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Chapter 1 Introduction
This thesis is about a comparative study of Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and three western
translation theories. The study was based primarily on the review of existing literature on
Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories. This first chapter of the
dissertation presents the background of the study, specifies the problem of the study,
describes its significance, and presents an overview of the methodology used. The
chapter concludes by providing an outline of the thesis structure.
1. Background of the study
Yan Fu (1853-1921) is one of the outstanding ideologists and translators in the history of
recent China. In 1898 his translated version of “Evolution and Ethics” by Thomas Henry
Huxley was first published in China. It was the first in its type to introduce Western
ideas and knowledge to China (Shen 2000: 1). In the preface to his translation of the
book he declared that “there are three things hard to achieve in translation: Xin
(faithfulness), Da (comprehensibility), Ya (conformability).” Since Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya
was introduced, it has been in a dominant position in the field of translation in China for
over a century and become a focal point of many discussions (Shen 2000: 209).
In the last decade or so, following the deepening of the reform and opening up of China,
inter-cultural exchange is increasing steadily; as a result, translation is becoming more
important in China. Translation theories as part of the translation studies have received
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more attention than ever before as they are supposed to provide guidance to the practice
of translation. In order to promote and advance the course of translation in China,
different institutions have directly introduced or translated series of western works on
translation studies in recent years. This provided Chinese scholars and translators with
new perspectives on approaches to both translation studies and translation practice.
Under this situation the debate on Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya was resumed. This time it is
against western translation theories, such as Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence,
Newmark’s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer’s skopos theory.
Questions raised include: Is Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya still relevant to today’s translation
practice? Are western translation theories better than Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya? How can
translation theories be better applied to the translation practice?
In order to answer these questions the study is going to examine the questions from the
perspective of translation practice. In this study translation practice is restricted to
document translation only, unless indicated otherwise, for translation is such a broad
notion which can be understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk of
translation as a process or a product, and identify such sub-types as literary translation,
technical translation. In this study the document translation refers to “the translation of
various kinds of documents which are largely based on factual information, such as
brochures and newsletters of various organizations, government policy papers and reports,
legal documents, business correspondence, public notices, information sheet, operating
manuals and instructions” (Ko 2005: 49). Furthermore, Ko indicated that “in document
translation, translators are required to maintain a high level of accuracy while also
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maintaining the natural flow of expression in the target language”. A basic principle to
be followed in document translation is that everything that carries meaning in the source
language must be conveyed without significant distortion, unjustified addition or
omission; at the same time the expression in the target language must be natural and
idiomatic. Furthermore, other important elements such as style and register should be
preserved if possible (Ko 2005: 49).
2. Thesis statement
In this study I will argue that both Ya Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation
theories are all relevant to document translation and have contributed to the development
of translation theories in general. They are complimenting each other rather than
contradicting each other. However, no one theory can be universal as one theory often
approaches translation from a particular perspective and has its own limitation. In
practice, translators should distinguish individual situation and apply relevant theories
properly to achieve the best possible result.
3. Rational and objectives
Based on the above background information, the current study aims to examine Ya Fu’s
Xin Da Ya, as well as Nida’s, Newmark’s and Vermeer’s theories from the perspective of
document translation and find out each theory’s strength and weakness. Moreover, this
study also aims to find out if there are any similarities between Ya Fu’s Xin Da Ya and
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the three western translation theories, as well as how all these translation theories can be
better applied to the practice of document translation.
Although, there are studies which have examined Ya Fu’s Xin Da Ya against some
western translation theories, such as Zhong Xi Yi Xue Pi Ping (Criticism on Chinese and
Western Translation Theories, Zhang 2004), Mian Xiang Er Shi Yi Shi Ji De Yi Xue
Yan Jiu (Translation Studies in the 21st Century, Zhang & Xu: 2002), Fan Yi Xin Lu(A
Series of Translation Studies in China, Yang & Liu: 1994), most of them are from the
perspective of translation studies, and for the sake of studying the theory only. Instead,
this study will attempt to examine Ya Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation
theories in detail, and try to get a better understanding of these theories from translators’
point of view, therefore to help translators to better apply these theories in their practice.
The reason why only Nida’s, Newmark’s and Vermeer’s theories were chosen is that they
represent different approaches towards translation.
Apart from the above reason, other professional significance of the study include: firstly,
Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya, as a fundamental Chinese translation theory (Chan 2004), has been
in a dominant position in the translation field in China for more than a century. A
comparative study of Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories would provide
new perspective to evaluate it more comprehensively, therefore to apply it to the
translation practice more appropriately. Secondly, translation theory is an area of
concern of translation studies. Any meaningful findings from this study would contribute
to the development of the discipline. Thirdly, inherited in the relationship between
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translation theory and translation practice, any meaningful results from this study would
have implications on translation practice, therefore would be of value to translators.
4. Overview of methodology
This study will examine in detail literature both on Chinese translation theories and
western translation theories. The research is to be carried out in stages. First of all, it
will involve literature review about the selected translation theories, namely, Yan Fu’s
Xin Da Ya, Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark’s semantic and
communicative translations and Vermeer’s skopos theory. It will examine the primary
source where a particular theory was originally introduced, to get an overview of the
background information about a particular theory. This will help to understand why a
particular theory was introduced, and under which situation or in what context it was
introduced. In return, it will help to avoid studying a particular theory in isolation,
therefore to help better understand a particular theory and its possible implications to
document translation. Next, when it comes to examine the existing views about the
selected translation theories, the study will also try to examine the original source if
possible where a particular view about a particular theory was voiced. It will examine
views both for and against a particular theory in order to present an objective picture
about a particular theory and its implication to document translation. Finally, the study
will compare Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya with Nida’s, Newmark’s and Vermeer’s theories in the
framework of Holmes’ map of translation studies, and find out how they can be
integrated and better applied to the document translation.
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5. Outline of the thesis structure
This thesis will be arranged into five chapters. Chapter one will provide general
information about the current study. This includes thesis statement, research objectives,
rational for the choice of topic and research methods.
In chapter two, the study will examine Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the existing views about
it, then discuss the possible implications it might have on document translation.
In chapter three, the study will examine first Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence,
Newmark’s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer’s skopos theory, and
then existing opinions about these three theories, finally discuss the possible implications
they might have on document translation respectively.
In chapter four, the study will compare Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya with Nida’s, Newmark’s and
Vermeer’s theories in the framework of Holmes’ map of translation studies and find out
if there are any similarities and differences between Xin Da Ya and the three western
translation theories, and how they can be integrated into the translation process and
applied to the document translation through a case study.
