter two
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Mushongahande, (2007), pointed out that, Zimbabwe is a land locked country in
Southern Africa covering more than thirty nine million hectares. Of the thirty nine
million hectares, one hundred and eight thousand two hundred and fourteen or (three
percent) of the total area is under commercial plantations which are mainly found in the
eastern highlands. The distribution of commercial tree species, is as follows: pines
occupies seventy one thousand seven hundred and seventy one hectares (66.32%),
eucalyptus occupies twenty six thousand two hundred and seventy four hectares
(24.28%), wattle have ten thousand and nine (9.25%) and popular has one hundred and
sixty hectares (0.15%).
As noted by Kammen, (2001), Zimbabwe’s economy depends heavily on natural
resources for employment creation, generation of foreign currency and sustenance of
livelihoods. The forestry sector contributes about three percent of the gross domestic
product largely from exotic plantations and commercial indigenous timber. The formal
forestry sector in Zimbabwe employed a total of fourteen thousand two hundred and fifty
three people in the year 2005.
2.1.1 Decline in timber production.
According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), timber production declined from a peak of
four hundred and fifty cubic meters to less than one hundred and fifty thousand cubic
meters due to: influx of illegal settlers in Chimanimani plantations who are building
houses in plantations, power outages and collapse of cluster industries, prevented
foresters from accessing plantations to replant or carry out other forestry operations, and
fire outbreaks
Muchinguri, (2007), also added that timber exports during the 2006/07 season declined
by 15.2% to US$36 448 329, against a backdrop of mounting challenges in the sector. A
total of nine thousand six hundred and twenty cubic meters of sawn timber was exported
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 1
during the period under review, the bulk of it to the grossly under supplied South African
market. Gonad, (2008), explained that, as a result of veld fires the timber industry had
lost a lot of man hours in terms of production as more time was being committed to
fighting the fires. Production had nearly grounded to a halt from the ten to thirty percent
capacity that the industry was operating. The table below shows a simple illustration of
how production have been declining since 2005.
Table 2.1.1 (a) forestry production output between 2005 and 2008
Type of
plant
Number of
plants
Production
2005
Production
2006
Production
2007
Production
2008
Sawmill and
processed
timber
41 400000m3 390000m3 370000m3 365000m3
Treated
poles
6 95000m3 92000m3 90000m3 85500m3
Wattle
extract
1 4500tonnes 4480tonnes 4460tonnes 4455tonnes
Charcoal
1 9200tonnes 9190tonnes 9180tonnes 9178tonnes
Source: Mabugu, (2007), Accounting for forestry resources.
2.1.2 Causes of decline in timber production.
The Zimbabwean timber production have been affected by theft, animals and fire
resulting in low timber out put in the country. Kanyekanye, (2005), cited that, about
twenty two million United States Dollars of export timber was lost to forest fires and
baboons since the beginning of the year 2008. According to Hammond, (2006), vast
areas of forestry land in Zimbabwe have been destroyed by uncontrolled fires. One
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 2
thousand six hundred and twenty three hectares of timber owned by Border Timbers
Private Limited and two hundred hectares of timber belonging to Forestry Company of
Zimbabwe had been destroyed.
Zaikowski, (2008), cited that, the total global area burned annually between 2005 and
2006 was in the range of three hundred to four hundred million hectares, and about half
of this was in Africa. Southern Africa accounted for about thirty one percent of the forest
loss on the continent. Kadzere M, (2005), also added that due to the fires, animals and
theft, trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently log shortages will occur for
many years. Added to that the new farmers were preventing foresters from replanting in
the fire damaged areas.
It can be noted from the above argument that the timber producing companies in
Zimbabwe were experiencing a decline in timber output since the year 2005. The Wattle
Company Limited is failing to meet the demands of the customers especially the South
African market which is the major importer of Zimbabwean timber. Failure to meet
demands may result in the company loosing its customers. The decline is said to result
from damages caused by fire, animals and theft.
2.2 Major threats on plantations
According to Fichani, (2009), low timber production is a result of damages caused by
fire, animals and theft. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once a plantation has
been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, animals and thieves. Evans,
(1992), pointed out that the nature of a plantation, its uniformity in age and species, often
along with the kind of site it occupies, renders it more susceptible to some forms of
damage.
