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ConfrontingtheEquityIssuesinDualLanguageImmersionPrograms:Asummaryofthe2018UCLAForumonEquityandDLEducation

December7-8,2018

PatriciaGándara,UCLAandRobertSlater,AmericanCouncilsResearch

Section1.RationaleandOrganizationofForum

DualLanguageImmersion(DLI)representsaneducationstrategythatoffersthe

promiseofaccesstoqualityeducationforstudentsfromdiversebackgrounds,especially

formarginalizedor“minoritized”ethnicandlinguisticpopulations.Althoughthereisno

currentcensusofDLIprograms,programtypes,orenrollment,theevidenceofexpansionis

considerable.Arecentreport(Gross,2016)citedanestimated2,000DLIprograms

nationwide.Recenttrendssuggestthatestimateisdramaticallyunderstatedwith

considerableproliferationinstatesincludingCalifornia,Delaware,NorthCarolina,Texas,

andUtah.NewYorkCity,in2018-19added48newduallanguageprogramstothealready

morethan175alreadyexistingprograms.DLIprogramsoperateindozensoflanguages

acrossthecountry.Thegreatestdemand,byfar,isforSpanish-Englishprograms,giventhat

morethanthree-quarters(77%)ofEnglishlearnersintheU.S.arespeakersofSpanish

(USED,2017)andthegrowingappealtomonolingualEnglishspeakerstogaincompetence

inSpanishforitseconomicvalue.

OurfocusisonTwo-WayDLI(TWDLI)programswhichrequirethatbothnative

speakersofEnglishandspeakersofthe“partner”language(e.g.Spanish)areeducated

togetherinbothlanguages.Studentshavebothmodelsofnativespeechaswellas

companionswithwhomtousethelanguagetheyarelearningina“naturalsetting.”

Throughtwo-wayprograms,DLIoffersthepromisenotonlytoleveltheplayingfieldfor

studentsbuttotransformschoolsandschooldistrictsthrough“purposefulintegration”of


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partnerlanguagespeakers(immigrantandU.S.-born)andEnglishspeakers(Ariasand

Markos,2018),perhapsevenshiftingpopulationsthatmighthelpreversetrendsthat

includeincreasedsegregationofLatinxandimmigrantpopulations.

AlongwiththeavailableresearchdemonstratingthesuccessesofDLIareconcerns

aboutpracticesandcontextsfordifferentgroupsofstudents.Therearepotentially

significanteducationalachievementopportunitiesaffordedbyDLIprogramsasresearch

evidencehasdemonstrated.Butthereisalsosignificantrisktoachievingthepromiseof

DLIwhenstudentsandfamilieswithdifferentlanguageexperiences,cultures,

socioeconomicstatus,andotherdemographicandpersonalhistorycharacteristicsdonot

realizethepotentialfullbenefitsofDLI.Indeed,manyoftherisksareassociatedwiththe

aspirationsofastrategythathasemergedsoquicklyandinsomanywayspushedthe

boundariesofcurricularinnovation,teacherandadministratordevelopmentand

preparation,alongwiththecapacityofschooldistrictstomakeeffectivedecisions

regardingDLIschoolplacementandrulesofenrollment.Itisimportanttoassessdual

languageprogramsinthecontextofchangingandevolvingtheoriesandpracticein

education.

OurgoalintheForumonEquityandDualLanguageEducationwastointroduce

toduallanguageeducationaninformedandmoresystematicdialogueamongacademics,

researchersandpractitionersabouttherelationshipsbetweenissuesofequityanddual

languagepractices.Ourhopewastocreateopportunitiesforconstructiveengagement

amongduallanguagepractitioners(schooladministrators,teachers)andeducationequity

experts.


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WefocusedontheaccumulatingevidenceforDLprogramstonarrowthe

achievementgapforstudentsfromdifferentraces,ethnicities,socio-economicstatusand

languagebackgrounds.DLorientsschoolstoward“additivebilingualism”and

multiculturalismwherebothlanguagesandtheirculturesarevalued.Equitably

implementedDLentailslearningasaconstructiveandsocialprocessandemphasizes

instructionalpracticesinanenvironmentthatvaluesallstudents.Yet,therearemany

potentialequitypitfallsintheimplementationofsuchprogramsandimportantquestions

thatouragendawilladdress:

(1) TheidealTWDLImodelisabalanceof50%Englishand50%partnerlanguage

speakers.TheefforttoenrollandappeaseparentsofEnglishspeakersbyallowing

programstobecomeunbalanced(Dorner,2011),orthepracticeoftippingthe

enrollmentbalancetowardspeakersofthepartner(e.g.Spanish)language

significantlyimpactsthepowerofthetwo-waymodel.