In chapter five, the final chapter, the study will summarize what have been studied in this
project and draw a conclusion.
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Chapter 2 Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya
There are different interpretations or understanding about Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya, probably
because it was written in classical Chinese when it was first introduced by Yan Fu in his
preface to the translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics) in 1898. Moreover, it was
summarized in only three Chinese characters from which one can derive different
meanings even within the context it was proposed. As a consequence, there are different
English versions of Xin Da Ya as well. However, determining which interpretation of
Xin Da Ya or which English version of Xin Da Ya is the most appropriate is not within
the scope of this study. The current study is based primarily on Shen’s modern Chinese
version (Yan in Shen 2000: 35-37) and Hsu’s English version (Yan in Chan 2004: 69-71)
of Yan Fu’s preface to the translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics). In this study,
Xin means “faithfulness”, Da means “comprehensibility” and Ya means “conformability”.
This chapter will study the essence of Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya first, and then examine the
existing opinions about Xin Da Ya; finally it will discuss the possible implications that
Xin Da Ya might have on the document translation.
1. Essence of Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya
Based on his experience on the translation of western scientific works from English to
Chinese in the late nineteenth century, Yan Fu proposed Xin Da Ya in his preface to the
translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics) in 1898. Yan Fu declared that
“translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: Xin (faithfulness), Da
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(comprehensibility) and Ya (conformability). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain
but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all.
Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance (Yan in Chan 2004: 69).” Since
then Xin Da Ya has been advocated as the translation criteria or standard in the
translation field in China. Based on Shen’s modern Chinese version (Yan in Shen 2000:
35-37) and Hsu’s English version (Yan in Chan 2004: 69-71) of Yan Fu’s preface to
Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics), as well as Shen’s study (2000: 35-40), the essence of
Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya can be summarized as follow:
• Translation should fulfill three requirements which are Xin (faithfulness), Da
(comprehensibility), Ya (conformability).
• Among the three criteria Xin (faithfulness) is the most important. It means
that the target text should be faithful to the source text.
• Da (comprehensibility) means that the target text should be coherent and can
be fully understood. The purpose of being comprehensible is to achieve Xin
(faithfulness) as if a translation which is not comprehensible would not be a
translation at all.
• Ya (conformability) means that the target text should conform to the target
language norms. Conforming to the target language norms is to achieve Da
(comprehensibility) as well as to meet the needs of intended readers.
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• In order to achieve Xin (faithfulness), Da (comprehensibility), Ya
(conformability), sometimes it is necessary to reorganize the order of words
and sentences of the source text, the sentence structure can be adjusted as well,
on the condition that the idea of the source text is not to be deviated.
• With regard to the translation of new terms in English, a translator can only
use his/her own judgment to coin a term in Chinese according to the sense.
2. Existing opinions about Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya
Xin Da Ya, as one of the Chinese translation theories (Chan 2004), has caused three
rounds of discussion and debate in the field of culture and translation. The first was in
1920s and 1930s, the second round occurred in 1950s, and the third round started in
1980s and has continued to present (Shen 2000: 1). These three periods are times when
translation activity is flourishing as a result of China trying to introduce and absorb
foreign thoughts, culture, and technologies. Consequently, the increasing of translation
activity demands for the guidance of translation theories.
In his study of Xin Da Ya, Shen used quantitative method to analyze existing opinions
about Xin Da Ya. He listed more than one hundred of extracts about Xin Da Ya dated
from 1920s through to 1990s. Among them there are fifty eight which agree with or
support Xin Da Ya, twenty seven which agree with Xin Da Ya in principle but have some
conservation, only twenty four which against Xin Da Ya (Shen 2000: vii). The following
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are some extracts selected from Shen’s study which was published in 2000 and translated
by myself.
(1) Opinions which support Xin Da Ya
• Yan Fu’s Xin is to express the meaning of the source text in a faithful translation;
Da means the target text should be intelligible and comprehensible, without
awkwardness and ambiguity; Ya means the target text should conform to the
target language and be aesthetic; the target text not only transfers the meaning of
the source text, but also convey the beauty of the source text, sometimes it can
surpass the source text on the beauty of the language. However, not everyone can
achieve Xin Da Ya, besides not every translation can meet these three criteria.
But the minimum requirement a translation should meet is Xin (Li, cited in Shen
2000: 58).
• Xin Da Ya has long before become traditional Chinese translation criteria, even
today we should not give it up. In a lay term, Xin is to be faithful to the content
of the original text, Da requires the translation to be fluent, and Ya means the
translation is to be elegant. These cover roughly three areas which are content,
language and style. This orderly listed criterion of Xin Da Ya is still applicable
today in analyzing a translation in general (Bian et al. cited in Shen 2000: 61).
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• Xin Da Ya is a standard which can be used for translation evaluation. Xin means
faithful to the original text in meaning, fact, tone and style; Da means the reader
of the target text can read and understand the translation correctly without too
much thinking; Ya means the language used is fluent, precise, vivid and rich in
vocabulary. Xin Da Ya indicates the two sides of a problem, is a unity of conflict.
Xin talks about the relationship between the target text and the source text; Da Ya
talk about the relationship between the target text and readers of the target text.
Being responsible to the source text is consistent with being responsible to readers,
the relationship between the two is not one dictates the other. We advocate that
translators should try to take all these three criteria into consideration (Foreign
Language Press, cited in Shen 2000: 61).
• The strength of Xin Da Ya is that it only provides translators a very general
principle. It is not a model, but only a macro requirement for translators. This is
based on the characteristics of Chinese language. With regard to translation
between English and Chinese, Xin Da Ya is still considered as a good standard
(Lin, cited in Shen 2000: 71).
(2) Opinions which are against Xin Da Ya
• In the past many translators often discuss about one translation principle that is
Xin Da Ya, but how to achieve these three criteria and what are the relationship
between these three has never been agreed upon. I believe that Xin Da Ya as a
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very abstract principle will never be able to solve the problem. If we take the
problem (translation and writing which is more important) to the ideological level,
that is to integrate it with politics, and translators also follow this direction in their
work, then the problem of whether a translation fulfils Xin Da Ya or literal
translation verse meaning based translation will be solved (Jin, cited in Shen 2000:
77)
• Yan Fu’s proposition is incomplete and non scientific, at most it requires
translators to translate the general meaning of the original work with beautiful
Chinese. The fundamental mistake of Yan Fu and his followers made is not
dividing the translation criteria into three, but not understanding the difference
between translating and writing at all. Invariable, absolute, sacrosanct standard
for measuring the accuracy of translation does not exist and is not possible. The
standard for measuring the accuracy of translation depends on the purpose of
translation, nature of the original text and readers of the target text. Furthermore,
the purpose of translation and readers of target text, in most cases are determined
by the nature of the original text (Dian, cited in Shen 2000: 87).