The above authors considers fire, theft and animals as the major threats on plantations
hence plantations managers are required to take considerable measures to protect their
plantations from the damage caused by these threats. These threats are the major reason
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 3
why the management designs plantation security systems to protect their plantations from
any danger.
2.2.1 Fire
Evans, (1992), cited that fire will often be the most important danger facing plantations.
He pointed out that the greatest danger of fire is when the plantation is young before the
canopy have closed and suppressed the ground vegetation, though in dry conditions with
strong winds, mature plantations can also be destroyed. According to Nicolas and
Beebe, (1999), many plantations suffer from fires every year in the dry season though
how much is burnt can vary enormously. Lara, (1993), pointed out that damage by fire
impose a serious threat to plantations. Fire can originate from natural causes such as
lightning but many result of the activities of man. Lara , (1993), added that, plantation
fires can start from fires spreading from farmland on the perimeter, from activities of
hunters or from burning by herdsman to improve livestock grazing.
Fire danger is most high when the plantation is young and in the dry season as mentioned
by the above authors meaning that the security managers should implement tight security
strategies during this period of time when the risk is very high. It can also be noted that
fire can originate either from natural causes such lighting or from human activities such
as farming, hunting, transportation and children play. Human causes can either be
deliberate or by mistake.
2.2.2 Animals
2.2.2.1 Wild animals.
Evans, (1992), pointed out that, there are three orders of wild animals responsible for
damage; rodents (rats, mice, moles and squirrels); lagomorphs (hares and rabbits); and
artiodactyls (deer, antelopes, pigs and buffaloes). Evans, (1992), added that damage from
wild animals can threaten the quality of the trees. Baboon damage to plantations has
resulted in high tree mortality and significantly reduced log recoveries per hectare.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 4
2.2.2.2 Domestic animals.
“Grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a most destructive agent of forest,
both natural and plantations”, said Evans, (1992:152). Rathfon and Farlee, (2002),
advised that , because cattle, sheep, goats and camels, eat tree foliage, they must be
excluded from a plantation while it is young. Inevitably this means that a young
plantation often has dense ground vegetation growing between the trees, which further
increases the attractiveness for grazing. McKenna and Woeste, (2009), explained that,
cattle sheep and horses tend to congregate beneath certain trees for shade and to rest, a
behavior that causes both direct and indirect injuries to trees.
Both wild and domestic wild animals have some effects on the timber production. As
mentioned by the authors above they affect both quality and quantity of timber to be
harvested. Baboons tend to be the most dangerous wild animals that affect the Wattle
Company’s timber plantations. Domestic animals like goats, cattle and sheep eat the tree
foliage of young plantations.
2.2.3 Theft.
Evans, (1992), noted that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for cooking and
heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some cases the right to
collect firewood is granted but often the villagers demand outstrips supply. Sometimes
villagers cut trees for poles used for the construction of houses, kraals and fencing.
Kanyekanye, (2007), stated that, resettled farmers are illegally cutting down timber from
plantations in the process of clearing land for farming.
People poach timber from plantations for different reasons as suggested by the above
authors. Some people are engaged in timber poaching as way to make money; others for
the construction of their houses, kraals and fencing; and others illegally harvest timber as
they will be clearing land for farming.
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2.3 Plantation security system
To protect plantations from the mentioned threats, the forestry companies have the
necessary security systems in place. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once a
plantation has been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, thieves and
animals. Evans, (1992), argued that successful plantation is only possible provided there
is adequate protection.
A plantation need to be protected from the damage caused by animals, thieves and fire as
a result the management should make sure that they have designed effective plantation
security systems are. The more efficient the plantation security system is the lesser the
damages by fire animals and thieves.
2.3.1 Security.
According to O’Brien, (2005), security is a condition that result from the establishment
and maintenance of protective measures that ensure a state of inviolability from hostile
acts or influence. Security measures should be implemented, monitored and maintained
to ensure that there is enough protection of the plantation from any hostile acts. The
hostile acts are the threats mentioned above.
2.3.2 A system.
O’Brien, (2005), defined a system as a group of interrelated components working
together toward a common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an
organized transformation process. According to Schulthers and Summer, (1999), a
system is an integrated set of components or entities, that interact to achieve particular
function or goal. A system has characteristics such as boundaries, outputs and inputs,
methods of converting inputs into outputs and system interfaces.