(2) DecisionsaboutwheretolocateDLandwhetherDLwillbewholeschoolor

“strand”canhaveamajorimpact(sometimesunintended)onneighborhoodand

schooldemographics.Itcanalsoexacerbatetransportationissues.

(3) OftenmorepowerfulparentsofEnglish-speakingstudentscanpressureteachers

toresponddisproportionatelytotheneedsoftheirchildren,resultingin

potentially“watereddown”partnerlanguageinstructioninordertoaccommodate

Englishspeakers.Thisunderminesdevelopmentofstrongprimarylanguageskills

ofthepartnerlanguage(Valdes,1997).

(4) Shortagesofteacherswithproficiencyinpartnerlanguageshaveledto

“importing”teachersfromothercountries.Whiletheseteachersostensiblyspeak


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thesamelanguage,theymaydisparagethelocalidiomandlackconnectionto

studentsduetovastlydifferentsocialandculturalbackgrounds(Cervantes-Soon,

2017).

(5) Thechoiceofpartnerlanguagemaybedeterminedbytheschooldistrictrather

thantheneedsanddesiresofthelocalcommunity.Deprivingstudentsaccessto

primarylanguagedevelopmentintheirnativelanguagecannullifythepotentially

positiveimpactofDLprograms(Cheung,2017).

(6) InadequateorunevenstandardsforDLprogramsrestrictthecapacitytoknow

howwellstudentsarebeingtaughtinbothlanguages.Thisisexacerbatedbythe

factthatnostaterequiresregularassessmentofthepartnerlanguagefor

accountabilitypurposes.

SectionII:TheStructureoftheForum

AnorganizingcommitteecomposedofDr.PatriciaGándara(UCLA),Dr.Robert

Slater(AmericanCouncilsResearchCenter),Mr.GreggRoberts(AmericanCouncils

ResearchCenter),andDr.DonnaChristian(CenterforAppliedLinguistics)metseveral

timesbyphonetodeterminethebestmodeforenablingdiscussionattheforum,identify

criticaltopicsforpapers,androlesforpaperdiscussants.Weundertookabriefliterature

reviewtoidentifynamesandtopicsthatwereprominentintherecentjournalliterature.

Theteamsoughtasmuchgeographicdiversityaspossibleaswellindividualswhohada

solidrecordofscholarship,nottheleasttoensurethatthecommissionedpaperswouldbe

thoroughandcompletedinatimelyfashion.Itwasdecidedthatcommentators/reviewers

wouldreceivethepapersatleasttwoweeksbeforetheconferenceandprovidefeedbackto


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theauthorass/hewished,andpreparea20-30minutesresponsetothepaper,including

thepointstheyfeltweremostcriticaltoinsertinthediscussion.

Thepapertopicsandauthorsanddiscussantswere:

• RobertSlater,DonnaChristian,RichardBrecht,”Overviewofthefieldofduallanguageinstruction.”

• KathrynLindholm-Leary,SanJoseState,“Duallanguageprogramplanningandequity”Discussant:AnaHernandez,CSUSanMarcos

• ClaudiaCervantes-Soon,ArizonaState,“Race,socialjusticeandpowerequity.”Discussant:NelsonFlores,Penn

• MagalyLavadenz,LMU,“RecruitingandPreparingtherightteachers.”Discussant:ShellySpiegel-Coleman,CaliforniansTogether

• DeborahPalmer,UTAustin,“Equityandduallanguageimmersion.”DiscussantLisaDorner,UofMissouri

Theagendafortheforumwasbuiltaroundthefivepapersandasmuchaspossible,during

adayandone-halfmeeting,webuiltintimeforopendiscussion.Inadditiontothepaper

presentersanddiscussantsweinvitedarepresentativegroupofresearchersand

practitioners.Welimitedthetotalto40participantsinadditiontotheorganizing

committeeandthreestudentnotetakersinanefforttomaximizeconversationand

discussion.Itisnotablethatthiswasthefirsttimemanyoftheseparticipantshadmet.A

copyoftheforumagendaisincludedintheappendix.


