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從火災科學看消防工程
中央警察大學 消防系主任
沈子勝 教授
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課程目標
了解火災在建築物中發展情形。
消防安全工程之內容。
介紹消防安全工程一些技術。
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消防工程之目標
人命安全
財物保護
營運不中斷
文化資產的保護
對環境的保護
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火災科學(compartment fire)
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觀念:
1.區劃空間:
2. 火災:
Plan
Flame - Heat Smoke - Gas
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觀念:
4.火災成長:
• Ignition (IG)
• Established Burning (EB)
• Full Room Involvement (FRI)
• Growing Fire
• Fully Developed Fire
• Fire Prevention
Rate
of
Hea
t R
elea
se (
Q)
or
Tem
per
atu
re (
T)
IG
Time
EB
Growing
Fire
Fully
Developed
Fire
FRI
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區劃空間火災各個階段(Compartment Fire) 起燃(Ignition)
火羽流(Fire Plume)
天花板下方熱氣流(Ceiling Jet)
兩區域上方煙層(Smoke Layer)
閃燃(Flashover)
全盛期燃燒(Fully Developed)
衰退(Decay)
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熱釋放率的重要性
區劃空間火災的動力
性能式消防安全工程設計的基礎
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區劃空間內容物品
可動式內容物品
upholstered furniture, boxes, book shelves, rack-storage, electronic equipment, Christmas trees, flammable/combustible pools, etc.
固定式內容物品
wall coverings, wall to wall carpet, paneling, wooden doors, wooden trim/molding, etc.
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熱釋放率的量測
3MJ/kgair or 13.1MJ/kgO2的重要性
由消耗的空氣量推測熱釋放率
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熱釋放率的量測
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.1
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熱釋放率的量測
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-4.8
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Red Chair HRR
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (sec)
HR
R (
kW
)
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Green Chair HRR
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (sec)
HR
R (
kW
)
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Large Leaf Plant HRR
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time (sec)
HR
R (
kW
)
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Small Leaf Plant HRR
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time (sec)
HR
R (
kW
)
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Cribs and Pallet Stacks
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.3
Geometry of cribs and pallets
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Pallet Stack HRR
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.4
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Upholstered Furniture HRR
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.6
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Upholstered Furniture HRR
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.9
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Wardrode
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering , Fig. 3-1.12
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Wardrobe HRR
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 3-1.13
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線 HRR
Time
Square-Wave
bt
maxQ
Pool fires, crib fires, wastebaskets, in-depth burning, etc.
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
maxQ
maxQ
Time Time
HRR HRR
bt bt
Furniture, Christmas Trees, Wall Linings, etc.
Triangle
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
Time
HRR
vt
2t
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
2
vttQ kWQst ,
22
1055
skW
tg
gt Time to 1055 kW
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
NFPA 72 (1996), Appendix B
Fast
Medium
Slow
stg 149
sts g 399150
stg 400
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
2
2
2
skW 00659.0 slow
skW 0.006630.0469 medium
skW 0475.0 fast
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fig. 2-4.3
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簡化的熱釋放率曲線 When you construct a heat release rate curve, make
sure that the area under the curve equals the available
energy (combustible mass )
mHcEnergy
bo
ig
t
t
dttQEnergy
bo
ig
t
t
c dttQmH
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Smoke toxicity
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Temperature of smoke layer
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Smoke layer height
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Fire Protection Engineering
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Fire Protection Engineering
Fire Dynamics (Compartment fire)
Detection system
Suppression system
Smoke control
Human behavior(Evacuation)
Agent application (Fire fighting)
Barriers
Structure
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Detection and fire dynamics
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-9
FLAME
FUEL
Ceiling Jet Correlations
for Unconfined Ceilings
H CEIL
Bouyant
Plume
z
Air Entrainment
Ceiling Jet
To u =
0 Q(t)
for T = T ( Q, r, z, H )
and u = u ( Q, r, z, H )
ceil
ceil
g g .
.
.
r
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Lump response actuation model
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Response Time
of Spot Type Smoke Detectors
Co= mass concentration
of smoke outside detector
Let C = mass concentration inside detector,
d C i
i
d t =
(C - C ) o i
where (L/v) = time “constant”
L = characteristic length of detector
v = velocity of smoke flowing by detector
FPE 553 Class 3 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 3-8
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Suppression system and fire
dynamics
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-2
RADIATION FL
A
ME
Radiation
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-3
Sprinkler Actuation Models
Objective- Calculate sprinkler actuation time and corresponding heat release rate;
model input should include sprinkler properties, fire heat release rate
history, and sprinkler location on ceiling
HEAT BALANCE
Rate of Thermal Energy Increase of Sprinkler Link=
Rate of Convective Heating by Ceiling Jet + Rate of Radiant Heating by
Flame/Plume/Jet
- Rate of Conduction to sprinkler frame and piping
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-4-1
Sprinkler Actuation Model
Neglecting Radiative Heating and Conduction Cooling
q = h (T - T ) g L conv •
= (T - T ) g L mc hA dT
dt L
= (T - T )/ g L
= mc hA
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-4-2
Sprinkler Actuation Model (Continued)
Convective Heat Transfer Correlation for Forced Convection Over Cylinders and Spheres
2/1
2/12/12/1
][u
RTIu
AkB
vmCL
]Re[ 2/1BL
kNu
L
kh
2/12/1
2/1
vL
kBu
h 47.0Re
40 < Re < 4,000
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-5
}e){1T - (T T T t/
ogO L
Solution for Constant and Constant T g
t t r
T L T LA
T g
o T
To solve for t when T = T r L LA
)(
)(1/
Og
OLt
TT
TTe
])(
)(1ln[
Og
OLAr
TT
TTt
])(
)(1ln[
2/1
Og
OLA
r
TT
TT
t
u
RTI
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-6
Plunge Test Tunnel
hinged cover
test sprinkler Heated Air
u = 2.6 m/s
Re-circulation Wind Tunnel (convective heat transfer only limit T .) g
T >> T air LA
)](1ln[
u t- RTI
1/2
r
Og
OL
TT
TT
measure .T , T , T know gOL
*RTI accounts for heat of fusion
as well as heat capacity.