O’Brien, (2005), explained that a system has three basic interacting components or
functions which are: inputs – which involve capturing and assembling elements that enter
the system to be processed; processing – which involve transformation processes that
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 6
convert input into out put; output – which involve transferring elements that have been
produced by a transformation process to their unlimited destination.
From the above authors it can be noted that a system consist of components. These
components should be related in one way or another. There should be inputs, processing
and outputs.
2.3.4 Security system.
Schulthers and Summer, (1999), defined a security system as a device or multiple
devices designed, installed and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about
activity that may pose a security threat in a location or locations on a vessel or facility.
2.3.5 Plantation security system.
From the above definition one may have a view of what a plantation security system is. It
can be noted that a security system is a device or devices designed, installed and operated
to monitor, detect and communicate about activity or activities that may pose a security
threat in a location or locations.
On a plantation security system the, devices are the inputs of the system which include
the employees, community, neighboring companies, machinery and equipment. The
activities that may pose security threat on a plantation security system are fire, animals
and theft. These are the activities that the system has to monitor, detect and
communicate.
The location on the plantation security system is the plantation. So a plantation security
system consist of employees, community, neighboring companies, equipment and
machinery that are put together and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about
the fires, animals and theft on a plantation.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 7
Fig 2.3.5 (a) a plantation security system.
Source: Nicolas and Beebe, (1999).
2.3.5.1 Inputs.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), the inputs of the plantation security system
consist of employees, the community, neighboring companies, equipment and
machinery.
Employees.
The security department should have enough employees who are well trained and
experienced in the field. These employees may consist of; foresters, fire fighters and
guards. Foresters are responsible for patrolling throughout the plantations during the day
for early detection of danger. Firefighters are those individuals who are trained to deal
with any kind of fire. Young plantations are usually guarded by some individuals who
will be chasing away animals from the plantation.
The community.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page
Inputs
Employees,Community,Neighboring companies,Equipment,Machinery
Processing
Observations- patrol, lookout towers, cameras, binoculars
Communication – two way radios, siren, bells, phones
Protection – firebreaks, fencing, fuel breaks, guards, repellents Action – fire fighting, chasing, arresting
Output
Timber production
8
The community refers to those people who are close to the plantations or those who
benefit from the plantation resources. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), argued that, it is a
major step forward if the forestry companies integrate key communities into the
protection management of forests. Key communities are those with access to the area to
hunt and collect forestry produce, or simply because they are close to the plantations
boundaries.
Neighboring companies.
Most fires starts outside concessions and enter as wildfires. It is essential if security
management is to be successful, that neighboring companies cooperate and coordinate to
protect their areas from fire, animals and theft. The companies as suggested by Nicolas
and Beebe, (1999), need to discuss: communications to coordinate protection operations,
early warning and danger issues, plans for patrolling along the borders of the plantations,
approaches to and cooperation with local communities, training and awareness
campaigns; sharing of equipment and personnel.
Equipment and machinery.
Lara, (1993), noted that, the company should buy the necessary equipment and
machinery to be used in the protection program. Firefighting vehicles, motor bikes,
bulldozers, surveillance cameras, two way radios, chainsaws, rakes, and so on are very
important in the system. Without enough equipment and machinery the security system
will have a lot of loopholes with which the threats can use to damage the plantations.
2.3.5.2 Processing.
Observations.
The functions of the process as stated by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), starts by
observations which is meant to detect any threat on plantation security. Rapid detection
and movement of the security teams to the scene will greatly reduce damage. For large
plantations detection is usually by watchers posted at times of high danger in lookout
towers. Where there are no towers observers can be posted at good vantage points with
views over the plantation. From the diagram it can be seen that observation is done
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 9
through patrols, lookout towers, surveillance cameras or binoculars. The community,
employees or workers from neighbor companies should be equipped with the necessary
skills and equipment to do some observations in the plantations.
Communication.
Communication is the second function of the system. Lara, (1993), stated that, if there is
any threat detected, it should be communicated immediately to everyone involved in the
plantation security system. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), communication can
be done through two way radios, sirens, bells or phones. Evans, (1992), added that, rapid
detection is the first step, the alarm must be raised and information about a threat, its
location and possible size, relayed to the security department. Rapid detection of fire and
raising the alarm are first two essentials of good communication, the third is enabling the
firefighting teams to reach the scene quickly. Thus a plantation requires at least a
rudimentary system of roads and tracks passable by vehicles.
