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Superconductors
An exciting field of Physics!
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General Objective
To understand the nature of superconductivity
Specific Objectives:You will be able to
1. Define Superconductivity
2. State the history of Superconductors
3. List the Properties, Types and Applications of
Superconductors
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Prerequisite knowledgeElectrical Conductivity
Thermal conductivity
Conducting materials
1. Low resistive materials (Ex: Al, Cu, Ag)
2. high resistive materials (Ex: Tungsten, Platinum)
3. Zero resistive materials (Ex: Nichrome, Mercury, Tungsten, Platinum and Alloys)
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Introduction Before the discovery of superconductivity, it was
thought that the electrical resistance of a conductor
becomes zero only at absolute zero.
But it is found that, in some materials the electrical
resistance becomes zero, when they are cooled to very
low temperature.
Ex: Electrical resistance of pure mercury suddenly drops
to zero when it is cooled below 4.2 Kelvin and becomes
a superconductor.
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Superconductivity?
The phenomenon of losing the resistivityabsolutely, when cooled to sufficiently lowtemperature is called superconductivity.
Superconductors are materials that conductelectricity with no resistance.
This means that, unlike the more familiarconductors such as copper or steel, asuperconductor can carry a current indefinitelywithout losing any energy at temperatures nearabsolute zero.
SO - 1
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Comparisons of TemperaturesTemperatures F C K
water boils 212.0 100.0 373.2
body temp 98.6 37.0 310.2
room temp 77.0 25.0 298.2
water freezes 32.0 0.0 273.2
mercury freezes -37.8 -38.8 234.4
dry ice -108.4 -78.0 195.2
liquid Oxygen -297.4 -183.0 90.2
liquid Nitrogen -320.8 -196.0 77.2
liquid Helium -452.1 -269.0 4.2
absolute zero -459.7 -273.2 0.0
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HISTORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
1911- Kamerlingh Onnes (Nobel prize in 1913) while studying the
resistance of solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using the recently-
discovered liquid helium as a refrigerant. At 4.2 K, the resistance abruptly
disappeared.
1913- lead (7 K), 1941 niobium nitride(16 K)
1895 – Helium - William Ramsay in England (Isolation of Helium).
1908 – Liquid Helium (−269 °C) (about 4 K) - H. Kamerlingh Onnes
Res
ista
nce
(Ω
)
4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
Temperature (K)
0.15
0.10
0.0Tc
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Transition Temperature (or) Critical Temperature (Tc)
The temperature at which a normal conductor loses itsresistivity and becomes a super conductor is known astransition temperature or critical temperature.
Low temperature superconductors ( > Tc ) i.e., lowtransition temperature superconductors.
High temperature superconductors ( < Tc ) i.e., hightransition temperature superconductors.
Superconduction transition is reversible. i.e., abovecritical temperature (Tc ), the superconductor againbecomes normal conductor.
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Critical Temperature (Tc)
TEMPERATURE
RESISTIVITY
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11
Superconducting elements
•Ferromagnetic elements are not superconducting•The best conductors (Ag, Cu, Au..) are not superconducting •Nb has the highest TC = 9.2K from all the elements
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• Electrical resistance,
• Magnetic property,
• Meissner effect,
• Effect of electric current and pressure,
• Isotopic effect
Properties of Superconductors
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Properties of Superconductors
1. Electrical Resistance
The electrical resistance of a superconducting material is very less.
It is of the order of 10-5 cm
SO -3
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When super conducting materials are subjected to very largevalue of magnetic field, the super conducting property isdestroyed.
Critical magnetic field (Hc ): The minimum magnetic fieldsrequired to destroy the superconducting state is called the
critical magnetic field (Hc
)
H0 – Critical field at 0K
T - Temperature below TC
TC - Transition Temperature
Hc
= Ho[1- (T/Tc)
2]
Superconducting
Normal
T (K) TC
H0
HC
2. Magnetic Property
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3. The Meissner Effect (1933 )
Superconductors push out magnetic fields
Act as perfect diamagnets
Magnetic fields does not penetrate the sample
Meissner Effect is reversible
A complete expulsion of all magnetic field by a
superconducting material is called “Meissner effect”
H ≤ HCCurrents i appear, to cancel B. i x B on the
superconductor produces repulsion.
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4. Effect of electric current
When a large value of A.C. current is applied to
a super conducting material it induces some
magnetic field in the material and because of
this magnetic field, the super conducting
property of the material is destroyed.
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17
What destroys superconductivity?