• Yan Fu’s idea can be summarized as follow: Xin is the basic criterion for
translation, Da is the necessary complement to Xin, through Da the value of Xin
is to be realized, and Ya is a means to achieve Da. Early in 1920s and 1930s, the
semantic meaning of Ya has changed and become the synonym of literary polish.
From the theoretical perspective, Xin Da Ya can not coexist logically. Xin
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indicates that the target text is restricted by the source text, however Da and Ya
indicate that the target text do not have to be restricted by the source text. From
the perspective of practice, because the meaning of Xin has been reduced,
therefore, trying to achieve Da and Ya in addition to Xin inevitably result in the
target text deviating from the source text to certain degree, consequently cause the
target text become inaccurate. To measure the quality of literary translation there
is only one standard which is Xin. Xin this word is very rich in meaning, it also
includes the meaning of Da and Ya. Xin Da Ya is a theoretically confusing,
practically detrimental principle, the translation field is suggested to have a
serious discussion about it. (Chang, cited in Shen 2000: 89)
3. Possible implications on document translation
So far in this chapter the study has studied the essence of Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and
examined existing views about it. It has been noticed that most discussions on Xin Da
Ya are restricted to comments only, hardly any discussions touch upon its implications on
document translation. This study will attempt to approach Xin Da Ya from translation
practitioners’ perspective and find out its possible implications on translation practice.
As stated in the first chapter, document translation refers to the translation of various
kinds of documents which are largely based on factual information, such as business
correspondence, legal documents, operating menu and instructions. A basic principle in
document translation is that everything that carries meaning in the source language must
be translated without significant distortion, unjustified addition or omission. Based on
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the definition and requirement of document translation, Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya as a general
translation principle can provide guidance at macro level to translation practitioners in
document translation.
First of all, Xin focuses on the source text and requires the target text to be faithful to the
source text. This indicates that the sources text is the basis of translation and the target
text is the product of translation. In document translation, translators need to bear in
mind that all the factual information in the source text needs to be translated faithfully.
Secondly, Da and Ya focus on the target text and readers of the target text. In document
translation translators need to make sure that the target text is comprehensible and
conforms to the target language norms, so the readers of the target text can fully
understand the intended message, and the communicative purpose of translation can be
achieved. Thirdly, the relationship between Xin Da Ya is dialectical and unified. The
purpose of translation is communication, therefore Xin is fundamental as it tries to
preserve what is to be communicated. In addition to Xin, Da and Ya are also essential to
achieve the purpose of translation, for only the target text is comprehensible and
conforms to the target language norms, the readers of the target text can fully understand
it. Without any one of the three (Xin Da Ya), the communicative purpose of translation
would not be fulfilled. Therefore, in document translation, translators need to pay
attention to both Xin and Da Ya.
In addition to Xin Da Ya, Yan Fu also mentioned some techniques either explicitly or
implicitly which are helpful to translators as well. Such as, the word order and sentence
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structure can be adjusted to express the original meaning, in other words, to achieve the
faithfulness to the target text; choosing the appropriate form of language according to the
text type and the needs of intended readers; coining a new term in the target language
according to its meaning. However, there are other factors of translation not covered by
Xin Da Ya, such as the author’s intention, the text categories, the function of the target
text and etc, this shows that Xin Da Ya has its limitation.
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Chapter 3 Three Western Translation Theories
In this chapter the study will examine three western translation theories, namely Nida’s
formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark’s semantic and communicative translations
and Vermeer’s skopos theory, following the layout of the previous chapter. It will study
first the essence of each theory, and then examine the existing opinions about each theory,
finally, discuss the implications that each theory might have on document translation.
1. Nida’s principles of correspondence
Based on his own practical work on the Bible translation, Eugene Nida put forward the
notion of “formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence” in his book “Toward a Science
of Translating” published in 1964.
(1) Essence of Nida’s principles of correspondence
The essence of Nida’s principles of correspondence can be summarized in his own words
as following:
• Since no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to
corresponding symbols or in the ways in which such symbols are arranged in
phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute
correspondence between languages. Hence there can be no fully exact
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translations. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the
original, but there can be no identity in detail (Nida 1964: 156).
• Differences in translations can generally be accounted for by three basic factors in
translating: (1) the nature of the message, (2) the purpose or purposes of the
author and, by proxy, of the translator, and (3) the type of audience (Nida 1964:
156). However, an adequate translation should meet four basic requirements: (1)
making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a
natural and easy form of expression, (4) producing a similar response (Nida 1964:
164).
• In terms of “equivalence”, there are two types of translation. One is formal
equivalence oriented translation, and another is dynamic equivalence oriented
translation (Nida 1964: 159). Between the two poles of translating (i.e. between
strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence) there are a number
of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary
translating (Nida 1964: 160).
• Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and
content. Viewed from this formal orientation, one is concerned that the message
in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements
in the source language. This means, for example, that the message in the receptor
culture is constantly compared with the message in the source culture to
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determine standards of accuracy and correctness (Nida 1964: 159). Formal
equivalence translation is basically source oriented; that is, it is designed to reveal
as much as possible of the form and content of the original message (Nida 1964:
165).
• Dynamic equivalence is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect”. In such a
translation one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message
with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the
relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as
that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida 1964:
159). Dynamic equivalence oriented translations focus on not so much the source
message, but the receptor response (Nida 1964: 166).
(2) Existing opinions about Nida’s dynamic equivalence
Since the introduction of the concept of “formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence”,
it has exerted great influence on both translation practice and translation studies. Some
Chinese scholars, such as Jin, believe that one of Nida’s major contributions is the
introduction of “dynamic equivalence”. This concept has provided an answer to the
centuries of circular debates around literal and free translation. On the one hand, literal
translation stresses faithfulness, and focuses on the formal equivalence of languages
while the effect on the target text receiver is neglected. On the other hand, free
translation stresses the beauty of the target text and focuses on the effect that the target
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text created on its receivers while the equivalence is neglected. However, dynamic
equivalence focuses on the equivalent response between the source text receivers and the
target text receivers, and has solved this seemingly unsolvable problem (Jin 1994: 346,
translated by myself).