Protection.
The third function is protection. Lara, (1993), argued that, as the managers anticipate
damage from any of the discussed threats at any time, they are then forced to put some
protection measures to reduce the effects of the threats. As suggested by Nicolas and
Beebe, (1999), firebreaks, fuelbreaks, security fence, guards and repellents can be used
as protection measures.
Action.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), when the threat is detected and all the people
are informed, the necessary action should be taken. If it is the fire outbreak, people
should fight the fire; wild animals must be chased away from plantation and thieves
arrested.
2.3.5.3 Output.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 10
The output of a plantation security system is the reduction of losses caused by fire,
animals and theft. When the system is operating at high level of efficiency, the effects of
the mentioned threats will be very low and as a result the loss of timber will be reduced.
Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that the plantation security system is a group of
interrelated components that are designed to monitor, detect and communicate any
activity that may pose a security threat on a plantation.
For the system to operate efficiently it should have all the necessary resources. For
firefighting purposes water is the major resource required. Roads leading to the
plantation boundary are of special value as is a track running along a boundary so that
access is gained to where the danger may be approaching. When everything is in place
the management are then required to effectively manage the system so as to yield good
results. The main objective of designing a plantation security system is to reduce the
damages caused by humans and animals so as to increase timber output.
2.4 Challenges on managing security system
Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that, once the security system is designed, it needs to
be effectively managed so as to reduce the lose caused by fire, animals and thieves.
However according to Fichani, (2009), managers are facing many challenges in the
process of managing these security systems. These challenges include economic,
political, environmental, social and legal challenges.
2.4.1 Physical environmental challenges.
2.4.1.1 Unpredictable weather
According to Kadzere, (2005), the occurrence of damaging weather phenomena is
usually unpredictable. Little can be done to protect timber plantations against the damage
caused by weather, except to grow tree species known to be resistant to the detrimental
effects of local weather patterns, or locating the stands of trees in sheltered areas. High
winds, rainfalls, temperatures, and so on are some of the weather phenomena which
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 11
causes damages to plantations. Gonda, (2008), also added that, Zimbabwe’s timber
industry is under threat amid projections that the country could face shortages in the next
fifteen years as a result of the tropical cyclones of 2000 and 2002. high cyclone induced
rainfall caused severe destruction of forests, particularly in the eastern highlands.
2.4.1.2 Climatic changes.
The impacts of global climate change on forest distribution was evaluated using the
Holdridge life zone and Goddard Institute of Space studies (GISS) general circulation
model scenarios, Matarira and Mwamuka, (1996). Across Zimbabwe, seventeen to
eighteen percent of the total land area is projected to shift from subtropical thorn
woodland and subtropical dry forest to tropical very dry forest under the Goddard
Institute of Space Studies scenario. The projected shift in forest distribution is
attributable to a future decline in precipitation patterns and an increase in ambient
temperatures.
2.4.1.3 Plantations are located at the exit points.
According to Mushongahande, (2007), most of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe are
located in the eastern highlands. Plantations are at the exit points to Mozambique and as
a result they are used by the border jumpers as they will be traveling to and from
Mozambique. Cooking fires, smoking stubs and other activities by the travelers
sometimes result in wild fires. The management of the Wattle Company Limited is
facing a great challenges from these travelers who are being very careless.
2.4.1.4 Plantations are located in remote areas.
Kammen, (2001), added that, ninety percent of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe are
in rural remote areas in the eastern highlands where there are no telephone facilities,
electricity nor good roads. This makes communication very difficult. Rathfon and Farlee,
(2002), argued that communication is very important for the security of plantations. Lara,
(1993), also pointed out that, if any threat is detected on the plantation it should be
communicated quickly. Without good roads the movement of vehicles is very slow,
however the security is advised to reach the scene of danger very quickly.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 12
2.4.1.5 Plantations are located on sloppy ground.
According to Hammond, (2006), eastern highlands are characterized by a range of
mountains. Hirst, (2007), explained that, fire spreads far more quickly uphill than along
flatland or downhill. For every increase in slope a fire will double its rate of speed
traveling upslope. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope greatly influence speed of
fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much more quickly burned through than
those on the flat ground. Slopes also affect the speed of the fire fighting team. Uphill
movement of the vehicles is very slow and due to the steepness of the ground roads are
sometimes affected by erosion during the rain season.