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PaperOverviews

Slateretal.Overviewofthefieldofduallanguage:

Thegoalofthispaperwastolayafoundationforthediscussionofequityissuesby

summarizingsomeofthemorerecentresearch(andidentifyingsomecriticalgaps)that

mightinformourunderstanding.Thepaperfocusedonthreekeyareasofresearch:(1)

Academicoutcomes;(2)Biliteracyandbilingualism;(3)Socialandbehavioral

development.Thepaperalsoincludedareportontheresultsofanunscientificsurveyof

DLIadministratorsundertakeninSeptemberandOctober2018.Thegoalofthissurvey

wastoidentifyissuesandareasofconcernacrossschooldistrictsthatwouldhelpguidethe

equityconversation.

AcademicOutcomes.Thereislimitedbutgrowingevidencethatsupportsthe

argumentthatinstructionintwolanguagesfromearlygradesproduceshigheracademic

achievementincoreacademiccontent(e.g.languagearts,mathematics,andscience)tested

inEnglish,especiallyforEnglishlanguagelearners.Sincemosttestingiscarriedoutin

English,itisdifficulttoassesstheroleofproficiencyinthepartnerlanguage,otherthanby

assumingadegreeofbilingualismbasedonthecurriculumoffered.Thepaperdiscussesat

somelengththefindingsfromanumberofrecentresearchefforts.

Thereremainsomeseriousgapsandflawsinresearchonacademicoutcomes.

Manystudies,particularlythosefromthe1990sandearly2000s,weresuspectbecauseofa

failuretoadjustforselectionbias.DLIprogramshavenotbeenparticularlyattentiveto

collectingsystematicdataonDLIstudentsmakingitdifficultforresearcherstoinvestigate

longitudinaldata.Wehaveverylimitedresearchthatisabletocontrolforthedifferential

effectsbyrace,ethnicity,orotherfactorssuchaspoverty.Itisalsoimportantto


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understandwhetherbenefitsholdacrossracial/ethnicgroups.Notably,AfricanAmerican

studentpopulationshavebeenabsentfrommostresearch,perhapsbecausemanyDLI

programsstruggletoincludethem.Duallanguageeducationresearchershavecalledfor

suchresearchtoexaminetheeffectsofdemographicfactorsandwaysofproviding

effectiveandequitableDLIforallstudents.

BilingualismandBiliteracy.ItisclearthatthefuturesuccessofDLIdependsupon

accommodatingrace,ethnicity,class,andsocialandeconomicstatusofitsstudents.The

focusonproficiencyandusage/exposureprovidesmeasurablevariableswithin“core

programelements”thattietocognitiveadvantagesproventoaffecteducational

achievement.Understandingtherelationshipofdocumentablevariablesofproficiencyand

usagewithrace,ethnicity,classandSESenablesbetterunderstandingofthedifferent

cadresofstudentswhomustbeaccommodatedinDLIprogramming--whichstudentsare

succeedingbytheseexplicitcriteriaandwhicharenot--andtodevelopappropriate

curriculaandresponsivestaff,criticalstepsforwardinsocialjusticegoals.

Theseconsiderationsraiseadditionalimportantquestionsthathavenotbeen

addressedbyresearch:HowmuchDLIisenoughtoensuredesiredlevelsofbilingualismas

definedtoincludebothproficiencyandusage/exposure?Whatistheeffectoftime-on-task

anditsapportionmentforthetwolanguagesinclass(50/50vs.90/10,lengthofprogram)

andoutofclass?DoeffectspersistoratrophyafterexitfromDLI?Doessubsequentcontact

withoneorbothlanguagesmatter?HowdoesDLIprogramstudentmotivationandusage

opportunities?Mostrelevanttoequity,doallDLIstudentsprofitanddotheyprofitequally

intheirdevelopmentoflanguageproficiency?Ofcourse,inordertoanswerthese


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questionsitiscriticaltoincludeassessmentofthetargetnon-Englishlanguageinthe

accountabilitystructurefortheseprograms.

Social-EmotionalDevelopment.ConcurrentwithDLIexpansionistheemerging

consensusthateffectivesocialandemotionalskillsareessentialtoachild’sdevelopment

andsuccessasanadult.Social-emotionallearning(SEL)“istheprocessthroughwhich

childrenandadultsacquireandeffectivelyapplytheknowledge,attitudes,andskills

necessarytounderstandandmanageemotions,setandachievepositivegoals,feeland

showempathyforothers,establishandmaintainpositiverelationships,andmake

responsibledecisions.Evidencesuggeststhattheuseofachild’shomelanguageinthe

classroomencouragescloserrelationshipsbetweenteachersandstudents,promoting

betterbehaviorsintheclassroom.Thereisalsoconsistentevidencethatwhendifferent

racialorlanguagegroupsarebroughttogetherinaclassroomunderequalstatus

conditions,itcanresultinenhancedintergrouprelations.Givenincreasingconcernsabout

equityininstructionalpracticesthepaperarguesthatgettingabetterhandleonsocial-

emotionaldevelopmentwillguideDLIprogramsinfocusingmoreattentiononthose

marginalizedstudents.