Another Chinese scholar Zhang pointed out that there are two presumptions attached to
Nida’s principle of “dynamic equivalence”. The first condition is “that the translator has
purposes generally similar to, or at least compatible with, those of the original author.”
The second one is that the aim of the translation is to “reproduce the message”. Only
under these two preconditions the “dynamic equivalence” is achievable and desirable
(Zhang 2004: 74-75, translated by myself).
Some western translation scholars, like Peter Newmark, also questioned the principle of
“equivalent effect”. He believes that the “equivalent effect” is the desirable result, rather
than the aim of any translation, because it is unlikely to be achieved in two cases: (a) if
the purpose of the source text is to affect and the target text is to inform or vice verse; (b)
if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the source text and the target text
(Newmark 1988: 48).
(3) Possible implications on document translation
In examining Nida’s approach to translation and reviewing the existing opinions about
“formal and dynamic equivalence”, it has been noticed that Nida’s formal equivalence
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and dynamic equivalence represent two basic types of translation. Formal equivalence
oriented translation focuses on the source text and its author while dynamic equivalence
oriented translation focuses on the target text and its reader. Nida did not claim one is
better than the other, instead he stated that between the two poles of translating (i.e. strict
formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence) there were a number of
intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating
(1964: 160). He even indicated further that some types of strictly formal equivalence
oriented translations are of great value. For example, translations of foreign language
texts prepared especially for linguists rarely attempt anything but close formal
equivalence renderings. In such translations the wording is usually quite literal and even
the segments are often numbered so that the corresponding units may be readily
compared (1964: 166). Therefore, according to Nida, both formal equivalence oriented
and dynamic equivalence oriented translations are valid depending on the individual
situation, but in Bible translation, dynamic equivalence should be sought after.
With regard to the document translation, Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic
equivalence can be both applied at operational level. On the one hand, the document
translation requires the target text to maintain a high level of accuracy comparing with
the source text, from this perspective the translation is to be source text oriented, and
Nida’s formal equivalence can come to play. On the other hand, the document translation
requires the target text to maintain the natural flow of expression in the target language as
well, from this point of view, the translation needs to be reader oriented, and Nida’s
dynamic equivalence can be applied. However, as the main focus of the document
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translation is to convey the factual information from one language to another, and there is
less cultural interference from each other, therefore, Nida’s formal equivalence is
probably more applicable than the dynamic equivalence to certain extent in the practice
of document translation.
Another possible implication that Nida’s dynamic equivalence might have on document
translation is that one particular source text might have different versions of target text
depending upon the intended readers group, it is possible that one version for general
public group, and another version for scholars in a particular field. When translators
carry out translation with readers in mind, the target text would be more close to the
target language and culture and can be more easily understood by the intended readers,
therefore is able to fulfill the purpose of cross language and cross culture communication.
However, Nida’s dynamic equivalence has its own limitation as it has two presumptions
attached to it. The first is “that the translator has purposes generally similar to, or at least
compatible with, those of the original author.” The second is that the aim of the
translation is to “reproduce the message”. As Zhang (2004: 74-75) pointed out that only
under these two preconditions the “dynamic equivalence” is achievable and desirable.
With regard to the document translation in the real world it is not always the case. For
example, the translation of Hukobu (the Household Registration Booklet) from Chinese
to English for proving of date of birth would have different purpose from the original
Chinese document; therefore there would be no dynamic equivalence achievable.
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2. Newmark’s Text Categories and Translation Methods
Based on his own experience on translators training, Peter Newmark proposed two
translation methods for three main types of texts in his books of “Approaches to
Translation (1981)” and “A Textbook of Translation (1988)”. The three main types of
texts are expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. The two translation
methods are semantic translation and communicative translation; namely semantic
translation for expressive texts, communicative translation for informative and vocative
texts.
(1) Essence of Newmark’s semantic and communicative translations
The essence of Newmark’s semantic and communicative translations can be summarized
as the following:
• Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as
possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation
attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the
second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (1981: 22,
39, 1988: 46, 47).
• Only semantic and communicative translations fulfill the two main aims of
translation, which are first accuracy, and second economy. In general, a semantic
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translation is written at the author’s linguistic level, a communicative at the
readers’. Semantic translation is used for ‘expressive’ texts, communicative for
‘informative’ and ‘vocative’ texts (1988: 47).
• Generally, a communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer,
more direct, more conventional, conforming to particular register of language,
tending to under translate, i.e., to use more generic, hold-all terms in difficult
passages (1981: 39, 1988: 47).
• A semantic translation tends to be more complex, more awkward, more detailed,
more concentrated, and pursues the thought-processes rather that the intention of
the transmitter. It tends to over translate, to be more specific than the original, to
include more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning (1981: 39, 1988:
47).
• There is no one communicative nor one semantic method of translating a text –
there are in fact widely overlapping bands of methods. A translation can be more,
or less, semantic – more or less communicative – even a particular section or
sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically (1981: 40).
• In communicative translation, the translator has the right to correct or improve the
original. All such corrections and improvements are usually inadmissible in
semantic translation (1988: 47).
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• However, in communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent
effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best; it is the
only valid method of translation (1981: 39)
(2) Existing opinions about Newmark’s approach
Newmark’s approach to translation is based on the observation of different types of texts;
He classified texts into three main categories according to the main functions of language,
and attempted to match two translation methods with the three types of texts. It seems to
have a wider application to translation practice. However, there are some scholars who
believe that Newmark’s text categories and corresponding translation methods has its
own shortcomings.
One of the Chinese scholars Zhang believes that classifying texts into different categories
is very difficult, as the relationship between different language functions is not clear cut,
instead is interwoven. For example, legal statements are classified as expressive texts by
Newmark. One of the main functions of legal statements is to indicate what types of
behavior is intolerable and could result in punishment. From this perspective, legal
statements also have a strong expressive function; however, authorities probably wish
that the public could abide the law and there would be no need to use the punishment to
maintain law and order. From this perspective, legal statements have a strong vocative
function as well (Zhang 2004: 98).
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Zhang also believes that the text category is not fixed, instead is changeable. For
example, Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’ Travels was originally written as a serious
allegorical fiction, but in the contemporary society today, whether in the United Kingdom
or other countries, it has lost its allegorical function due to the change of cultural context,
ordinary readers consider it as an entertaining/amusing fiction (ibid: 100).