2.4.1.5 Sources of water are limited.
Mushongahande, (2007), also stated that natural sources of water are very limited within
the plantations. Because of the slopes in the eastern highlands, water from the rains
usually run downhill to the river. The sources of water for fire suppression are therefore
limited to rivers and dams. Evans, (1992), argued that it is very important for the
plantations to have some sources of water inside the plantations. The Wattle Company
Limited do not have other sources of water inside their plantations. They rely on water
from nearby dams or rivers.
2.4.2 Social challenges.
2.4.2.1 Land conflicts with the community.
According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), many plantation fires undoubtedly arise from
disputes over land ownership, water supply, recreational, fishing and hunting areas. The
villagers from the Nyaruwa and Chinyai clans in Chimanimani, as stated by Sifile,
(2008), resettled themselves on the timber plantations of Border Timbers Limited (BTL)
at the height of the land invasions, arguing that the plantation was situated on land that
used to belong to their ancestors. Repeated attempts including a high court order- to have
the estimated five hundred families evicted have been in vain.
2.4.2.2 Carelessness of the villagers.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 13
It is true that most of the human causes of fire is deliberate, but it can also be argued that
in some cases it result from mistakes and carelessness. Evans, (1992), pointed out that,
sometimes fires occur as a result of the carelessness of the villagers. Farmers usually
burn their farms in preparation for the farming season or to improve their grazing
pastures and such burning usually end up in wild fires. The Wattle Company is facing so
many fire outbreaks from the villagers’ farming and hunting activities. Though the
villagers are educated about the danger of fire, they are very irresponsible.
2.4.2.3 Villagers hunting in the plantations.
Hirst, (2007), suggested that, hunting in plantations by the society also put the plantation
at a risk of fire. Hunters may leave their hunting fires burning, their smoking stubs and
they sometimes cut the young trees as they will be hunting thereby disturbing the growth
of the trees. Sifile, (2008), pointed out that, villagers sometimes burn plantations in their
process of searching mice and small animals to avert pervasive hunger. Restricting
villagers from entering plantations may result in unwelcome reactions by the villagers
and other hand allowing them to have access into the plantation is putting the plantation
at risk.
2.4.2.4 Playing village children.
Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), also talked of the children from the village who start some
plantation fires as they will be playing in the plantations. Since the communities are
located at the boundaries of the timber plantations the children have easy access to the
plantations and in most cases they find plantations a good playing area.
2.4.2.5 Domestic animals of the villagers.
Evans, (1992), suggested that grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a most
destructive agent of forest. The community let their livestock into the plantation to graze
usually on young plantation where there is dense ground vegetation growing between the
trees. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), before planting, land acquired for
afforestation may be casually grazed. This is of no direct concern to a forester and may
even be encouraged to keep down rank vegetation, but when planting begins, the
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 14
curtailment of this right may be deeply resented by grazers used to pasturing their
animals on the land. The community will let their animals into the plantations to graze
and sometimes they cut the tree branches for fodder.
2.4.2.6 Poaching of timber by villagers.
Evans, (1992), pointed out that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for
cooking and heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some
cases the right to collect firewood is granted but the villagers often demand outstrips
supply. Sometimes villagers cut trees for poles to construct houses, kraals and fencing.
Because of poverty many households have turned to timber poaching as a way of
survival. The Wattle Company Limited is facing this problem of timbers but its very
difficult to find out those responsible since the timber plantations are very large.
2.4.3 Economic challenges.
2.4.3.1 High level of inflation.
According to Gumede, (2009), the hyper inflation in the recent years resulted in many
experienced workers leaving their employment in search for greener pastures. Forestry
companies in Chimanimani and Nyanga have been hit by a critical flight of workers who
abandoned their chainsaws for gold panning in nearby Mozambique.
Hammond, (2006), added that forestry companies experienced a critical shortage of
manpower. Most of the general hands abandoned work for gold panning, citing poor
remuneration and poor working conditions. Gumede, (2009), explained that, unless
something was done to rectify the problem, production at most timber estates could be
affected. According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), over four million Zimbabweans
have fled the country. This massive brain drain of the most qualified Zimbabweans
undermines any possibility of reversing the catastrophic collapse of Zimbabwean
economy.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 15
According Gonda, (2008), in a number of cases employees were getting frustrated with
the lack of salaries and their living standards as a result they blamed their employees for
not responsible. It is the government that is responsible for the collapse of the economy
but it seems easier and in some cases safer to take their frustrations out on their
employers. Many plantations have been suffering fires from the frustrated employees.