* However, H << mc fusion )T(T OLA
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-7
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-8
Measured RTI Values
Type of Sprinkler (ft-sec) (m-sec)
Fast Response (ESFR,
Residential, etc.)
Conventional Response
Fast response devices can be either thin
links or bulbs.
40-50 22-28
130-600 72-360
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-9
FLAME
FUEL
Ceiling Jet Correlations
for Unconfined Ceilings
H CEIL
Bouyant
Plume
z
Air Entrainment
Ceiling Jet
Q(t)
for T = T ( Q, r, z, H )
and u = u ( Q, r, z, H )
ceil
ceil
g g .
.
.
r
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-10
Ceiling Jet Correlations
Author Year Actuation Code Sprinkler
1972 Alpert
Heskestad & Delichetsios 1978
Motevalli & Marks 1990
Cooper 1990
Kung et al 1984
DETACT
LAVENT
TDISX SPRINK 1.0
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-23
Conduction Cooling of Sprinkler Link
WATERWAY
Sprinkler Frame
Link
Assume: 1. Conduction Cooling FL TT
2. Frame remains at initial temperature
because: a) it is more massive than link, b) cooled by
water in pipe.
OF TT
)T-(Tc-)T-(TA h td
T d mc OLLg
L
conductive cooling term c is constant Let
)()()(
mc
hA
dt
T d000
L TThA
cmcTTTT LLg
OLL TTT OGG TTT
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-24
Sprinkler Convective Heating with
Conduction Heat Loss to Sprinkler Frame and
Water
inertia parameter = (mc/hA)u1/2 = const for sprinkler
If Tg & u are constant ( = const)
]T)uC/ (1 -T[RTI
u
dt
TdL g
L
)}]C/u 1(RTI
tu{ exp1[
)C/u (1
T T 1/2
1/2
1/2
g
L
ceiling jet temperature
rise conduction
parameter convective heating and link
thermal
Q
)uC(1
TTlim
2/1
gL
t
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-25
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-26
FMRC 0N0J5.RU/0N1J6.RU
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-27
T g
t
T L C = 0
C = 1
T
T LA1
LA2
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-28
C Factor Measurements for 27 sprinkler heads (from
FMRC Report by Bill + Heskestad)
Cmin = 0.52 (m/s)1/2
Cmax = 1.60 (m/s)1/2
typical C approximately equal to:
1.0 (m/s)1/2 for conventional response link
0.60 (m/s)1/2 for fast-response link
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-29
Let TLA = link actuation temperature rise above To
tr = response time at which TL = TLA
From solution for constant Tg + u
Comparing to solution for C=0, would get some result with a virtual RTI,
RTIV, given by
RTIV = RTI/(1+C/u1/2)
and TLA,virtual = TLA (1 + C/u1/2)
}T
)C/u(1T - 1{ln
)C/u1(u
RTI- t
g
1/2LA
1/21/2r
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FPE 553 Class 9 Lecture Overheads OvrHd 9-30
Fire Size at Sprinkler Actuation
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QðtÞ ¼ Qacte
0:023Δt
Impact
Equation by Madrzykowski and Vittori
Q
where Q(t) :Heat release rate at time t (kW)
Qact : Heat release rate at activation time (kW)
Δt :Time after sprinkler activation (s)
t : Time (s)
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Smoke control
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Smoke production-air entrainment
Smoke contents
Narcotic gas, irritant gas
Soot
Volume
Density
temperature
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Smoke toxicity
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Temperature of smoke layer
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Smoke layer height
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Smoke control planning
Building smoke control
Area
Uses-high fire load, occupant assembly, no opening, fire source, command center
Vertical-stairwell, elevator, escalator,
Vertical penetration (pipe or shaft)
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Smoke control in
Particular structures High-rise building
Atrium
Tunnel
Subway system
Hospital
Historical building
Nuclear facility
Semi-conductor fab
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Fire dynamics and life safety
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Life safety criteria
Temperature
Radiation (heat flux)
Visibility
Combustion products concentrations (CO, CO2, HCN,…)
Oxygen depletion
Smoke layer height
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Evacuation
B route: 避難安全驗證法
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Structure evaluation
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Structure evaluation
Calculation temperature of post-flashover fire temperature:
Method of Magnusson and Thelandersson • Considering fuel load density, opening factors
and building types
• Construct the temperature curve
Other methods: • Babrauskas and williamson
• EUROCODE
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Structure evaluation
Thermal exposure of structure components
Structure performance under load-bearing and heat impact (temperature rise):
Deformation
collapse
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Structural elements
Non-load-bearing surfaces--- ceiling, partitions
Deck--- roof, floor
Horizontal supports--- beams, girders
Vertical supports--- columns, load-bearing walls
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Evaluation of fire performance
Fire resistance testing methods: International standard- ISO 834
North America- ASTM E119 • 3 criteria: structural stability, integrity,
temperature rise on the unexposed face.
Calculation methods Use numerical method or simplified formulas
Determine the temp. of deformation and its strength during exposure to fire
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