Furthermore, Zhang believes that translation method is not to be determined by the text
category only. Other factors need to be considered as well, such as the types of readers
and the function of the target text. If there is a big difference between the source culture
and the target culture, and the readers are not highly motivated to understand the source
text, then no matter how authoritative the source text is, if only semantic translation
method is used, the target text is doomed to fail. Moreover, if the function of the target
text differs from the source text, a flexible translation method is to be adopted. For
example, the translation of a piece of news. If the target text is to be used as news, then
the errors in the original text is to be corrected; but if it is to be used as studying material
or legal evidence, then the meaning of the original should be preserved (ibid: 104-105).
(3) Possible implications on document translation
Newmark’s text categories and corresponding translation methods can provide translation
practitioners with a new way in determining the translation method in their practice.
However, this new approach also has its limitation, because he only proposed two
26
translation methods for the translation of three categories of texts, namely semantic
translation for expressive texts, communicative translation for informative and vocative
texts (Newmark 1988: 47). It might be helpful in translators training when there is no
other information provided, and the original text is the only material that a translator have
been given. Under this circumstance, a translator can only rely on the text type to decide
what translation method to adopt. However, in reality there are many other factors need
to be considered in determining the appropriate translation method for a particular text,
such as the intention of the original writer, the purpose of the translation, and the needs of
the prospective readers.
With regard to document translation, the text type concerned in document translation
probably fits in Newmark’s category of informative texts. According to Newmark (1988:
40), the format of an informative text can be: a textbook, a technical report, a scientific
paper, an article in a newspaper, minutes or agenda of a meeting. Therefore, Newmark’s
communicative translation method is probably more applicable to document translation
than his semantic translation. However, as indicated by Newmark himself, few texts are
purely expressive, informative or vocative, most include three functions, with an
emphasis on one of the three (1988: 42). Therefore, a translation can be more or less
semantic – more or less communicative – even a particular section or sentence can be
treated more communicatively or less semantically (Newmark 1981: 40). In document
translation translators also need to apply semantic and communicative translation flexibly
as there is no absolute match between text type and translation method.
27
Furthermore, Newmark believes that “in communicative as in semantic translation,
provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only
the best; it is the only valid method of translation” (1981: 39). As indicated by Newmark
himself the two main aims of a translation are accuracy and economy (1988: 47). In
practice, translators often try to produce maximum efficiency with minimum effort
(Toury 1995 cited in Monday 2001: 45). If the literal translation can achieve the purpose
of a translation and meet all the requirements of a client, then it ought to be the best
translation for that particular text. Therefore, in practice translators might try first the
literal translation, then the free translation as well as many other translation methods
between the two poles if necessary.
In addition, Newmark believes that in communicative translation if the original writing is
poor, the translator has the right to improve or correct it (1981: 6, 42). However, in
practice it is not likely to happen unless the client who commissioned the translation task
requests the translator to do so. The reason for this is that improving or correcting the
original text contradicts to the criterion of accuracy. According to the AUSIT Code of
Ethics, which is widely accepted by both the interpreting and translation practitioners and
the service providers in Australia, “interpreters and translators shall not alter, make
additions to, or omit anything from their assigned work”
(http://www.ausit.org/eng/showpage.php3?id=650, retrieved 18 October, 2006). At the
end of the day, in the real world the translation is to be faithful to the original is the
general expectation of clients.
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3. Vermeer’s skopos theory
The skopos theory is an approach to translation which was introduced by Hans Vermeer
in the late 1970s. Translation is viewed as a specific form of human action. Like any
other human action, translation has a purpose. The word skopos is used as a technical
term for the aim or purpose of a translation. The aim or purpose of a translation
determines the translation methods and strategies to be employed to produce a
functionally adequate result - target text.
(1) Essence of Vermeer’s skopos theory
The essence of Vermeer’s skopos theory can be summarized as the following:
• Translation is a particular type of translational action which is based on a source
text. Any action has an aim, a purpose. The word skopos is a technical term for
the aim or purpose of a translation. Furthermore, an action leads to a result,
translation leads to a translantum, the target text (Vermeer1989: 227).
• The aim of any translational action, and the mode in which it is to be realized, are
negotiated with the client who commissions the action. A precise specification of
aim and mode is essential for the translator to fulfill his task successfully (ibid:
227).
29
• A commission comprises or should comprise as much detailed information as
possible on: (1) the goal, i.e. a specification of the aim of the commission; (2) the
conditions under which the intended goal should be attained (naturally including
practical matters such as deadline and fee) (ibid: 235).
• The source text is a constituent of the commission. What role a source text plays
in a translational action is decided by the translator based on the purpose, the
skopos of the translation in a given situation (ibid: 228).
• The translator is “the” expert in translational action. He/she is responsible for the
performance of the commissioned task, for the final translatum, the target text
(ibid: 228).
• The notion of skopos can be applied in three ways, and thus have three senses. It
may refer to: (a) the goal of the translation process; (b) the function of the
translation result (target text); (c) the intention of the translation mode. (ibid: 230)
• The skopos theory merely states that the translator should be aware that some
goals exist, and that any given goal is only one among many possible ones. The
important point is that a given source text does not have one correct or best
translation only (ibid: 234).
(2) Existing opinions about Vermeer’s skopos theory
30
With regard to the significance of the skopos theory, Vermeer himself (1989: 237) has
pointed out that skopos theory has made contributions in the following area: (1) the
theory makes explicit and conscious something that is too often denied; (2) the skopos,
which is (or should be) defined in the commission, expands the possibilities of translation,
increase the range of possible translation strategies, and releases the translator from the
corset of an enforced – hence often meaningless – literalness; (3) it incorporates and
enlarges the accountability of the translator, in that his translation must function in such a
way that the given goal is attained.
With regard to criticisms on the skopos theory, Vermeer himself (1989: 230-234) and
Christiane Nord (Nord 1997: 109-122) have provided some discussions. Firstly, the
critics claim that not all actions have an aim; therefore not all translations have a purpose,
with reference mainly to the literary texts in general or at least some literary texts.
