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Breaching genetic glass ceilings - transgenics to overcome intractable
agronomic problems in the developing world
Jonathan GresselDepartment of Plant Sciences
Rehovot, Israel
World BankWashington DC, February 17, 2009
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Talk divided:1. Four crops - 80% of calories2. Crop evolution: transgenics vs. breeding3. Developing world gets hand-me-downs4. Examples of developing world needs:Sorghum - a crop in needHIV-witches boring mothsmyco-cancer evil weevils sorghum for the birds? shattering newsOther examples swollen necks/cretinsfueling poverty
5. Beware - cultural imperialism
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The ability to adapt is the function of DNAYou can reach a “genetic glass ceiling” and further recombination does not help
Breeding rearranges existing genes Cannot create traits that are not present
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Transgenics have helped supply needed genes to high-ceiling crops
80% calories: rice, wheat, maize and soyJust look at the success of herbicide resistant maize and soybeans, and Bt maize and cottonTransgenic wheat / rice rare
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Transgenics allow rapid domestication
Bring in genes from whereever
Activate /suppress specific genes whenever
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The successes in developed world reducedproduction costsfuel costspesticidesherbicide runoffsoil erosion - minimum tillage
Has this helped the developing world?
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Only with hand me down genes
The developing world needs new genes
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A new book
(Johns Hopkins Univ. Press - 2008)
deals with further domesticating under-domesticated crops that lack genetic diversity Analyze and proposes where to get the genesDeveloping world has many such crops
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Sorghum/maize - a paradigm
HIVWitches
Discussing theories/policies/macro not enoughMust have a feel for the actual problems
Thus
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Human population displacements facilitatedisease epidemics- war - labor migration- land abandonment
Causes:- labor migration- land abandonment
HIV=Highly Invasive Vegetation
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These are beautiful plants
Photo: Lytton Musselman
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that were never controlled until they emerged from the soil, which is too late.
Striga hermonthica(witchweed) on sorghum in Africa
Photo: Lytton Musselman
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Striga (witchweed) bewitches maize as well
Photo: Lytton Musselman
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Parasitic weeds germinate after stimulation by crop roots, and grow towards the crop roots, attach, and suck nutrients
Striga also poisons the crop.
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A theory was formulated - –The herbicide should move un-metabolized from the leaf, through the stem into the parasite, underground
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It took some convincing to get industry to provide the genetic
material for testing
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ALS Resistant tobacco EPSPS Resistant oilseed rape
+chlorsulfuron + glyphosate
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How could this work for St riga? – farmers can’t afford herbicides
to spray over whole fields – farmers can’t affo rd sprayers Approach:
Treat crop seeds with herbicides instead of fields Need target-site resistant crops having a very large margin of resistance.
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Joel Ransom Fred Kanampiu
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I R – maize (homozygous)ALS try552 leu
Pioneer – AmCy (BASF)
A mutant obtained through biotech
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Photo: Dennis Friesen
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Photo: Dennis Friesen
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Technology for witchweed commercialized
for maize through local seed companies
But not sorghum - although at least three groups now trying to get same mutant in… genetically - there is a good reason why transgenic better than mutant selection
Better technologies coming on line:e.g. RNAi in crop for Striga specific genes
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European Corn Borer Lep pests worldwide
16M ha infested in U.S. >60M infested ha1-3 borer generations per year Yield losses often >30%Mean 6% yield loss; up to 30% (Ostrinia, Spodoptera)
Non-Bt Corn
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Some African farmers put insecticide in whorl - medicine dropper- pinch of granules
Bt gene being put in maize - but not sorghum
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Fumonisins in grains causeNeural tube defects Esophageal cancer
Caused by Fusarium infection of grain
Children (and adults) should not eat food withmycotoxins
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Kwashiorkor is due to malnutrition
not undernutrition
mal = bad; bad food - contaminated with aflatoxinWhy heavy support for transgene detection labs - not mycotoxin detection labs?