Inflationary period in the recent years kept on haunting the Wattle Company Limited’s
operations. During the period many of its experienced workers left to seek for greener
pastures in countries like South Africa and Botswana. From these individuals there were
some professionals from the security department. Because of this the company is facing a
shortage of experienced personnel in the security department. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999),
pointed out that well trained and experienced workers are part of the plantation security
system. Without one of the inputs the system may not work properly. This is one the
reasons why the systems are failing to produce quality results.
2.4.3.2 High level of unemployment.
Hammond, (2006), stated that, the increasing levels of unemployment and poverty in
Zimbabwe have led many households turning to timber poaching for survival. Zimbabwe
has a sixty percent unemployment rate as noted by Mushongahande, (2007). Many
people in the nearby communities turn to plantation burning as a way to create
employment for themselves in the fire suppression and subsequent replanting. He added
that, sixty two percent of Zimbabwean households are poor with forty six percent of
them living in absolute poverty as they can hardly afford basic food requirements some
of these households are turning to timber poaching for survival.
Forests are also being cleared for fuelwood fines imposed for breaching forestry laws
become increasingly meaningless and provide little deterrence. Much of the illegally
harvested timber has been exported to neighboring countries for below market value.
Under the Forestry Act, timber processing companies are only permitted to export
processed hardwood, but many have been exporting raw timber to make quick profits.
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 16
The Forestry Commission has made attempts to clamp down on illegal exports, working
with the police and revenue authorities. Some truckloads of timber have been seized. The
authorities have also tried to prevent fuelwood collection by providing guards for
forested areas, but this has proved largely ineffective as desperation has forced many to
find ways to evade being apprehended.
2.4.3.3 The plantations are very large.
Timber plantations covers a very large area of land, one hundred and eight thousand two
hundred and fourteen hectares, according to Mushongahande. The size of the timber
plantations make it very expensive to enclose them using security fences or employing
security guards to man around the plantations. This means that though there is high risk
of plantation damage by both human and animals, plantations are left unclosed and
unprotected. Plantations size also makes it difficult to quickly detect a threat.
2.4.4 Political challenges.
2.4.4.1 Political violence.
Zaikowski, (2008), stated that, political instability has forced many institutions to close
for long period. One consequence of this is that there is an acute shortage of trained
forestry practitioners. In many areas forestry management has been suspended and illegal
loggers have at times devastated forest resources. Post-conflict periods do not necessarily
lead to more sustainable systems. There may, for example, be an increased demand for
wood during post-conflict reconstruction which can worsen the situation.
2.4.4.2 Illegal settlement.
Kanyekanye, (2007), cited that, Zimbabwe’s timber industry was under threat from
resettled farmers who were causing fires when clearing land for farming or illegally
cutting down timber from plantations. Gonda, (2008), pointed out that, during the year
2007 alone the resettled farmers cost the nation above one trillion Zimbabwean dollars
worth of timber through illegal harvests or fires. Two hundred and fifty two fires
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 17
occurred, damaging and destroying ten thousand hectares. The national forest resource
was diminished by ten percent. According to Hammond, (2006), due to fires resulting
from arson attacks or land clearing activities by unauthorized settlers in the plantations
trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently log shortages will occur for many
years. Added to that, the new farmers were preventing foresters from replanting in the
fire damaged areas.
Mahonye and Makate, (2008), pointed out that the government was for political reasons
reluctant to act against the black farmers accused of causing fires. The author went on to
explain that many of the settlers occupying the plantations were settled there by the
government contrary to its earlier claims that it would not seize plantations for
redistribution to landless people. Muchinguri, (2007), argued that the damage caused to
timber plantation could take up to twenty years to correct. The damage caused by
forestry fires since year 2000 when the government began its land redistribution exercise
was greater than damage incurred in the previous thirty years.
From the authors above it can be noted that, because of political reasons some people
seize some of the plantations that belonged to forestry companies. This is one of the
challenge that the Wattle Company Limited is facing. Some of its plantations were seized
by some political activists. Though the management went to court they were unable to
remove the settlers from plantations who claimed the land to be their ancestors’. Because
of politics the timber producing companies are not getting support from the government
to protect their plantations. Those plantations that were taken means that the will be a
period in the future where there will be some shortage of timber.