Vermeer stated that the expression of actions “having” an aim is imprecise. Rather it
would be more accurate to speak of an aim being “attributed” to an action, an author
“believing” that he is writing to a given purpose, a reader similarly “believing” that an
author has so written. Therefore, this criticism can be answered in terms of the definition
of an action: if no aim can be attributed to an action, it can no longer be regarded as
action. In terms of translation proper as one variety of translational action, the notion of
skopos can in fact be applied in three ways and thus have three senses. It may refer to:
(a) the goal of the translation process; (b) the function of the target text; (c) the intention
31
of the translation mode. If one of the three could be attributed to a given translation, then
that translation could be regarded as having a purpose (Vermeer 1989: 230).
Secondly, the critics claim that the skopos would restrict the translation possibilities, and
thus limit the range of interpretation of target text in comparison to that of the source text.
With regard to this criticism, Vermeer indicated that a given skopos may indeed rule out
certain interpretations because they are not part of the translation goal; but one possible
goal (skopos) would certainly be precisely to preserve the breadth of interpretation of the
source text. How far such a skopos is in fact realizable is not the point here (ibid: 232).
Moreover, the critics claim that the skopos theory does not respect the source text. This
is probably due to Vermeer’s claim to have “dethroned” the source text. However,
dethroning simply means that the source text, or more precisely, its linguistic and stylistic
features, is no longer regarded as the one and only yardstick for a translation (Nord 1997:
119-120). Instead, the purpose of a translation is the decisive factor in translation process.
(3) Possible implication on document translation
The skopos theory stresses that every translation has an aim or a purpose which is
assigned by the translation commission. The aim or purpose of a translation determines
the translation methods or strategies to be employed to produce a functionally adequate
translation – target text. This approach is significant to translation practitioners at macro
decision making level. First of all, the skopos can help translators to determine the
32
translation methods and strategies for a given translation task, i.e. whether the source text
is to be “translated”, “paraphrased” or even completed “re-edited”. For example, the
translation of a Chinese marriage certificate into English for immigration purpose in
Australia. The widely accepted translation is “extract translation”. Obviously as
indicated by the word “extract, this type of translation does not translate every word in
the original document. Instead, it only translates the main information required by the
immigration authority, namely the personal details of the two parties, the date and place
of the marriage, the issuing authority and issuing date. The remaining information on the
original document can be left out without affecting the fulfillment of the purpose. This
type of translation is still faithful to the original document in a sense that the selected
information has been translated faithfully. There are other Chinese documents that are
translated in this way as well in Australia, such as birth certificate, driver’s license,
immunization record and injection authorization sheet.
Secondly, the skopos theory makes it clear that for a given source text it could have more
than one best possible translation depending on the aim of the translation. This is
demonstrated by Vermeer’s own example (1989: 237). The translation of a will with
some ambiguity for a lawsuit and the translation of the same will in the context of a novel.
Under the first situation, the skopos would be to translate the document faithfully, so that
the judge would understand the ambiguity. As a result, the translator might provide a
note or comment to explain the possible interpretations with regard to the ambiguity.
However, when the same will happens as a minor incident in a novel, the translator
would not wish to interrupt the flow of the narrative with an explanatory comment, but
33
rather try to find a target language solution with a similar kind of effect, because the
skopos in the second context is differ from that of the first.
Furthermore, the skopos theory provides a new concept about the status of the source text
and assigns translators more responsibility in the production of the target text. According
to the skopos theory, the source text is only a constituent of the translation commission,
and the translator is the expert in translational action. It is up to the translator to decide
what role a source text is to play in the translational action; the decisive factor is the
purpose, the skopos of a translation in a given situation. Therefore, the status of a source
text is not static, it is a relative concept. It will change when the skopos of the translation
is changed.
Although, the skopos theory is very useful at micro level in the translation process, as
Vermeer himself indicated that the skopos theory could expend the possibilities of
translation, increase the range of possible translation strategies, and release translators
from the corset of enforced and often meaningless literalness. However, it does not touch
the aspect of the actual procedures at operational level. That has been entirely left to the
translator as an expert to decide how to translate a given text. In this respect, it might be
considered as a shortcoming of the skopos theory.
34
Chapter 4 An Integrated Approach - a Case Study
In so far the study has examined Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation
theories, namely Nida’ principle of equivalence, Newmark’s semantic and
communicative translations and Vermeer’s skopos theory, as well as possible
implications they might have on document translation. In this chapter the study will
compare the three western translation theories with Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya in the frame
work of Holmes’ map of translation studies and find out if there are any similarities and
differences between them. Furthermore, the study will make use of a case study – the
translation of a driver license from Chinese into English to see how each theory can be
applied at different stages of the translation process.
1. Comparison of Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories
The mapping of the field of translation studies is an on going activity. James Holmes is
credited with the first attempt to chart the territory of translation studies as a distinct
discipline in his paper “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies” (1972: 180-192).
According to Holmes, translation studies can be divided into two areas which are pure
translation studies and applied translation studies. Translation theory is one of the two
branches within the area of pure translation studies. It is interested in “using the results
of descriptive translation studies, in combination with the information available from
related fields and disciplines, to evolve principles, theories, and models which will serve
to explain and predict what translating and translations are and will be”(Holmes 1972:
35
185). Within the branch of translation theory there are two sub categories: general
translation theory and partial or specific translation theory. A general translation theory
is defined as “a full inclusive theory accommodating so many elements that it can serve
to explain and predict all phenomena falling within the terrain of translating and
translation, to the exclusion of all phenomena falling outside it” (ibid: 186). On the other
hand, the partial or specific translation theory is “partial or specific in their scope, dealing
with only one or a few of the various aspects of translation theory as a whole” (ibid: 186).
Furthermore, the partial translation theory could be further divided into six main kinds:
(1) Medium-restricted translation theories (e.g. theories restricted to human translation as
opposed to machine translation or written translation as opposed to oral translation); (2)
Area-restricted theories (e.g. theories restricted to specific languages or cultures
involved); (3) Rank-restricted theories (e.g. theories dealing with specific linguistic ranks
or levels, i.e. word, sentence or text); (4) Text-type restricted theories (e.g. theories
dealing with the problem of translating of specific types or genres of texts (i.e. theories
on literary translation or Bible translation); (5) Time-restricted theories (e.g. theories
dealing with translating texts from an older period as opposed to contemporary texts); (6)
Problem-restricted theories (e.g. theories restricted to one or more specific problems in
translation, i.e. translation of metaphors or proper names);
From the above description of Holmes map of translation studies, it can be seen that Yan
Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories could fit into different
categories of the translation theory. First of all, it rules out the possibility that any one of
36
the four theories could be called a general translation theory, for none of them would
qualify the criteria of a general translation theory proposed by Holmes. Therefore, it is
probably more appropriate to classify the four translation theories as partial translation
theories as they only deal with only one or a few of the various aspects of translation
theory as a whole.