Wedonotknowalotaboutthesocialandbehavioraldevelopmentofstudents

enrolledinDLI.Itisarelativelynewfieldofempiricalstudyandhighlysubjectiveand

inconsistenteffortsto“measure”andevaluatesocial-emotionaldevelopmenthavelimited

ourunderstanding.Studiesalsosufferfrom(1)failuretotracklearners’social-emotional

developmentovertime;(2)lackofsystematicdefinitionofDLLsacrossdatasets;(3)lackof

differentiationamonglearnersfromnon-English-speakingbackgroundsbyassuming

homogeneitywithinlanguagegroups(e.g.,allSpanishspeakersarethesame);and(4)


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inconsistenciesinapproachestoSELmeasurement.Withareenergizedefforttomore

systematicallymeasureandanalyzeSELweshouldbebetterabletoassesstherolethat

DLImightplayinthesocial,behavioralandidentitydevelopmentparticularlyofyoung

children.

SurveyofDualLanguageImmersionAdministrators.Inordertoreflectperspectives

fromthefieldandgainsomeadditionalawarenessofhowpractitionersunderstandthe

equityissue,theauthorsconductedabriefopen-endedsurveyduringSeptember/October

2018.Eighty-twoDLIadministrators(notteachers)fromschools,districtsandstates

acrosstheU.S.wereidentifiedandsent,viaSurveyMonkey,sevenbasicquestionsabout

definingequityandidentifyingkeyequityissuesintheirschoolsandschooldistricts.Thirty

-tworesponseswerereceivedfromadministratorsacross23states.

Ingeneral,wewouldsaythattheresponseswerereflectiveofthestateoftheDLI

fieldwithabroadrecognitionofthecriticalimportanceofequity,butalsoadegreeof

uncertaintyastothedepthandbreadthofequityissuesandtheirpotentialimpactonDLI

programs.Insomecases,respondentsindicatedtherewerenotsignificantequityissues

becausetheirdistrictsarelocatedinpredominantlyEnglishspeakingandnon-immigrant

communities.Itisclearatleastfromthe32respondentsthatasagrouptheyarewell

awareoftheimportantequityissuesconfrontingDLIalthoughtheircharacterizationsof

eachissuevaryandtheirapproachesandsolutionsrangefromsimplistictocomplex.

KathrynLindholm-Leary,Duallanguageprogramplanningandequity

Thispaperwasorganizedaroundfourmainthemes:administrativeequity,

programmaticequity,schools,andparentsandcommunity.Thepaperwasdesignedto

addressthekeyissuesinestablishingandoperatinganequitableduallanguageprogram


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fromamaterialandmanagerialperspective.Lindholm-Learytouchedatleastbrieflyon

almostalloftheequityissuesthatwouldberaisedlaterbyotherauthorsandparticipants,

yetfocusedherdiscussionatthelevelofthoseadministeringtheprograms.

UnderadministrativeequityLindholm-Learyraisedtheneedtoensurethatthere

isstrongsupportfortheprogramupanddownthechainofcommandinthedistrictsothat

programsaresustainable.Resourcesmustbeavailabletodevelopandpurchase

curriculum,materialsandassessmentinbothEnglishandthepartnerlanguage.Lindholm-

Learyraisedtheissueofassessmentinthepartnerlanguageasthisisaweaknessofmany

programsasinmostprogramspartnerlanguageassessmentisnotpartofany

accountabilitysystemandweknowthatwhatismeasuredisvalued.Shealsonotesthe

importanceofhigh-qualityprofessionaldevelopment,includingforspecialeducation

teachers,anothercategoryofindividualsthatarefrequentlyoverlooked.Finally,under

administrativeequityshepointstothecriticalissueofwhetherinplanningfortheprogram

bothgroupsofstudents’(nativeEnglishandnon-nativeEnglishspeakers)needsare

consideredequallyinplanningfortheprogram.

