Download - Chapter 10: Bipolar Disorders
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Chapter 10:Bipolar Disorders
David J. Miklowitz
Sheri L. Johnson
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Diagnosis: Diagnostic Features
• Insomnia or hypersomnia• Psychomotor agitation or
retardation, • Changes in weight or appetite• Loss of energy
• Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
• Suicidal ideation or behavior
Severe changes in mood, thinking, and behavior, from extreme highs to lows Distinctive “episodes” lasting a few days to a year or more.
Depressive episode: ≥ Five of the following for 2 weeks or longer with significant distress and/or decline in functioningIntense sadness and/or loss of interest must be present
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Diagnosis: Manic and Hypomanic Episodes
Manic episode: Notably different elated, expansive, or irritable mood with ≥ 3 (≥ 4 if irritable) of the following lasting for at least 1 week and causing significant distress or impairment:
Hypomanic episode: Same symptom criteria, but…Shorter (4 days instead of 1 week)Not severe enough to cause marked impairment in
functioning (no psychotic features and no hospitalization)
Inflated self-esteem (grandiosity) Decreased need for sleep Racing thoughts or flight of ideas Rapid or pressured speech
Reckless and impulsive behavior Enhanced energy Increased goal-directed activity Distractibility
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Diagnosis: Diagnostic Criteria
Bipolar I (BD-I)Criteria met for at least 1 manic episodeNot better explained by a schizophrenia spectrum
disorder (e.g., schizophrenia)
Bipolar II (BD-II)Criteria met for at least one hypomanic episode and one
depressive episodeCriteria never met for manic episodeNot better explained by schizophrenia spectrum disorder
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Diagnosis: Related Conditions
Bipolar disorder not elsewhere classifiedPatients with brief and recurrent manic or hypomanic
phases that fall short of the duration criteria
Cyclothymia2 or more years of switching between hypomanic and
depressive symptoms that do not meet the full DSM-5 criteria for a hypomanic or a major depressive episode
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Diagnosis: Some Potential Specifiers
With mixed features: Features of depressive episode present during manic episode or vice versaMore debilitating course of illness, earlier onset, and
greater comorbidity with anxiety and substance use disorders
Rapid cycling: Four or more episodes of depression, mania, or hypomania in 1 year10%–20% of cases, more common in bipolar II and women
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Diagnosis: Changes in DSM-5
Increased activity is now a cardinal (Criterion A) symptomHelps diagnose people who can describe behavior well
but not internal experience
Mixed episode specifier no longer requires meeting full criteria for mania and depression simultaneously
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Diagnosis: Comorbid Disorders
Virtually all bipolar patients have a lifetime history of other psychiatric disordersAnxiety disorders (62.9%)ADHD and/or oppositional defiant disorder (44.8%) Substance use disorders (36.8%)
In children, comorbidity of BD with ADHD is between 60% and 90%
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Symptoms: Presentation Differences
Patients with bipolar II disorder spend the majority of their ill weeks depressed, not hypomanic (ratio of 37 to 1)Bipolar I ratio is about 3:1
80% of youths show irritability and grandiosity, whereas 70% have elated mood, decreased need for sleep, or racing thoughtsLess frequent symptoms: hypersexuality and psychotic
symptoms
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Symptoms: Suicidality
Among those hospitalized for BD, 15x greater risk for completed suicide than the general population 4x greater risk than patients with major depressive disorder
Risk factors:
Comorbid alcohol or substance abuse
Younger age Recent illness onsetMale genderPrior suicide attempts
Family history of suicideRapid cycling course Social isolation Anxious moodRecent severe depression“Impulsive aggression”
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Prognosis
Majority of patients with BD experience significant impairment in work, social, and family functioning during and after illness episodes One third work full time outside of the home More than half unable to work or work only in sheltered
settings Negative predictors: subsyndromal depressive symptoms
following a manic episode and cognitive dysfunction
1 in 10 BD-II patients eventually develop a full manic or mixed episode and are then diagnosed with BD-I
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Epidemiology
1% meet lifetime criteria for BD-I; 1.1% for BD-II2.4% meet criteria for subthreshold BD; 4.2% cyclothymia
Mean age at onset 18.4 years BD-I20.0 years BD-II21.9 years subthreshold BDBetween 50% and 67% of BD-I and BD-II have onset before age
18• 15% and 28% before age 13
In community studies, 25% to -33% of bipolar I patients have unipolar mania
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Etiology: Expressed Emotion
Expressed emotion attitudes (EE) - criticism, hostility, or emotional overinvolvement
Affective negativity (AE): Criticism, hostility, or guilt induction
BD patients who return home to high EE or AE families are at ~94% risk for relapse within 9 months~17% returning to low EE and AE families
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Etiology: Unipolar Depression Overlap
Predictors of recurrent and severe symptoms in both disorders include low social support, family EE, and neuroticism
Negative life events equally predictive of relapse
Heritability for unipolar depression and mania modestly correlated, but 71% of genetic liability to mania is distinct from depression
Variables that influence the course of unipolar depression also influence BD depression
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Etiology: Stress
BD patients with high levels of stressful life events are at 4.5x greater risk for relapse within 2 years
Number of prior episodes of illness does not interact with life events stress in predicting recurrencesContrary to kindling model