High temperatures:strong thermal vibration of the lattice predominate over the electron-phonon coupling.
Magnetic field: the spins of the C-P will be directed parallel.
(should be antiparallel in C-P)
A current: produces magnetic field which in destroys superconductivity.
Current density
Temperature
Magnetic field
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Types of Super Conductors
• There are two types of super conductors based on their variation in magnetisation, due to external magnetic field applied.
1. Type I super conductor (or) Soft super conductor
2. Type II super conductor (or) Hard super conductor
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Magnetisation
• The term magnetisation or the intensity ofmagnetisation is the process of converting anon magnetic material into a magneticmaterial.
• The magnetic moment (M=IA) per unit volume(I = M/V).
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Type I (Soft) Super Conductor• When the super conductor is
kept in the magnetic field andif the field is increased thesuper conductor becomes anormal conductor abruptly atcritical magnetic field. Thistype of materials are termedas Type I superconductors.
• Below Hc, the specimenexcludes all the magnetic linesof force and exhibits perfectMeissner effect.
• Type I superconductors areperfect diamagnets.
Normal state
Super conductor
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Type II (Hard) Super Conductor• When the super conductor is kept in
the magnetic field and if the field isincreased, below the lower critical fieldHc1, the materials exhibits perfectdiamagnetism (super conductor) andabove Hc1, the magnetisation decreasesand hence magnetic flux startspenetrating through the material.
• The material is said to be in a mixedstate between Hc1 and Hc2.
• Above Hc2, it becomes normalconductor.
• The materials which loses its superconducting property gradually due tothe increase in magnetic field are calledtype II super conductors.
SC State
Normal state
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TYPE I SUPERCONDUCTORS TYPE I SUPERCONDUCTORS
Sudden loss of magnetisation Gradual loss of magnetisation
Exhibit Meissner Effect Does not exhibit complete Meissner Effect
No mixed state Mixed state present - Gradual transition from Superconducting
state to normal state
One HC = 0.1 tesla , and the value is low Two HCs – HC1 & HC2 (≈30 tesla) value is high
Only one critical field Tc Perfect Diamagnetic and completely follows Meissner effct
below Hc1 Electrically superconductor between Hc1 and Hc2
Super current flows on material surface Super current can flow over the bulk of the material
Soft superconductor, Eg.s – Pb, Sn, Hg Hard superconductor, Eg.s – Nb-Sn, Nb-Ti
Cannot carry large currents Can carry large currents when field is in between Hc1 and Hc2;
Used to generate very high magnetic fields
Can tolerate impurities without affecting
the superconducting properties.
Cannot tolerate impurities, i.e., the impurity affects the
superconducting property
Superconducting
-M
Normal
Mixed
HC1 HCHC2
H
-M
HHC
Superconducting
Normal
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Nobel Prizes for superconductivity
Kamerlingh Onnes (1913),
Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper, and J. Robert Schrieffer (1972),
Brian D. Josephson (1973),
Georg Bednorz and Alex K. Muller (1987)
Alexei A. Abrikosov, Vitaly L. Ginzburg, and Anthony J.
Leggett (2003), "for pioneering contributions to the theory of
superconductors and superfluids"
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Important Factors to define a Superconducting State
• 1. critical temperature (Tc)
2. critical field (Hc)
3. critical current density (Jc).
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BCS theory (1957)
The Origin of Superconductivity
The theory describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused
by a condensation of pairs of electrons into a boson-like state.
(Bosons are one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particles,)
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Bob Schrieffer
“ B. C. S.”Nobel Prize in 1972 for their microscopic theory in 1957 nearly 50 years after their discovery by Kamerlingh Onnes!
Describes why
materials are
superconducting
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Cooper pair• The two electron interacting attractively in the
phonon field are called cooper pair.
Electrons pairs, called Cooper pairs,
which propagate throughout the lattice
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HIGH Tc SUPERCONDUCTORS
Low (Tc) Superconductors High (Tc) Superconductors
Superconductors that require
liquid helium coolant are
called low temperature
superconductors. Liquid
helium temperature is 4.2K
above absolute zero
Superconductors having their
Tc values above the
temperature of liquid nitrogen
(77K) are called the high
temperature superconductors.
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Cost Saving and Cost Increase
Applications of Superconductivity
Zero resistance
No energy lost,
Novel uses…
Need refrigeration,
fabrication costs….