UnderprogrammaticconcernsLindholm-Learynotesthatschoolsneedtothink

aboutequityinsupportofdifferentprogramsservingtheneedsofEls,including

transitionalanddevelopmentalbilingualprogramsinadditiontoDLI,andwhetherthe

programswilladopta90-10or50-50approach,somethingthatneedstobediscussedby

thecommunity.Althoughmanybilingualeducatorsconsider90/10tobetheideal,

Lindholm-Learynotesthatthismustbeadecisionoftheparentsandcommunityiftheyare

tobesupportiveoftheprogram.Ofcourse,thepartnerlanguage(s)mustalsobedecidedin

anequitableway.ThereisadefaultnotionthatDLIprogramswillallbeSpanish/English,


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butdifferentlanguagecommunitiesneedtobeconsideredwherethereisgreaterdiversity

oflanguagesandcultures.

AcriticalissueinfosteringequitywithinDLIprogramsisdeterminingtheschool

site.Thiscaneasilymakeorbreaktheprogramandresultinunequitableschoolingifnot

thoughtthroughcarefully.Lindholm-Learyposesseveralquestions:Whatistheprofileof

theneighborhood?Isitaccessibletoallgroups?Istransportationprovidedand/or

available?Whatisthesocio-economicstatusoftheneighborhood;willallparentsfeel

comfortablesendingtheirchildrentotheneighborhood?Areparentsconsultedinmaking

thechoiceoflocation?OneofthethorniestproblemsinsettingupDLIschoolsorprograms

istheselectionofstudents.Itiscommontohavelonglistsofstudentswantingtoenroll

andnotenoughspacetoaccommodatethem.Itisalsocommontoexperiencechallengesin

enrollingsufficientnumbersofnativespeakersofthepartnerlanguage,yettheprogram

cannotbeequitablewithoutanequitabledistributionofstudents.So,thesitingofthe

schoolcanbekeyinattractingbothgroupsofstudentsinsomethinglikeequalnumbers.

Finally,whatwillhappentostudentsastheytransitiontomiddleandhighschool?Isthere

anappropriateandaccessibleschoolavailablewhenstudentscompleteelementaryschool?

Parentswillweighthisindeterminingiftheywanttoenrolltheirchildren.

Doprogramplannersconsiderthefullrangeofdiversityinthedistrictandprovide

equitableopportunitiesforallofthesestudents?Underthetopicofstudentsand

families,Lindholm-Learydrillsdownintotheselectionprocessintermsofrecruitment.

Doestheschoolrecruitfromallcommunities?ArediversenativeEnglishspeakers

recruitedandaccepted?Doestheprogramacceptstudentswhodonotspeakeitherofthe

languagesbeingtaught?Arespecialeducationstudentsenrolled?Withrespecttofamilies


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therehasbeenaconcernthatmoresavvy,middleclassparentstendtowield

disproportionatedecision-makingpower.Areparentsfromthefullrangeofcultural,

linguisticandsocio-economicgroupsrepresentedindecisionmaking?

RosaMolina,PresidentoftheAssociationofTwo-wayandDualLanguageEducation

(ATDLE),steppedinforKathrynwhohadamedicalemergencyatthelastminute.Molina

presentedthepaperthatKathrynhadwrittenbutprovidedherownemphasisaswell.She

emphasizedtheimportanceofthestudentsandparentsbeingatthecenterofdecision

making—“it’stheirprogramnottheschool’s”--butalsocalledattentiontothepolitical

natureofstudentselection.Shepointedoutthatdiversityintheprogramsisastrength

andtheprogramsshouldendeavortoincorporateIFEPs,specialeducation,anddiverse

Englishspeakersaswellasthosestudentswhospeakthetargetlanguage.Theissueof

IFEPsisanimportantoneasoftentheyareoverlookedwhenprogramsarelookingto

includespeakersofthepartnerlanguage(whichisinterpretedasEnglishlearners)and

nativespeakersofEnglish(whichisinterpretedasEnglishonlyspeakers).Thestudent

thatspeaksbothisanassetintheclassroom.Shealsoemphasizedtheimportanceof

carefulplanningbeforelaunching,otherwiseprogramsfail.

AnaHernandezresponsetoKathrynLindholm-Leary

AnaHernandezprovidedcommentaryonthepaperandpresentation.Shechoseto

emphasizepointsinthepaperthatsheconsideredespeciallyimportant,including:

• TheimportanceofaligningothercurricularofferingswiththeDLI

programs,suchaSTEAMcoursesandotherstudentinterests.Hernández

cautionedusthat“Wetendtosetthestructures,aswellasthelimits,to


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accesswhenequityisweakenedbyourownconfiningvisionsandlow

expectationsforstudentpotential.”