Secondly, based on the restrictions that each individual translation theory has, it might be
further classified as the following:
(1) Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya could be considered as medium restricted, area restricted and
rank restricted translation theory, as it deals with human translation only, is restricted to
the languages of Chinese and English only, and is concerned with the target text as a
whole at text level.
(2) Nida’s principle of correspondence could be considered as medium restricted, text
type restricted and problem restricted translation theory, as it deals with human
translation only, is restricted to the translation of Bible only, and is concerned with the
nature of equivalence in translation only.
Compared with Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya, on the one hand Nida’s “formal equivalence” is
similar to Xin as they are both source text oriented, stressing the faithfulness of the target
text in both form and content to the source text. On the other hand “dynamic
equivalence” is to certain extend similar to Da and Ya as both are receptor oriented (or
37
reader oriented). This indicates that Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya is far more forward thinking
than the western translation theories as Yan Fu put forwarded the reader-oriented
approach towards translation more than half of a century earlier.
(3) Nemark’s semantic and communicative translations could be considered as medium
restricted, text type restricted and problem restricted theory, as it deals with human
translation only, is restricted to the translation of expressive, informative and vocative
texts, and is concerned with the problem of matching text type with translation method.
Compared with Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya, it can be found that on the one hand, Newmark's
semantic translation is author and source text oriented, and in a similar vein with Yan
Fu’s Xin. On the other hand, communicative translation is target text and reader oriented,
and has the similar effect as Yan Fu’s Da and Ya. However, from a translation
practitioner’s point of view, Newmark’s approach to translation is more concrete and can
provide general guidance at operational level.
(4) Vermeer’s skopos theory could be considered as medium restricted and problem
restricted translation theory, as it deals with human translation only, and is concerned
with the decision making at macro level in the translation process.
Compared with Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya, the skopos theory is a completely different
approach to translation. It focuses on translation as a human action which has an aim or
purpose. The aim or purpose of the translation determines the translation strategies, and
38
ultimately determine the target text to be produced. The skopos theory is neither source
text nor target text oriented, rather it is purpose oriented. Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya focuses on
the end result of a translation, the target text. It requires a target text to be faithful to the
original text, at the same time to be comprehensible to the readers and conform to the
target language norms. According to the skopos theory, the target text is only the
outcome of the translational action; therefore the skopos theory could provide guidance at
a higher level than Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya do. Xin Da Ya could be regarded as one of the
many legitimate goals that a translation aims to achieve. In that sense, it is probably
more useful in the evaluation of the translation.
In summary, both Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories are
partial translation theories. Although they approach translation from different
perspective and there are some similarities and differences between Xin Da Ya and the
three western translation theories, they can be integrated to provide guidance to document
translation at different stages of the translation process.
With regard to the translation process, there are different approaches both in China and
the West. Shen (2000: 169) believes that there are three stages in the process of
translating: first, the comprehension and master of the original text; next, the expression
in the target text; last, the improvement of the target text (translated by myself). Nida
indicates that the translation process includes “analysis, transfer, restructuring, and
testing (1969: vii)”. However, the above two approached focus mainly on the actual
procedures employed in translating. In this study, if we incorporate Vermeer’s skopos
39
theory into the translation process, and view translation as a human action, then the
process of translation could be described as the following:
• Firstly, the decision making stage at which the decision is made as to what
translation method to be employed for a given text;
• Secondly, the operational stage at which the actual translating occurs, a given text
is being translated from language A into language B;
• Finally, the evaluation and revision stage at which the final product of the
translation, the target text, is being evaluated and revised if necessary.
The following is a case study which will demonstrate how Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the
three western translation theories could be applied at different stages of the translation
process in document translation.
2. An integrated approach - a case study
In this case study, the task is to translate a Chinese driver licence issued in the People’s
Republic of China into English for the purpose of changing a driver licence from
overseas to an Australian driver licence, in this case a Queensland driver licence. With
the permission of clients, one Chinese driver licence and one Queensland driver licence
have been reproduced in this study. However, the personal details have been changed to
protect clients’ privacy. The Chinese driver licence to be translated is as follow:
40
Front of the driver licence
中华人民共和国机动车驾驶证正证 证号 1201164048
姓名 郑秦 男 1968 年 10 月生 单位或住址 广州市中山三路 74 号 603 室 初次领证日期 1991 年 01 月 22 日 准驾车型 C E 有效期 2004 年 10 月 26 日至 2010 年 10 月 26 日 发证机关(章) 广东省广州市公安局交通警察支队
Back of the driver licence
准驾车型代号规定
A: 大型客车和 B B: 大型货车和 C, M. C: 小型汽车(包括方向盘式三轮机动车)和 G. D: 方向把式三轮摩托车和 E, L. E: 二轮摩托车和 F. F: 轻便摩托车. G: 大型拖拉机,四轮农用运输车和 H. H: 小型拖拉机. K: 手扶拖拉机. L: 三轮农用运输车. M: 轮式自行专用机械. N: 无轨电车. P: 有轨电车. Q: 电瓶车. 注:其他车型用汉字填写,不用代号. 除公安交通机关以外,其他单位或个人一律不得扣留此证.
(1) Vermeer’s skopos theory can be applied at the initial decision making stage of the
translation process as it is very useful in determining the translation strategy or methods
to be employed at macro level. The purpose of the translation in this case is to translate a
Chinese driver licence into English in order to change an overseas driver licence to an
Australian (Queensland) driver licence. According to Vermeer, the skopos can be further
41
clarified as the goal of the translation process, the function of the target text and the
intention of the translation mode. In this case, the goal of the translation process is to
achieve the dynamic equivalence on the intended reader – the Australian transport
authority; the function of the translation (target text) is to provide the Australian transport
authority with the factual information which are necessary for the issuing of an
Australian driver licence; the translation mode in which the translation is to be realized
could be Newmark’ communicative translation. Therefore, Nida’s dynamic equivalence
and Newmark’s communicative translation can be applied in the next stage of the
translation process.