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• Magnetic levitation,
• SQUIDS
• Cryotron,
Applications of Superconductivity
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1. MAGLEV or MAGNETIC LEVITATION
Potential to exceed 6,400 km/h if
deployed in an evacuated tunnel.
Highest recorded speed,
603 km / h, Japan, April 2015
The levitation coils are installed on thesidewalls of the guide way.
When the on board superconductingmagnets pass through the coils, an electriccurrent is induced (electromagnetstemporarily).
As a result, the forces push thesuperconducting magnet upwards and oneswhich pull them upwards simultaneously,thereby levitating the Maglev vehicle.
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2. SQUID (Superconductor Quantum Interference Device)
The most sensitive type of detector known to science to measure
very small magnetic fields.
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices can measure tiny fields – such as those due to currents flowing in your heart muscle
Invented in 1964 by Robert Jaklevic, John Lambe, Arnold
Silver, and James Mercereau of Ford Research Labs
Principle :
Small change in magnetic field, produces variation in the flux quantum.
Construction:
The superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) consists of two
superconductors separated by thin insulating layers to form two parallel
Josephson junctions.
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Types
Two main types of SQUID:
1) RF SQUIDs – has only one Josephson junction
2)DC SQUIDs have two or more junctions.
Thereby,
• more difficult and expensive to produce.
• much more sensitive.
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How it worksPhase change due to
external magnetic fieldCurrent flow
Voltage change
Due to B field Due to junctions Must be quantized
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3. CRYOTRON
• It is a magnetically operated current switch.
Principle:
• The super conducting property disappears when the magnetic field is grater than critical field (Hc)
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PROBLEMS
The transition temperature of Pb is 7.2K. But at 5 K it loses the superconductingproperty If subjected to a magnetic field of 3.3 x104 A/m. Find the maximum value of H which will allow the metal to retain its superconductivity at 0K
Solution: Hc
= Ho[1-(T/Tc)
2]
Ho
= Hc
/ [1-(T/Tc)2] = 3.3 x104 A/m /1-(25/51.28)
Ans: 6.37x104 A/m
The transition temperature of lead is 7.26K. The maximum critical field for the material is 8 x105A/m. Lead has to be used as a superconductor subjected to a magnetic field of 4 x104A/m. What precaution will have to be taken?
T = Tc [1- Hc(T)/ H
c(o)]1/2 = 7.08K
The temp of the metal should be held below 7.08K
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The dream - “Tomorrow’s Superconducting World”
350 mph levitated Intercity trains
Underground rapid transit: Heathrow to Gatwick in 10
minutes
Computing: 1000 times fastersupercomputers
Cargo-carrying
submarines,all-electric US Navy
Energy Saving:power lines
electric motorstransformers
Medical Diagnostics:Magnetic Resonance Imaging SQUID:
Brain activity Heart function
Information Technology: much faster, wider band
communications
magnetically launched space shuttle
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Some of these dreams are already reality…
Japanese levitating train has superconducting magnets onboard
Superconducting power cable installed in Denmark
SQUID measure-ment of neuro-
magnetic signals
(nuclear) magnetic resonance imaging of the brain, in the field from a superconducting magneth
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Formative Assessment
1. In superconductivity, the electrical resistance of material becomes
• Zero
• Infinite
• Finite
• All of the above
• Zero
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2. The superconducting state is perfectly _____ in nature.
• Diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
• Diamagnetic
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3. Which of the following are the properties of superconductors?
• They are diamagnetic in nature
• They have zero resistivity
• They have infinite conductivity
• All of the above
• All of the above
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4. Superconductivity was first observed by
• 1 : Ohm
• 2 : Ampere
• 3 : H.K. Onnes
• 4 : Schrieffer
• 3 : H.K. Onnes
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5. The first successful theory on superconductivity was due to
• 1 : Schrieffer
• 2 : Onnes
• 3 : Ampere and Schrieffer
• 4 : Bardeen Cooper and Schrieffer
• 4 : Bardeen Cooper and Schrieffer
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Stimulating question
1. Even though Nb3Sn has produced highmagnetic field than Nb-Ti, why it is not used inthe MRI?
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Stimulating question
2. How does a magnetic levitation train stops?
A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted inthe track. This linear motor operates to propelthe train forward, and when it is necessary tostop the train, the linear motor acts in reverse.
![Page 46: An exciting field of Physics!arunkumard.yolasite.com/resources/Supercondutors.pdfvalue of magnetic field, the super conducting property is destroyed. Critical magnetic field (Hc ):](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022060917/60aa10ea846f7d0864060a4c/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
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