• Two-thirdsofbilingualteachershavereceivedtheircredentialsthrough

examinationandnotthroughastrongprogramthatprovidedguided

experienceintheclassroomandintensivepreparation.Sheurgedthat

professionaldevelopmentattendtothisweaknessinthepreparationof

manyDLIteachers.

• Hernándezcalledout“society’sbiasforthelanguageofprestigein

education[whichis]compoundedbyaweakideologicalstanceon

bilingualismandbiliteracy.”Thisleadstowardabiasfor50/50versus

90/10instruction,whichnotonlyshortchangesthenativelanguage

educationofELstudentsbuthasbeenshowntohaveweakeroutcomes

forall.ShealsourgedanemphasisonDLIpre-schooleducationascritical

forstudents’identityandnativelanguagedevelopment.

• Hernándezurgedadministratorstoattendtobuildingcommunity

especiallyinschoolswhereonlyastrandisdedicatedtoDLIandfeelings

ofneglectorunfairadvantagecanoccur,dividingfacultyandreducing

supportfortheprogram.

ClaudiaCervantes-Soon,Race,SocialJustice,andPowerEquityinDualLanguageEducation

Cervantes-Soontakesonwhatiseffectivelytheelephantintheroom:socialjustice

inprogramsthataredesignedtoattract“advantaged”mainstreamEnglishspeakerswhile

alsoprovidingastrongeducationforimmigrantand“minoritized”students.Sheargues

that,fromanhistoricalperspective,thelanguageminority(LM)studentsshouldbethefirst


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priorityforanytwo-wayprogram.Itisthey,sheasserts,whomostneedanddeservea

strongprogramthatservestheirinterestsastheyhavebeenhistoricallyundervaluedand

underservedbytheeducationsystem.Shearguesthatbilingualeducationhaseffectively

been“hijacked”byDualLanguageprogramsthatoftenservetheinterestsofthepowerful

majoritystudentsattheexpenseoftheminoritizedstudents.Shenotes“thewaysinwhich

neoliberalpolicies,globaleconomicinterests,andemphasisondevelopinghumancapital

havebecomethemoralcompassguidingtheseprograms.”Thatis,theyhavelosttheir

moralcompassandtradeditinforalinguisticcommodity.

Cervantes-SoonfirstnotedtheequitableoutcomesthatLMstudentsaresupposed

toderivefromDLIprograms,includingincreasedacademicachievement,decreased

segregation,additivebilingualism,strengthenedsenseofidentityandgreaterengagement

offamiliesinstudents’learning.Shethenarguesthattheseoutcomesoftendonot

materializebecauseofhegemonicWhitenessandthedominanceofEnglishthroughoutthe

society.TheunrealizedpromiseofDLEisdescribedlargelyasaresultofpoor

implementationofprogramsthatdonotincorporatestrategiesdesignedtocounterthe

inherentbiasinfavorofmajoritywhitestudents.Forexample,programsthatmayseekto

desegregatestudentsbutlackstrategiesforcreatingequalstatuslearningopportunities;

studentsallowedtore-segregatewithintheclassroom.ButCervantes-Soonseesthe

problemasbeingmorethanafailuretoimplementequitablestrategies,shefindsthetotal

lackofasocialjusticeorientationtobeacriticalfactorintheinequitybuiltintomany

programs.

Cervantes-Soonconcedesthatthesocietyasawholeisnotlikelytochangeradically

inthenearfutureandtheseprogramswillhavetocontinuetoexistwithinasocialcontext


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thatisfundamentallyunjustinmanyways.Giventhisreality,shearguesfora“fourth

pillar”ofDLE—criticalconsciousness.Thatis,educatorsmustlearntoconstantlyreflect

ontheirpracticeandquestiontheiractionsthroughasocialjusticelens.Beingawareofthe

injusticesthatcanoccurintheDLEclassroomisthefirststep.Thenextstepistohonestly

confrontthewaysinwhichonemaycontributetotheseinequitiesandseektochangeone’s

ownbehaviorinfavorofcreatingamoresociallyjustclassroom.