Patients with severe early adversity (e.g., parental neglect or sexual/physical abuse) report less stress prior to illness recurrences and earlier age at onsetSupports stress sensitization model
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Etiology: Reward Sensitivity and Goal Setting
People with a history of mania describe themselves as more likely to react with strong emotions to reward cues (reward sensitive)
Elevated reward sensitivity predicts BD onset and a more severe course of mania among BD-I patients
Goal-attainment-type life events predict increases in manic symptoms but not depressive symptoms
Highly ambitious life goals/goal setting associated with more severe course of mania and onset of BD
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Etiology: Brain Systems
Abnormally strong activity in the dopaminergic pathways involved in reward sensitivityNucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmentum
Reduced connectivity between limbic (emotion-related) brain regions and prefrontal regions May explain why patients with bipolar disorder have
unstable mood and hyperreactivity to eventsDiminished activity of the PFC might interfere with the
ability to inhibit emotions and to conduct effective planning and goal pursuit
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Biological Etiology: Heritability
Genetic studies show bipolar disorder is among the most heritable of disorders. Heritability estimates from twin studies are as high as .85 to .93Risk of bipolar disorder among first-degree relatives
between 5% and 12% Risk of all forms of mood disorder between 20% and 25%
Monozygotic twins of BD-I patients are at an increased risk for schizophrenia (13.6%) and mania (36.4%)
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Biological Etiology: Neurotransmitters
Research emphasis has shifted from absolute levels of neurotransmitters to the overall functioning of systemsNeural plasticity and disturbed intracellular signaling
cascades rather than the amount of dopamine or serotonin
Dopamine theory: Dopamine function is enhanced during mania and diminished during depressionDopamine precursors, such as l-dopa, can trigger mania
Mood disorders generally associated with decreased serotonin receptor sensitivity
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Treatment- Lithium Medication and Nonadherence
Lithium: A mood stabilizer60% to 70% improve on lithium during a manic episode Also helps prevent relapseSignificant side effects: sedation, weight gain, tremors of the
hands, stomach irritation, thirst, and kidney problems
40% to 60% of patients are fully or partially nonadherent with stabilizer regimens in the year after a manic episode In community, patients take lithium for an average of only 2 to 3
months Rapid discontinuation of lithium places patients at higher risk for
recurrence and suicide
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Treatment: Pharmacological: Anticonvulsants/Mood Stabilizers
Divalproex sodium (Depakote) is as effective as lithium in controlling manic episodes Generally more benign side effects: stomach pain,
nausea, weight gain, elevated liver enzymes, and lowering of blood platelet counts
Combination therapy and lithium alone both more effective than divalproex alone in preventing relapse
Other anticonvulsants/mood stabilizersCarbamazepine (Tegretol), lamotrigine (Lamictal), and
oxcarbazepine (Trileptal)
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Treatment: Pharmacological: Suicide Prevention
Patients treated with lithium, antipsychotics, or antidepressants (especially in combination regimens) have lower suicide rate
Lithium was more effective than divalproex sodium in reducing suicide attempts and completions
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Treatment: Pharmacological Other Medications
Olanzapine (atypical antipsychotic medication)Prevention of recurrences of mania or mixed episodes is
as good or better than lithium or divalproex Concerns about side effects: weight gain and metabolic
syndrome Quetiapine, risperidone, aripiprazole, and ziprasidone are
alternatives with lower side-effect risk
Not clear that combinations of SSRI and mood stabilizer are effective for treating BD depressionRisk of more frequent mood cycles
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Treatment: Group Psychotherapy
Structured group psychoeducation Education about BD, relapse, and importance of medicationAfter 2 years, relapse is 67% vs. 92% in controls, and fewer
hospitalizedMore likely to maintain lithium levels within the therapeutic rangeGroup treatment is most cost-effective form of psychotherapy
Integrated CBT group treatment for bipolar adults with comorbid substance dependenceFocuses on the overlap between the cognitions and behaviors of
both conditions during recovery and relapseAbout half as many days of substance use as those receiving only
drug counseling
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Treatment: Individual Psychotherapy
Interpersonal and Social-Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT)Stabilize social rhythms and resolve interpersonal problems that
precede episodes Track daily routines and sleep/wake cycles and identify events that
change those routinesDelays recurrence if begun during acute phase
Individual psychoeducational treatment and medication7 to 12 sessions30% reduction in mania relapse, longer time before relapse, and
enhanced social functioning
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Treatment: Family Focused Treatment (FFT)
Group therapy with patient and familyGoal: Reduce high EE attitudes and enhance
communicationPsychoeducation about BD and develop relapse prevention
drillCommunication-enhancement trainingProblem-solving skills training
Efficacy vs. standard care over 2 yearsLess likely to relapse (17% vs. 52%)Greater improvements over time in depression, manic
symptoms, and better adherence to medications
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Treatment: Psychotherapy Efficacy Comparison (STEP-BD)
30 sessions of IPSRT, FFT, or CBT over 9 months for BD-I and BD-II starting in depressed episodeControl condition was three sessions of psychoeducation;
medication prescribed in all conditionsTreatment conditions more likely to recover rapidly from
depression, remain well, better overall functioning, relationship functioning, and life satisfaction
One-year rates of recovery same across intensive therapy groups