2.4.4.3 Land reform.
As noted by Gwaze, (2004), Zimbabwe’s commercial timber production has shrunk by
fifty percent, largely because of uncertainties caused by changes in land tenure
legislation, uncontrolled veld fires and increases in production costs. Uncertainty brought
about by the government’s chaotic land redistribution exercise has resulted in non
expansion of plantations.
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2.4.5 Legal challenges.
Conversation of forest resources in Zimbabwe is responsibility of the Zimbabwe forestry
commission which was established by an act of parliament. The forestry commission has
four technical divisions namely research and development, indigenous resources,
commercial and forestry extension. These divisions implement the different aspects of
two acts (the forest act and the communal forest produce act)
According to Katerere, (1996), the forestry act of 1996 forbids people from burning,
growing or standing vegetation on any land without prior notice to the occupants of all
adjourning land and the police. The act further stipulates that in the event that one is
found guilt in a court of law, the accused should be liable of either a fine or
imprisonment.
The forestry act has been criticized as being inadequate. The fines that the people are
paying are very small that they can not stop people from poaching timber or burning the
plantations. the issue of Chimanimani settlers who were found guilt of burning
plantations as they were clearing land for farming and nothing was done to those people,
clearly shows that the laws are not functioning well. It seem laws and politics are linked
because the people in Chimanimani were let go because their issue was politically based.
The communal land forest produce act restricts the use of forest products in communal
areas by the local people to “own use”. It further states that communal people are not
allowed to enter the plantations or use plantation resources like dams, hunting, and so
forth without permission from the owners. This act was criticized for being too
restrictive. The act in its present form fails to recognize the rights and interests of
communities. The community is left with no incentive to protect the plantations and
sometimes they end up burning those plantations because of frustration.
The government is always imposing new rules and regulations some of which directly or
indirectly affect the security of timber plantations. Kanyekanye, (2006) stated that, in the
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 19
year 2000, the Forest Act was sidelined in favour of the land reform programme. Since
then , the plantations have had little protection against fires. In many cases plantation
managers have reported the illegal settlers to the police for burning down plantations and
illegally cutting down the trees but the police have shown unwillingness to arrest the
farmers because they considered the matter to be political.
2.5 Relationship among plantation security system, timber output, threats and
challenges
It can be noted that plantation security system is directly related to the timber output. By
designing an effective system the management can reduce any losses thereby increasing
timber output. However the effectiveness of the plantation security system can be
affected by economic, political, environmental and social challenges. All these
challenges are the contributing factors to the weaknesses in the plantation security
systems for the Zimbabwean timber producing companies. The loopholes created in the
plantation security systems by political, economic, environmental and social challenges
will create lines of weaknesses through which the threats passes through to damage the
plantations. When the plantations are damaged this means the future output of timber
will decrease by the percentage damaged. This is the reason why the Wattle Company
Limited is experiencing a decline in timber output. If this problem is to be solved first the
management should deal with the discussed challenges otherwise the problem will
persist.
2.6 Empirical evidence
Maunati, (2005), stated that, Indonesia has around 112.3 million hectares of state forests,
consisting of protected forest (29.3 million hectares), reserve forest (19 million hectares),
and production forest (64 million hectares). Most of the challenges that Zimbabwean
timber companies are facing currently have been also of concern in Indonesia in 1980s.
the country have tried to deal with those challenges as to improve its timber production.
2.5.1 Physical environmental challenges
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The timber plantations in Indonesia most of them are in the Sumatra and Kalimantan,
where the terrain is sloppy. Just like the Zimbabwean timber companies Indonesia also
faced terrain problem. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope greatly influences
speed of fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much more quickly burned
through than those on flat ground.
To reduce the problem of fire on steep slopes the concessions are making very wide fuel
breaks ranging from 250 – 350 meters. A fuel break is a strip of land on which the native
vegetation has been permanently modified so that fires that burn into them can be more
readily contained. If it is an economic necessity to make narrower fuel breaks, these
should be restricted to flat areas. Width must not be compromised where the ground next
to road is steep. Cleaning of the fuel breaks should be most thorough where they are on
slope.