(2) At the operational stage of the translation process Nida’s dynamic equivalence and
Newmark’s communicative translation can be applied as they both provide macro
guidance at this stage as well as many practical techniques at micro operational level. In
order to achieve dynamic equivalence in the translation process it is necessary to study an
Australian (Queensland) driver licence and find out what information needs to be
translated from the original Chinese driver licence. The following is an example of an
Australian driver licence issued by Queensland Transport. The information shown on the
licence includes:
Front of the licence
Queensland Transport, Queensland Government
Licence No: 70 192 856
Name: Julie Smith
42
Address: 88 Ulinga Crescent, Parkinson 4115
Date of Birth: 06-06-1976 Sex: F Height: 170 Conditions:
Type: O Class: C
Effective: 21-04-2006 Expiry Date: 26-04-2011
Back of the licence
Class/Conditions of Licence: You must comply with those condition code/s shown on
your licence whilst driving. A description of the relevant class/es of vehicle and
condition/s of issue shown on your licence was provided to you at the time of licence
issue. For further information contact Queensland Transport.
Affix official change of details label/s here.
By comparing the information on the Chinese driver licence with that on the Australian
(Queensland) driver licence, it is found that the Chinese driver licence provides more
information than its Australian counterpart in certain area. As the function of the
translation in this case is to provide the Australian transport authority with the factual
information shown on the Chinese driver licence for the purpose of changing the Chinese
driver licence into an Australian driver licence, it determines that the target text (final
product) does not have to be a full translation, an extract translation could be sufficient as
far as it can provide essential information which meets the requirement of an Australian
driver licence. Basically, it is to translate the equivalent of what is on an Australian
driver licence. Therefore, some of the information on the Chinese original are optional
43
and can be left out in the translation, such as 准驾车型代号规定 (the motor vehicle
category code).
Obviously, there are many other translation methods available under the skopos theory,
from the word-for-word translation to the sense-for-sense translation and any methods
between the two poles. Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence and Newmark’s
semantic and communicative translations are just two general terms refer to the source
text oriented translation method and the target text oriented translation method, but the
strength of these two approaches is that they both provide detailed procedure to achieve
the desired result of the two translation methods. Therefore, it is helpful to translators at
the operational level.
Following the Vermeer’s skopos, Nida’s dynamic equivalence and Newmark’s
communicative translation, the translation of the Chinese driver licence could look like
the following:
Extract Translation of Driver Licence (interim) Licence Number: 440102681024561 Country of Issue: People’s Republic of China Surname: Zheng Given Name(s): Qin Sex: Male Date of Birth: October 1968 Residential Address: Unit 603, 74 Third Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou Category of vehicle for which licence is issued: Car and Motorbike Valid from: 26 October 2004 Valid until: 26 October 2010
44
The Date when the licence was initially issued: 22 January 1991 Issuing Authority (Seal): The Traffic Control Branch of the Public Security Bureau of
Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province
(3) Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya is useful in the operational stage of the translation process to
certain extend, but is probably more useful at the evaluation and revision stage of the
translation process. After the target text is produced, the translator can apply Xin Da Ya
to the evaluation of the target text. On the one hand, comparing the English translation to
the Chinese original to see if the information selected from the original Chinese driver
licence has been translated faithfully; on the other hand, checking the English translation
to see if it is comprehensible and conform to the English language norms. From the
perspective of Xin Da Ya, the above translation may be modified and the final translation
could look like the following (the underline indicates the changes have been made):
Extract Translation of Driver Licence (final)
Licence Number: 440102681024561 Country of Issue: People’s Republic of China Surname: Zheng Given Name(s): Qin Sex: Male Date of Birth: October 1968 Residential Address: Unit 603, 74 Third Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou Licence Type: Car and Motorbike Valid from: 26 October 2004 Valid until: 26 October 2010 The Initial Issuing Date: 22 January 1991 Issuing Authority (Seal): The Traffic Control Branch of the Guangzhou Police Bureau, Guangdong Province
45
From this case study, it can be found that each translation theory has played a role in the
whole process of translation. Without any one theory the whole process might become
incomplete as no one theory could deal with all the problems which might occur in the
translation process. Only the application of each theory at relevant stage, can a desirable
result be achieved.
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Chapter 5 Conclusion
In this project I have studied Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and three western translation theories,
namely Nida’s principle of correspondence, Newmark’s text categories and translation
methods, as well as Vermeer’s skopos theory. I also examined the existing views about
each theory and discussed the possible implications that each theory might have on
document translation. In so doing I aimed to: firstly, find out each theory’s strength and
weakness from translators’ perspective; secondly, find out if there are any similarities and
differences between Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories;
thirdly, find out how to better apply each translation theory to document translation.
Through the study of each translation theory and the examination of existing opinions
about each theory, the comparison of Xin Da Ya and the three western translation
theories, as well as a case study on the translation of a driver licence from Chinese to
English for the purpose of changing an overseas’ driver licence to an Australian driver
licence, the study has produced the following findings:
1. Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories are partial
translation theories, and as such, each theory has its own strength and weakness.
Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya as a general translation principle can provide guidance at
macro level to document translation, but it is highly summarized, very abstract
and fails to take other factors of translation into account when determining the
quality of a translation. Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence can
47
both be applied at operational level, as in document translation translators are
required to maintain a high level of accuracy whilst maintaining the natural flow
of expression in the target language. However, Nida’s dynamic equivalence has
its own limitation as it assumes that the translator has similar purposes with the
original author and the aim of the translation is to “reproduce the message”, but in
the real world it is often not the case. Newmark’s text categories and
corresponding translation methods provides translation practitioners with a new
way in determining the translation method in their practice, but it is probably
more useful in translators training when there is no other information provided,
and the original text is the only material that a translator have been given.
However, in reality there are many other factors need to be considered when
determining the translation method for a particular text. Vermeer’s skopos theory
is significant to translation practitioners in decision making at macro level; it also
expends the possibilities of translation and increases the range of possible
translation strategies. However, it does not touch the aspect of the actual
procedures of translation at operational level.
2. All the four translation theories studied are relevant to document translation, and
can provide guidance to translators at different stages of the translation process.
Vermeer’s skopos theory is applicable at the initial decision making stage of the
translation process in determining the translation strategy at macro level; Nida’s
principle of equivalence and Nemark’s text categories and translation methods are
applicable at the operational stage; and Yan Fu’s Xin Da Ya is applicable through
48
out the operational stage, but probably is more applicable at the evaluation stage
of the translation process.
3. Translation practitioners need to distinguish individual situation and apply each
theory properly to achieve the best possible result. Translation is a very
complicated process, there are many factors involved, such as the intention of the
original writer, the purpose of the translation, the requirement of the client and the
needs of the prospective readers. The change of any factor in the process of
translation will affect the final outcome.
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