Download - Chapter 2 Ppp
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Neuroscience and Behavior
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Types of Neurons
Types of Neurons
Sensory Motor Interneurons
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SpinalCord
BrainSensoryNeuron
Sensory Neurons• INPUT From sensory organs to the brain and spinal
cord
Drawing shows a sensory neuron
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SpinalCord
BrainSensoryNeuron
MotorNeuron
Motor Neurons
• OUTPUT From the brain and spinal cord, to the muscles and glands
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SpinalCord
BrainSensoryNeuron
MotorNeuron
Interneurons
• Interneurons carry information between other neurons only found in the brain and spinal cord
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Parts of a Neuron
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The Cell Body
– round, centrally located structure
– contains DNA
– controls protein manufacturing
– directs metabolism
– no role in neural signaling
Contains the cell’s nucleus
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Dendrites
• Information collectors
• Receive inputs from neighboring neurons
• Inputs may number in thousands
• If enough inputs, the cell’s AXON may generate an output
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Axon
• The cell’s output structure
• One axon per cell, 2 distinct parts– tube-like structure – branches at end that connect to dendrites
of other cells
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Myelin Sheath
• White fatty casing on axon • Acts as an electrical insulator • Not present on all cells• When present, increases the speed of neural signals
down the axon
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How Neurons Communicate
• Neurons communicate by means of an electrical signal called the Action Potential
• Action Potentials are based on movements of ions between the outside and inside of the cell
• When an Action Potential occurs, a molecular message is sent to neighboring neurons
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All or None Law
• This is the principle that a neuron is either sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs; or the neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and the action potential does not occur.
• In other words, the neuron can’t fire just a little bit--it either sends a message or it doesn’t
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Action Potential Within a Neuron
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Resting Potential
• At rest, the inside of the cell is at -70 microvolts• With inputs to dendrites, the inside becomes more positive • If resting potential rises above the sensory threshold, an action potential
starts to travel from cell body down the axon• Figure shows resting axon being approached by an action potential
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Repolarization follows
• After the action potential passes, the inside of the axon returns to a negative voltage
• This is called repolarization
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Neuron to Neuron
• Axons branch out and end near dendrites of neighboring cells
• Axon terminals are the tips of the axon’s branches
• A gap separates the axon terminals from dendrites
• Gap is called the synapse or synaptic gap
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Neurotransmitter Release
• Action Potential causes vesicle to open
• Neurotransmitter released into synapse• Locks onto receptor molecule in postsynaptic membrane
• Reuptake occurs when, after sending a message, the neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neuron
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Excitatory and Inhibitory Messages
• Excitatory message—increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate
• Inhibitory message—decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate
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Locks and Keys
• Neurotransmitter molecules have specific shapes
• When NT binds to receptor, ions enter
• Receptor molecules have binding sites
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Types of Neurotransmitters• Acetylcholine• Serotonin• Norepinephrine• Dopamine• Endorphins• GABA
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Acetylcholine (Ach)
• Found in neuromuscular junctions
• Involved in muscle movements
• Involved in learning and memory
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Disruption of Acetylcholine Functioning
• Curare—blocks ACh receptors– paralysis results
• Nerve gases and Black Widow spider venom; too much ACh leads to severe muscle spasms and possible death
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Disruptions in ACh Functioning
• Cigarettes—nicotine works on ACh receptors– can artificially stimulate skeletal
muscles, leading to slight trembling movements
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Alzheimer’s Disease
• Deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language skills
• Symptoms may be due to loss of ACh neurons
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Serotonin
• Involved in sleep
• Involved in depression– Prozac works by keeping serotonin in
the synapse longer, giving it more time to exert an effect
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Norepinephrine
• Arousal• “Fight or flight” response• Depression and stress
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Dopamine
• Involved in movement, attention, and learning
• Dopamine imbalance also involved in schizophrenia
• Loss of dopamine-producing neurons is cause of Parkinson’s disease
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Parkinson’s Disease
