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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 1
Chapter 1
Categorical versus Measurement Data
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 2
Individuals and Variables
Individuals– the objects described by a set of data– may be people, animals, or things
Variable– any characteristic of an individual– can take different values for different
individuals
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 3
Variables
Categorical (Qualitative)– Places an individual into one of several
groups or categories
Quantitative (Measurement)– Takes numerical values for which
arithmetic operations such as adding and averaging make sense
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 4
Case Study
The Effect of Hypnosison the
Immune System
reported in Science News, Sept. 4, 1993, p. 153
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 5
Case Study
65 college students. – 33 easily hypnotized– 32 not easily hypnotized
white blood cell counts measured
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 6
Case Study
Students randomly assigned to one of three conditions– subjects hypnotized, given mental exercise– subjects relaxed in sensory deprivation
tank– control group (no treatment)
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A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
1. Pre-study white blood cell count
2. Group assignment
3. Easy or difficult to achieve hypnotic trance
4. Post-study white blood cell count
BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 7
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 8
Case Study
Variables measured
Easy or difficult to achieve hypnotic trance
Group assignment Pre-study white blood cell
count Post-study white blood cell
count
categorical
quantitative
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 9
Case Study
Weight Gain SpellsHeart Risk for Women
“Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women.” W.C. Willett, et. al., vol. 273(6), Journal of the American Medical Association, Feb. 8, 1995.
(Reported in Science News, Feb. 4, 1995, p. 108)
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 10
Case Study
Study started in 1976 with 115,818 women aged 30 to 55 years and without a history of previous CHD.
Each woman’s weight (body mass) was determined.
Each woman was asked her weight at age 18.
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 11
Case Study
The cohort of women were followed for 14 years.
The number of CHD (fatal and nonfatal) cases were counted (1292 cases).
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A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
5. Incidence (count) of coronary heart disease
6. Family history of heart disease
7. Weight in 1976
8. Smoker or nonsmoker
9. Age (in 1976)
10. Weight at age 18
BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 12
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 13
Case Study
Age (in 1976) Weight in 1976 Weight at age 18 Incidence of coronary heart
disease Smoker or nonsmoker Family history of heart disease
quantitative
categorical
Variables measured
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 14
Distribution
Tells what values a variable takes and how often it takes these values
Can be a table, graph, or function
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 15
Displaying Distributions
Categorical variables– Pie charts– Bar graphs
Quantitative variables– Histograms– Stemplots (stem-and-leaf plots)
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 16
Year Count Percent
Freshman 18 41.9%
Sophomore 10 23.3%
Junior 6 14.0%
Senior 9 20.9%
Total 43 100.1%
Data Table
Class Make-up on First Day
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 17
Freshman41.9%
Sophomore23.3%
Junior14.0%
Senior20.9%
Pie Chart
11. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 18
41.9%
23.3%
14.0%
20.9%
0.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
40.0%
45.0%
Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior
Year in School
Per
cen
t
12. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
Bar Graph
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13. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 20
14. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
Data TableMaterial Weight (million tons) Percent of total
Food scraps 25.9 11.2 %
Glass 12.8 5.5 %
Metals 18.0 7.8 %
Paper, paperboard 86.7 37.4 %
Plastics 24.7 10.7 %
Rubber, leather, textiles 15.8 6.8 %
Wood 12.7 5.5 %
Yard trimmings 27.7 11.9 %
Other 7.5 3.2 %
Total 231.9 100.0 %
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 21
15. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
Pie Chart
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16. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
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17. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
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18. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 25
19. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
Bar Graph
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20. A-Measurement or B-Categorical?
kaitlin 68.3s 70.3michelle a 70.7Katrina 71.0megan 71.0Rachel 71.3laquanda 71.7eric 72.0katie 72.7tracy 73.0allie 74.0Q 74.0tiffany 74.3kristina 74.7christain 76.7amanda 76.7shannon 77.0latoya 81.3aona 84.3
BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 26
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The End
BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 27
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 28
Examining the Distribution of Quantitative Data
Overall pattern of graph Deviations from overall pattern Shape of the data Center of the data Spread of the data (Variation) Outliers
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 29
Shape of the Data
Symmetric– bell shaped– other symmetric shapes
Asymmetric– right skewed– left skewed
Unimodal, bimodal
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 30
SymmetricBell-Shaped
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 31
SymmetricMound-Shaped
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 32
SymmetricUniform
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 33
AsymmetricSkewed to the Left
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 34
AsymmetricSkewed to the Right
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 35
Outliers
Extreme values that fall outside the overall pattern– May occur naturally– May occur due to error in recording– May occur due to error in measuring– Observational unit may be fundamentally
different
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 36
Histograms
For quantitative variables that take many values
Divide the possible values into class intervals (we will only consider equal widths)
Count how many observations fall in each interval (may change to percents)
Draw picture representing distribution
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 37
Histograms: Class Intervals
How many intervals?– One rule is to calculate the square root of the
sample size, and round up.
Size of intervals?– Divide range of data (maxmin) by number of
intervals desired, and round to convenient number
Pick intervals so each observation can only fall in exactly one interval (no overlap)
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 38
Case Study
Weight Data
Introductory Statistics classSpring, 1997
Virginia Commonwealth University
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 39
Weight Data
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 40
Weight Data: Frequency TableWeight Group Count
100 - <120 7 120 - <140 12 140 - <160 7 160 - <180 8 180 - <200 12 200 - <220 4 220 - <240 1 240 - <260 0 260 - <280 1
sqrt(53) = 7.2, or 8 intervals; range (260100=160) / 8 = 20 = class width
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 41
Weight Data: Histogram
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Frequency
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280Weight
* Left endpoint is included in the group, right endpoint is not.
Nu
mb
er
of s
tude
nts
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 42
Stemplots(Stem-and-Leaf Plots)
For quantitative variables Separate each observation into a stem (first
part of the number) and a leaf (the remaining part of the number)
Write the stems in a vertical column; draw a vertical line to the right of the stems
Write each leaf in the row to the right of its stem; order leaves if desired
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 43
Weight Data12
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 44
Weight Data:Stemplot
(Stem & Leaf Plot)
1011121314151617181920212223242526
Key
20|3 means203 pounds
Stems = 10’sLeaves = 1’s
192
2
1522
5
135
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 45
Weight Data:Stemplot
(Stem & Leaf Plot)
10 016611 00912 003457813 0035914 0815 0025716 55517 00025518 00005556719 24520 321 02522 023242526 0
Key
20|3 means203 pounds
Stems = 10’sLeaves = 1’s
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 46
Extended Stem-and-Leaf Plots
If there are very few stems (when the
data cover only a very small range of
values), then we may want to create
more stems by splitting the original
stems.
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 47
Extended Stem-and-Leaf Plots
Example: if all of the data values were between 150 and 179, then we may choose to use the following stems:
151516161717
Leaves 0-4 would go on each upper stem (first “15”), and leaves 5-9 would go on each lower stem (second “15”).
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 48
Time Plots A time plot shows behavior over time. Time is always on the horizontal axis, and the
variable being measured is on the vertical axis. Look for an overall pattern (trend), and
deviations from this trend. Connecting the data points by lines may emphasize this trend.
Look for patterns that repeat at known regular intervals (seasonal variations).
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 49
Class Make-up on First Day(Fall Semesters: 1985-1993)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Percent of ClassThat Are Freshman
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Year of Fall Semester
Class Make-up On First Day
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BPS - 5th Ed. Chapter 1 50
Average Tuition (Public vs. Private)