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Effects of aflatoxins
Low chronic dose - reduced liver function-lowered immune system
More/longer -hepatitis suceptibility Higher/longer -liver cancer/deathAcute - death
“4.5 billion people in developing countries are exposed to uncontrolled amounts”
Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventionsWilliams et al - Am J Clin Nutr 80:1106 -22, 2004
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Grain weevils Grain moths
Damage horrendous in grains/legumesAre vectors of Aspergillus
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Must be biotech ways to decrease mycotoxins in sorghum and other crops
Do they interest the developed world - Europe uses fungicides on grain
In the US, grain is gas dried on harvest;
Bacterial Bt gene halves fumonisin levels(little effect on aflatoxins)Bt reduces insect vectors of fungi
Can we imagine what Bt would do in Africa where the grain is field dried? Solution: kill the messenger
the insect vectors
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Despite squeamishness - consider– spider or scorpion toxin genes– (proteins have no mammalian toxicity) Aflatoxin resistance genes could come from people- some people not poisoned- genomics - found human liver gene that degrades - patented for gene therapy
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African saying: “sorghum yield goes up with less education”
am
ou
nt yie
ld
education
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Why the inverse correlation?
am
ou
nt yie
ld
education
Time spent chasing birds
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Red billed quelea or red-billed weaver
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50,000 nests per hectare
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Millions per flock
Feathered locusts
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Head very accessible
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What to do about it?
In Africa spray nesting sites with
fenthion – an organophosphate insecticide
Or explode dynamite above ground, kill all birds
Breeding high tannin varieties,large glumes, awns, goosenecksDid not work
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Is that a nice thing to do?
One solution – reallocate dhurrin in sorghum
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Dhurrin is a cyanogenic glucoside make in young sorghum leaves and stems
Change promoters:
Do this into sorghum with milk stage/dough stage promoter
Engineer degradation genes with maturation stage promoter
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A few genes control evolution of teosinte head to corn earCan they be moved to sorghum?
ex J. Doebley
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Can we go from
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with maize regulatory genes?
to:
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We always have reservations about introducing new organisms into the environment
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Transgenic sorghum is a solution - but the newspapers tell us:
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Problem: transgene flow to: - shattercane - a weedy form of S. bicolor - johnsongrass - 1 of 10 Worst weeds -one of two genomes in common- wild Sorghum spp.
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The last chapter outlines elegant ways to transgenically contain and mitigate useful transgenesMake a tandem construct with anti-shatterring RNAi
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Fonio and pearl millet are examples of the disconnect between those who:• discover problems• who set priorities• those who may solve them•People on a fonio or pearl millet diet •get goiter, •children get cretinism
•Published, but did not tell breeders or biotech people about the problemBreeders and biotech people don’t read?
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Medical sleuths found the culprit:
Inhibit the last enzymatic step in thyroxin biosynthesis
Massive goiter in Sudan, Ethiopia and IndiaICRISAT knew nothing about it
and its glycoside vitexin
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Apigenin biosynthetic pathway
Gene cloned
Why not suppress transgenically ?
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30% oil - seeds get US$140/ton (optimistic)- fruits hand harvested- fruits dried in the shade- seeds removed by hand
Is Jatropha a gimmick to keep the poor poor?
Processing reminiscent of backyard steel mills in China during the cultural revolution
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Info not in sites promoting Jatropha curcascommon plant names: Black vomit nut, Purge nut, etc.common oil names: hell oil, oleum infernale, etc.
Toxins: Curcin (a toxalbumin) - similar to ricinPhorbol esters - terpenoid Alkaloidsskin tumor promotersNo antidote knownSee: http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/jcurc.htmAlso: A case of Jatropha poisoning resembling organophosphate intoxication Clin. Tox. 44 337,2006
Could one release a transgenic crop with such components? What to do with toxic byproducts? Jatrofraud! ?
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If you want Jatropha as an oil crop -Engineer or breed:- dwarfing (increase harvest index)- single stalk (high IAA?)- Antishattering - fruits dry on stems
-machine harvesting and threshing- RNAi curcin toxalbumin gene- RNAi terpene synthase to rid of phorbols- RNAi pathways to other toxins- better yield, oil content / qualityThe engineered crop might then be safe to grow - but would be subject to extensive regulation
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SummaryDeveloping world needs transgenic crops
Developed world uses transgenics to replace single inputs - leaving other inputs intact
The developing world lacks most of those inputs
Thus - synergies will be attained by stacking transgenes that solve different problems
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We in the “west” need more modestyWe should beware of cultural imperialism
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Discussed:1. Dangers of four crops - 80% of calories-2. Crop evolution: transgenics vs. breeding3. Developing world needs > hand-me-downs4. Examples of developing world needs:Sorghum - a crop in needHIV-witches Striga boring moths Btmyco-cancer mycotoxins evil weevils sorghum for the birds? shattering news anti
Other examples swollen necks/cretins - reducing apigeninsfueling poverty with Jatropha - unless modified5. Beware - cultural imperialism
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We must decide:Use biotech to helporSit and do nothing
The world needs solutions - must consider transgenics to supply them
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