Module 9.1: Learning Objectives Overview of Motivation
• Define motivation
• Explain the factors that influence one’s motivation and emotions
• Describe the condition known as alexithymia
• Explain the need reduction model and how the incentive value of a goal can affect motivation
• Describe and give an example of each of the three types of motives
• Define homeostasis
• Describe how circadian rhythms affect energy levels, motivation, and performance
• Explain how and why shift work and jet lag may adversely affect a person and how to minimize the effects of shifting one’s rhythms
What Is Motivation?
• Motivation:– Dynamics of behavior– The ways in which actions are initiated, sustained,
directed, and terminated
• Model of Motivation:– Activities begin with a need (internal deficiency),
which causes a drive (an energized motivational state)
– Drives activate responses (an action) to attain a goal (the “target” of motivated behavior)
• Incentive Value: – Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need
Types of Motives
• Primary Motive: – Innate (inborn) motives based on biological
needs that must be met to survive
• Stimulus Motive: – Needs for stimulation and information;
appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival
• Secondary Motive: – Based on learned needs, drives, and goals
What Is Homeostasis?
• Homeostasis: – Body equilibrium; balance
• Set Point– Ideal temperature of your body that is mediated by
automatic changes in your body
• Circadian Rhythms:– Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal
levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day
• Preadaptation:– Gradually matching your sleep-waking cycle to a
new time schedule
Module 9.2: Learning Objectives Hunger, Thirst, Pain, and Sex
• Discuss why hunger cannot be fully explained by the contractions of an empty stomach, and describe the relationship of each of the following to hunger: blood sugar; liver; hypothalamus: 1) feeding system (lateral hypothalamus), 2) satiety system (ventromedial hypothalamus), 3) blood sugar regulator (paraventricular nucleus); and GLP-1
• Describe how a taste aversion develops
• Explain how each of the following is related to overeating and obesity: a person’s set point; the release of leptin; external eating cues; variety and taste, emotions, cultural factors, and dietary content
• Explain the paradox of “yo-yo” dieting
• Describe what is meant by behavioral dieting and how these techniques can enable you to control your weight
Module 9.2: Learning Objectives Hunger, Thirst, Pain, and Sex (Continued)
• Describe the essential features of the eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
• Explain what seems to cause them in men and women and what treatments are available
• Name the brain structure that appears to control thirst
• Differentiate between extracellular and intracellular thirst
• Explain how the drive to avoid pain and the sex drive differ from other primary drives
• Describe how the sex drive in humans differs from that of lower animals and how alcohol and various other drugs affect one’s sex drive
• Define the term aphrodisiac
What Controls Hunger?
• Hypothalamus: – Brain structure that regulates many aspects of
motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• Feeding System: – The lateral hypothalamus, when stimulated,
initiates eating • Satiety System:
– The ventromedial hypothalamus terminates eating• Paraventricular Nucleus:
– Area of the hypothalamus that controls levels of blood sugar
– It is sensitive to neuropeptide Y
More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)
• Neuropeptide Y (NPY): – Substance in the brain that initiates eating
• Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): – Substance in brain that terminates eating
• Set Point: – Proportion of body fat that is maintained by
changes in hunger and eating– Point where weight stays the same when
you make no effort to gain or lose weight
The Final Word on Eating Behavior
• Changing the Fat Set Point– Administration of Leptin:
• Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating
• External Eating Cues: – External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or
elicit eating– These cues may cause you to eat even if you are
stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)
• Signs and signals linked with food
Taste
• Taste Aversion: – Active dislike for a particular food – VERY difficult to overcome
• Example: Cancer patients suffer taste aversions after nausea of drug treatments pass
Eating
• Emotional Eating:– People with weight problems tend to overeat
when they are stressed, angry, or sad
• Cultural Factors:– Factors that affect the incentive value of food
• Dieting:– Diet is defined by the types and amounts of food
you eat
• Yo-Yo Dieting:– Repeatedly losing and gaining weight
Behavioral Dieting
• Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation
• Some keys:– Commit to weight loss– Exercise– Learn your eating habits– Weaken personal eating cues– Count calories, but don’t starve yourself
Keys to Behavioral Dieting (Continued)
• Develop techniques to control the act of eating
• Avoid snacks
• Chart daily progress
• Set a “threshold” for weight control
Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa
• Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins– Control issues seem to be involved– Very difficult to effectively treat– Overwhelmingly affects adolescent
females
Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa
• Excessive eating (binging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives– Difficult to treat– Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia
nervosa– Overwhelmingly affects females
Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
• Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!
• Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control
• Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight
Thirst
• Extracellular Thirst: – When water is lost from fluids surrounding
the cells of your body– Best satisfied by drinking slightly salty
liquid
• Intracellular Thirst: – When fluid is drawn out of cells because of
increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell
– Best satisfied by drinking water
Pain Avoidance
• An Episodic Drive:– Pain avoidance that occurs in distinct
episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur
Sex Drive
• Sex Drive:– The strength of one’s motivation to engage in
sexual behavior– Decreased by the use of alcohol
• Estrus: – Changes in animals that create a desire for sex– Females in heat
• Estrogen: – A female sex hormone
• Androgens: – Male sex hormones
Module 9.3: Learning Objectives Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs
• Discuss the importance of the stimulus drives
• Describe the arousal theory, the characteristics of high and low sensation-seekers, the inverted-U function, and the Yerkes-Dodson law
• Explain how one can cope with test anxiety
• Describe social motives and explain how they are acquired
• Define the need for achievement (nAch) and differentiate it from the need for power; relate this need for achievement to risk taking
• Explain the influences of drive and determination in the success of high achievers
• List seven steps to enhance self-confidence
Module 9 3: Learning Objectives Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs
(Continued)• List (in order) the needs found in Maslow’s hierarchy of motives
• Distinguish between basic needs and growth needs
• Explain why Maslow’s lower (physiological) needs are considered prepotent
• Define and give examples of meta-needs
• Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and explain how each type of motivation may affect a person’s interest in work, leisure activities, and creativity
Stimulus Drives
• Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input
• Assumes that people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, level of arousal
• Arousal Theory:– We try to maintain arousal at an optimal level
• Arousal: – Activation of the body and nervous system
• Sensation Seeking: – Trait of people who prefer high levels of
stimulation (e g , the contestants on “Fear Factor”)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
• The relationship between arousal and performance forms an inverted U function
• If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high
• If it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance
Learned Motives
• Social Motives: – Acquired by growing up in a particular
society or culture
• Need for Achievement (nAch): – Desire to meet or exceed some internal
standard of excellence
• Need for Power: – Desire to have impact or control over
others
Enhancing Self-Confidence
• Set challenging, but attainable goals
• Visualize the steps to your goal
• Advance in small steps
• Goal should be to make progress in learning
• Get expert instruction
• Find a skilled model to emulate
• Get support and encouragement
• Try harder if you fail
Self-Actualization
• Hierarchy of Human Needs: – Maslow’s ordering of needs based on
presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree
Maslow’s Human Needs
• Basic Needs: – First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
• Lower needs tend to be more potent (“prepotent”) than higher needs
• Growth Needs: – Higher-level needs associated with self-
actualization
• Meta-Needs: – Needs associated with impulses for self-
actualization
Types of Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation: – Motivation coming from within, not from
external rewards– Based on personal enjoyment of a task or
activity– People likely to be creative when they are
intrinsically motivated
• Extrinsic Motivation: – Based on obvious external rewards,
obligations, or similar factors
Module 9.4: Learning Objectives Emotion and Physiological Arousal
• Define emotion and mood
• Explain how emotions aid survival
• Describe the three elements of emotions
• List Plutchiks’ eight primary emotions and how they combine to make more complex emotions
• Explain how a person can experience two opposite emotions simultaneously
• Describe the role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS in emotional arousal
• Explain how the parasympathetic rebound may be involved in cases of sudden death
• Discuss the use and limitations of the lie detector (polygraph)
• Describe the proposed airport security techniques for detecting lies
Emotions
• State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
• Adaptive Behaviors: – Actions that aid our attempts to survive and
adjust to changing conditions
• Physiological Changes (in emotions): – Include heart rate, blood pressure,
perspiration, and other involuntary responses
More Terms to Know
• Adrenaline: – Hormone produced by adrenal glands that
arouses the body
• Emotional Expressions: – Outward signs of what a person is feeling
• Emotional Feelings: – A person’s private emotional experience
Primary Emotions and Mood
• Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001)– Fear– Surprise– Sadness– Disgust– Anger– Anticipation– Joy– Trust
• Mood: low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state
Brain and Emotion
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): – Neural system that connects brain with internal
organs and glands
• Sympathetic Branch: – Part of ANS that activates body for
emergency action
• Parasympathetic Branch: – Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves
energy» Parasympathetic rebound: overreaction
to intense emotion
Lie Detectors
• Polygraph: – Device that records changes in heart rate,
blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR)
– Lie detector– Records general emotional arousal
• GSR: – Measures sweating
Types of Polygraph Questions
• Irrelevant Questions: – Neutral, emotional questions in a
polygraph test
• Relevant Questions: – Questions to which only someone guilty
should react
• Control Questions: – Questions that almost always provoke
anxiety in a polygraph (e.g., “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)
Module 9.5: Learning Objectives Emotional Expression and Theories of Emotion
• Discuss Darwin’s view of human emotion and which facial expressions appear to be universal and most recognizable
• Describe cultural and gender differences in emotional expression
• Discuss kinesics, including the emotional messages conveyed by facial expressions and body language
• Describe and give examples of the following theories of emotion: James-Lange theory; Cannon-Bard theory; Schachter’s cognitive theory; the effects of attribution on emotion; the facial feedback hypothesis, including the dangers of suppressing emotions; emotional appraisal; and the contemporary model of emotion
Basic Facial Expressions
• Fear
• Anger
• Disgust
• Sadness
• Surprise
• Happiness
• Contempt
• Interest
Three Types of Facial Expressions
• Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: – Degree to which a person is experiencing
pleasure or displeasure
• Attention-Rejection: – Degree of attention given to a person or
object
• Activation: – Degree of arousal a person is experiencing
• Facial Blends: – Mix of two or more basic expressions
Differences in Emotion
• Cultural Differences:– Emotion is shaped by cultural ideas, values, and
practices
• Gender Differences:– American girls encouraged to express sadness,
fear, shame, and guilt– American boys encouraged to express anger and
hostility– Men may be less aware of their own emotions
Body Language (Kinesics)
• Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
Theories of Emotion
• James-Lange Theory: – Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come
from awareness of such arousal
• Cannon-Bard Theory: – The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings
and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously
• Schachter’s Cognitive Theory– Emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled
or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues
Attribution
• Attribution: – Mental process of assigning causes to
events; attributing arousal to a certain source
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: – Sensations from facial expressions and
becoming aware of them is what leads to the emotion someone feels
A Modern View of Emotion
• Emotional Appraisal: – Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus
or situation
Module 9.6: Learning Objectives Psychology in Action
• Describe the concept of emotional intelligence and its five skills
• Discuss the benefits of positive emotions
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence: – Emotional competence, including empathy,
self-control, self-awareness, and other skills
– Emotional skills can be learned
• Critical Emotional Intelligence Skills – Self-awareness– Empathy– Managing emotions