Download - C. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Encoding and Retrieval Processes in Long-Term Memory Chapter 6
c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon
Long-Term MemoryFundamental Issues and Distinctions
Many distinguish between short-term memory and long-term memory
Serial position effect Items at the beginning and end of a list are
remembered particularly well Evidence for the distinction?
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Long-Term MemoryFundamental Issues and Distinctions
Long-Term memory (LTM) systems Episodic Memory
memory for personally experienced events Semantic Memory
knowledge or information about the world; not tied to context
Procedural Memory Ability to perform well-practiced actions and skills
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Long-Term MemoryFundamental Issues and Distinctions
Basic processes of LTM Encoding
Processes involved in information acquisition Storage
Retention of a memory representation Retrieval
Accessing information in LTM after encoding and storage
Memory can be tested directly (explicit memory tests) or indirectly (implicit memory tests)
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Attention and Repetition
Spacing effect Massed repetition is not as effective as
distributed repetition
Superiority of distributed repetition due to: Deficient processing in massed repetition Encoding variability in distributed repetition
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information with no embellishment
Elaborative rehearsal: linking information with previously stored information
Effective for incidental and intentional learning
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Levels of processing Processing of words proceeds from a superficial
sensory analysis to a meaningful semantic analysis
Deeper processing = better retention
Problems: “Deep” processing is vaguely/circularly defined Doesn’t say much about retrieval
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction
Most effective encoding technique depends on how retrieval is to be tested
Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval.
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Encoding also aided by: Distinctiveness: Processes that distinguish
information in LTM
Organization: Processes that add structure to incoming information
Material-Appropriate Processing Best strategy is whichever provides a complement
to the information offered by the material.
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding Processes
Mnemonic techniques
Devices employed to improve memory Method of Loci: link to-be-remembered material to
known locations Retrieve with “mental walk” Effectiveness of visual processing
Self-Reference: relating information to self improves memory.
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Long-Term MemoryRemembering Actions
Enactment effect Memory is better for actions than for
corresponding verbal statements
Prospective Memory Remembering to perform future actions Involves “self-initiated retrieval”
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Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes
A good deal of forgetting is due to retrieval failure
Accessibility vs. Availability Information is often present (available), but not
retrievable (accessible) without the right cue
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Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes
Encoding Specificity Principle
Memory benefits to the extent that retrieval features (i.e., cues) overlaps with features present during encoding
Encoding features are the best retrieval cues
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Retrieval ProcessesEncoding Specificity
Thomson and Tulving (1970) Gave subjects weakly related word pairs
Assessed two types of retrieval cue Strongly related word Weakly related (but presented at encoding) word
Weakly related word was much more effective as a retrieval cue
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Retrieval ProcessesEncoding Specificity
An extension of encoding specificity Context Dependency:
Given a particular encoding context, memory is better when retrieval reinstates that context.
Has been demonstrated with both external and internal context
Encoding Context
Retrieval Context
A B
A
B
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Retrieval ProcessesA Testing Effect
Retrieval aids in retrieval -- the testing effect Roediger & Karpicke (2006)
compared two conditions
Subjects studied a passage repeatedly or studied it once and tested themselves repeatedly
Repeated testing decreased forgetting rate dramatically
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Long-Term MemoryEncoding and Retrieval: Hemispheric Asymmetry
Neuro-imaging studies indicate hemispheric specialization in memory functioning
Left hemisphere particularly active during retrieval of semantic memory info and encoding processes
Right hemisphere particularly active during recall of specific episodes
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Long-Term MemoryMemory and Consciousness
Remember-Know paradigm
Recognition task; subjects are asked about subjective experience during retrieval
Remember: Conscious recollection Know: Automatic judgment; no recollection
Remember and know judgments are dissociated by a number of variables
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Long-Term MemoryMemory and Consciousness
Not all expressions of memory involve conscious retrieval
Explicit memory: Remembering via conscious recollection and effortful retrieval.
Conscious recollection necessary
Implicit memory: “Remembering” as reflected in changes in behaviors, attitudes, emotions
Conscious recollection not necessary
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Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory
Implicit memory reflected in unconscious plagiarism Misattributing a thought or idea to oneself “Memory” without conscious recollection
Implicit memory reflected in deja-vu. Mistaken feeling that you’ve been in some situation
before Implicit remembering of a related situation?
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Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory
Implicit memory tests
Word fragment completion: c _ n _ c i _ u _ n e _ _
Word stem completion: con ____________
Compare completion rates for words previously encountered to baseline completion rates
Enhanced completion for previously encountered words = priming; a measure of implicit memoryt
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Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory
Dissociations are often observed between measures of explicit and implicit memory
Amnesia: memory deficits brought on by severe brain injury
Amnesia dissociates explicit and implicit memory Explicit tests: amnesia-related deficit Implicit tests: no amnesia-related deficit
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Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory
Dissociations can be observed in non-amnesics
Jacoby (1983): had subjects encode words by reading or generating a response to a clue
Tested them explicitly (recognition) or implicitly (identification)
Generating led to better recognition performance; reading led to better identification performance
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Memory and ConsciousnessImplicit Memory
Accounts of explicit-implicit associations
Transfer-Appropriate Processing Memory depends on retrieval-encoding match Implicit tests: data-driven in nature; are aided by
data-driven encoding Explicit tests: conceptually driven in nature, aided
by conceptually-driven encoding.