NelsonFlores,ResponsetoCervantes-Soon

Floreshighlightedthepoliticalnatureoftwo-wayduallanguageprogramsand

critiquedthepresumedneedforwhitestudentstoparticipateintheseprograms,drawinga

parallelwithBrownvBoardofEducationandstrugglesfordesegregation.Hearguedthat

thetwopoliciesaresimilarinthattheyrelyonageneralizedbeliefabouttheminoritized

studentsbeingpsychologicallydamaged,withtheonlycureforthisdamagebeingtomix

themwithwhitestudents.HisprimarythesisappearstobethatLMcommunitiesshould

havethecontrolovertheirownlanguageprogramswithoutconcernfortheparticipation

of“white”students(whichmustbeastandinforanyadvantagedstudents).Heconcludes

thattwo-wayprograms(can)sufferfromneo-liberalideologythatdefinesLMstudentsas

inferiorandneedingtheassistanceofnativeEnglishspeakers.However,totheextentthey

doexistheasserts,asdoesCervantes-Soon,thatitisessentialtodevelopacritical

consciousnesswithinthem.

DeborahPalmer,EquityandDualLanguageImmersion:Curriculum

Palmeropensherpaperwiththestatementthatshewouldaddress“thewaysin

whichboth“whatweteach”and“howweteach”inaTWBEclassroomneedtochangein

ordertobemoreequitable.”Continuingonthethemeofcriticalconsciousnessintroduced


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byCervantes-Soon,Palmerarguesthat“TWBEcurriculamustexplicitlyteachcritical

awarenessofoppressionandhegemony,”andcenterthestoriesofmarginalizedgroups

withinthecurriculum.Palmeralsoassertsthatanothertermforcriticalconsciousnessis

“ideologicalclarity,”suggestingthattheeducatorisawareofhisorherownideological

leaningsandthepracticesthatflowfromthesebeliefsorattitudes.Palmermakesthree

recommendationsatthetopofherpaper:

• Equitablecurriculumwithintwo-wayduallanguageprogramsshould

includecontentthatreflectsthestoriesandexperiencesoftheLMstudents.

• Structuringandvaluingtheparticipationofallstudentsintheclassroom

and“centeringoftenmarginalizedinteractionalanddiscoursepatterns”of

minoritizedstudents.(This,bytheway,isnotverydifferentfromthework

ofElizabethCohenandRachelLotan,2004,whodevelopedpedagogical

strategiesfor“equalstatus”classroompracticesandLotan’sextensive

workintheareaofequalstatusforLMstudents.)

• Deliberatelanguageuse,whichincorporatesstudents’everydayuseof

language,suchastranslanguagingandtheuseoflanguagesseparatelyand

together.

Palmerfaultsmonoglossicpractices–therigiduseofonlyonelanguagein

multilingualcontexts,includingassessmentinEnglish--asbeingamajorculpritin

inequitableeducationofLMstudents.Alsonamedasafactorininequitablecurriculumis

thehistoryofbilingualeducationinwhicheducatorswere--andare—oftenforcedintoa

transitionalcurriculuminwhichtheactualgoalwasandisEnglish(monolingualism).Dual

languageprogramscaninterruptthisideologybutthecosttotheLMstudentscanstillbe


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highiftheirlanguageisnotgiventhesamevalueasEnglishandthisisnotexplicitinthe

curriculum.

Palmeroffersadiscussionof“translanguaging,”apedagogythathasgainedsome

tractioninbilingualandduallanguageprogramsbuthasalsofosteredagreatdealof

controversyandconfusionaboutwhatismeantbytheterm.AsPalmernotes,itshouldnot

bealanguage“free-for-all”butalongwithdesignatingcertaininstructionalperiodsor

topicstobe“Spanishfocus”and“Englishfocus,”schoolsmightexplicitlydesignatea

“translanguaging”or“bilingualfocus”timeduringtheschoolday.Thenotionbehindit,as

explainedbyPalmer,isthatstudentswhoarealreadyusingtwolanguagesintheirdaily

lives,asisincreasinglythesituationinduallanguageandbilingualprograms,shouldnotbe

madetofeelthattheirlinguisticrepertoiresorthattheirdualidentitiesareunacceptable

orinferior.Itiscriticaltocommunicatetostudentsthatallkindsoflanguagepracticesare

legitimateandappropriatefordifferentsituations.Hencethecurriculumshouldbe

designedwiththisinmind.