Rathfon and Farlee, (2002), noted that , the installation of man made sources and access
of water are a part of a fire management planning where natural sources of water within a
concession are limited. Holes are dug within the plantations before the dry season to help
ensure a water supply in the dry season. Water tanks are also constructed within the
plantations to be filled with water pumped from the nearby dam or river. Canals that run
through the plantations are constructed to meet the water problem.
A network of wide tarred roads is also constructed in the plantations to cater for the
movement of fire fighting teams. In some areas light railways channels are laid within
the plantation for access of the security teams to the point of danger.
2.5.2 Social challenges.
As noted by Maunati, (2005), just like in Zimbabwe the timber companies in Indonesia
have been facing problems with the community who claimed the land to belong to their
ancestors. These villagers would turn to plantation burning as a way to show their
disapproval of forestry policies. As a result the concession owners had to do something
to reduce lose of timber caused by the villagers. Concessions encouraged the
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 21
communities to participate in fire prevention. This involved the employment of local
villagers as prevention aides.
Local communities are compensated to prevent fires as well as paid to form volunteers
fire crews. As noted by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), it is a major step forward if the
concessions and plantations integrate key communities into the protection management
of forests. According to Zaikowski, (2008), key communities are those with access to the
area to hunt and collect forestry produce, or simply because they are close to the
plantation boundaries. The communities need to be identified and included in plantation
protection.
To gain involvement the concessions pay a sensible wage to groups of villagers to man
lookout positions every afternoon (the time of greater risk than the morning). Equipped
with radio they report every fire spotted. If a local fire does start they fight it immediately
and join concession crews who attend later. No additional pay is given for fire fighting.
The scheme has the merit that members of the community are paid even if there are no
fires and they thus do not have to work to earn. As a further incentive to community
involvement, properly trained and equipped village fire crews are paid to patrol close to
the village and to maintain the fuel breaks on the plantation boundaries.
Participatory land use planning followed by participatory boundary mapping is of
essence. If this is to work the companies must demonstrate goodwill and be prepared to
concede more land than they wish. The success of community involvement schemes
depend on mutual trust, a commodity that has been singularly absent in the past and
which will thus take time and patience to develop in the future.
The companies called for the adoption of a plantation policy that was crafted by the
industry, which among other issues calls for settlement bordering estates to be at least
five kilometers away from the edge of the forest plantation.
2.5.3 Economic challenges.
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The peasants in the local communities are the most threat to illegal logging of plantation
in Indonesia. The rate of illegal logging have been increasing since 1980. The forestry
companies are employing people from the neighboring communities whenever vacancies
exist. This is trying to reduce the poverty level of the community so that in the future
there may be no cases of illegal logging. This also create a good relationship between the
villagers and the companies.
To retain most experienced workers from leaving the concessions are paying their
workers favorable wages better working conditions. Schools, hospitals, banking,
transport and other services are provided by the concessions in these remote rural areas.
The workers feel very comfortable with the environment they are working.
2.5.4 Legal challenges.
In the early 1980s laws for forestry protection in Indonesia were not effective just like in
Zimbabwe currently. Illegal loggers or those who were arrested for burning plantations
were given a very light sentence as a result people were not stopped from poaching
timber but encouraged to do so. However in 2004 according to Maunati, the government
designed policies to preserve the timber concessions. One such a policy was to increase
fine paid by illegal loggers and jail time.
2.5.5 Political challenges.
There was a time in Indonesia in early 1990s when people seize plantations for political
reasons. The government assisted the concession owners by sending hundreds of police
and paramilitaries with tear gas and guns to evict the illegal settlers from timber
plantations. the police and the army would guard the plantations during the day and night
to protect them from illegal loggers.
How successful were the strategies in Indonesia.
The strategies that were taken by the timber producing companies in Indonesia was very
successful since its timber production increased from 14000m3in 2004 to 26000m3 in
2008. The fire outbreaks have been reduced and illegal logging is no longer a big
Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 23
problem to the forestry companies in Indonesia. The working environment in the industry
has attracted so many experienced personnel.
2.6 Chapter summary
In this chapter the researcher gave reference to articles and books that covered key
factors in the research. The researcher analyzed the challenges faced in the management
of plantation security systems and how these challenges can affect the effectiveness of a
security system in trying to protecting a plantation from the such threats as fire, animals
and theft. Solutions to the challenges are also highlighted in this chapter. Having
discussed the various approaches and variables that are available in the literature, the
following chapter presents the methodological approach to be used in this study.
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