• Results from loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra
• Symptoms include– difficulty starting and stopping voluntary movements
– tremors at rest
– stooped posture
– rigidity
– poor balance
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Parkinson’s Disease
• Treatments– L-dopa– transplants of fetal dopamine-producing
substantia nigra cells– adrenal gland transplants– electrical stimulation of the thalamus has
been used to stop tremors
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Endorphins
• Control pain and pleasure
• Released in response to pain
• Morphine and codeine work on endorphin receptors; involved in healing effects of acupuncture
• Runner’s high— feeling of pleasure after a long run is due to heavy endorphin release
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GABA
• Inhibition of brain activity
• Implicated in anxiety disorders
• Huntington’s disease involves loss of neurons in striatum that utilize GABA– Symptoms:
• jerky involuntary movements
• mental deterioration
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Summary
• Neuron structure• Action potentials• Synapse• Neurotransmitters• Receptors and ions
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Parts of the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System (CNS)– Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)– Carries messages to and from CNS
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the nervous system
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Endocrine System
• Pituitary gland—attached to the base of the brain; hormones affect the function of other glands
• Adrenal glands—hormones involved in human stress response
• Gonads—hormones regulate sexual characteristics and reproductive processes--testes in males, ovaries in females
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Brain• Developing Brain• Brainstem
– Hindbrain– Midbrain
• Forebrain– Limbic system– Cortex
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Developing Brain
•Neural tube—beginning of nervous system develops at 2 weeks after conception
•Neurogenesis—development of new neurons
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Hindbrain
• cerebellum
• medulla
• reticular formation
• pons
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Cerebellum
• Coordinated, rapid voluntary movements– e.g., playing the piano,
kicking, throwing, etc.
• Lesions to cerebellum– jerky, exaggerated
movements
– difficulty walking
– loss of balance
– shaking hands
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Medulla
• Breathing• Heart rate• Digestion• Other vital reflexes
– swallowing
– coughing
– vomiting
– sneezing
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Reticular Formation
• Network of neurons in the brainstem (and thalamus)
• Sleep and arousal• Attention
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Pons
• Helps coordinate movements on left and right sides of the body– e.g., postural reflexes
which help you maintain balance while standing or moving
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Midbrain
• Smallest region of the brain• Involved in processing auditory and visual
sensory signals• Contains the substantia nigra where there is
a large concentration of dopamine producing neurons
• Implicated in movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease
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Forebrain Structures
• Cortex
• Limbic System
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Lobes of the Cortex
• Frontal lobe—largest lobe, produces voluntary muscle movements, involved in thinking, planning, emotional control
• Temporal lobe—primary receiving area for auditory information
• Occipital lobe—primary receiving area for visual information
• Parietal lobe—processes somatic information
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The Limbic System
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
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Thalamus
• Relay station in brain• Processes most
information to and from higher brain centers
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Hypothalamus• Contains nuclei involved in a variety
of behaviors– sexual behavior
– hunger, thirst
– sleep
– water and salt balance
– body temperature regulation
– circadian rhythms
– role in hormone secretion
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Hypothalamus and Hormones
Hypothalamus releases hormones or releasing factors which in turn cause pituitary gland to release its hormones
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Amygdala and Emotion
• Identify emotion from facial expressions
Amygdala damage makes this task difficult
(click on picture to advance photos)
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Hippocampus
• Large “sea-horse” shaped structure imbedded in the temporal lobes
• Plays a role in the formation of new memories
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Cortical Specialization
• Localization—notion that different functions are located in different areas of the brain
• Lateralization—notion that different functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain or the other
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Language and the Brain
• Aphasia—partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand language because of brain injury or damage
• Broca’s area—plays role in speech production
• Wernike’s area—plays role in plays in understanding and meaningful speech
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Split brain operation—procedure used to reduces recurrent seizures of severe epilepsy
Corpus callosum—thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
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