Finally,Palmeradvocatesforeliminatinghighstakesstandardizedtestsineither

languagebecausetheycannotfullyaccountfortheuniquelybilingualuseoflanguageof

studentsinduallanguageprograms.Shearguesthatassessmentfortheseprogramsmust

bere-thoughttoinclude“alternativeandenrichingformsofassessment,suchasportfolios,

studentrunconferencesandculminatingpresentations.”Thisisacriticalissueforthe

field.

LisaDorner,UncoveringtheHiddenCurriculum:ResponsetoPalmer

ProfessorDorner’sresponsetothePalmerpaperwasprimarilytoreassertthe

importanceofcriticalconsciousnessonthepartofDLIeducatorssothattheirpedagogy


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wasoneofempowermentofLMstudents.Hersecondpointwastheimportanceofusing

CriticalDiscourseAnalysis(CDA)tolookforthe“hidden”inthecurriculumandshe

suggestedthatthisshouldbedonewitheveryoneinvolvedintheseprograms,from

administratorstoparents.Whileitwasnotclearhowthiswouldbeconductedinmost

cases(whoinitiates,whodocuments,whotrainseducators,etc),shesuggestedthat

dinnerswithparentsinwhichtheirstoriescouldbetoldandtheirexpectationsofthe

programcouldbeuncoveredwouldbeoneimportantwaytoengageparents.

DorneralsorecommendedBelovedCommunity(https://www.wearebeloved.org),

whichfocusesonhelpingorganizationstoaligntheirpracticestosupportdiversity.The

CEO,RhondaBroussard,waspresentatthemeeting.

MagalyLavadenz,PreparingandSupportingBilingualTeachersforEquityinTwoWayDualLanguageImmersionPrograms:ABilingualEpistemologicalFrameworkforTeaching,ResearchandPolicy

Afterprovidingabriefintroductiontoahistoryofbilingualeducation,uptoand

includingthepassageofProposition58in2016inCalifornia,whichremovedthegeneral

prohibitiononbilingualeducationinCaliforniaandencouragedcommunitiestomount

bilingualandduallanguageprograms,Lavadenzfocusedonthecertificationofteachersfor

bilingualprograms.Shefoundthat“analysisofcurrentstatebilingualcertification

requirementsrevealsthattwenty-threeoutofthefiftystatesandtheDistrictofColumbia

offerbilingualcertification.Ofcourse,thatmeansthatthemajorityofstatesdonotyet

offerthiscertification.Adeeperexamination,however,showsthatstatesdifferbroadlyin

thecriteriarequiredfortheauthorization“includingsomestatesthatsimplyapplyatestof

unknownvaliditytocredentialteachers”withorwithoutanyformaltraininginbilingual

education.


19

WhileLavadenzarguesthatthereisnoconsensusinthefieldabouthowexactlyto

bestpreparebilingualteacherstoaddresstheburgeoningneed,shenotesthat“advancing

allstudents’capacitiestosucceedinthe21stcenturywillrequirespecialattentionto

closingtheachievementgapandaddressingequityissues.Itwillalsorequireanexpanded

repertoireofliteracyandacademicskillsincludingtechnology,intercultural

communicationandcriticalinquiry.”AmajorproblemLavadenzidentifiesinarrivingat

consensusstandardsorcompetenciesforbilingualteachersisthewithdrawaloffederal

fundsforpreparingbilingualpersonnelinIHE’swhomightconducttherequiredresearch

tobeabletoknowwhichofthesecompetenciesaremostcritical.Thisfundingwas

providedaspartoftheBilingualEducationActuntilitsdisappearanceunderNCLB.

Lavadenzthenassertsthatthebestapproachtounderstandingwhatteachersneed

toknowandbeabletodotosuccessfullyandequitablyeducateLMstudentsshould

borrowfromtheworkofLeeShulmanonPedagogicalContentKnowledge(PCK).PCK

includes“(1)knowledgeofrepresentationsofsubjectmatter(contentknowledge);(2)

understandingofstudents’conceptionsofthesubjectandthelearningandteaching

implicationsthatwereassociatedwiththespecificsubjectmatter;and(3)general

pedagogicalknowledge(orgeneralizedteachingstrategies);(4)curriculumknowledge;(5)

knowledgeofeducationalcontexts;and(6)knowledgeofthepurposesofeducation.”

Lavadenzproposesa7thelement,thatofMultilingualPedagogicalContextKnowledge.

Addingtothissheincludesmultiliteracycompetencies—theabilitytoeffectivelyusetools

suchasmetalinguisticawareness.

InthefinalsectionofthepaperLavadenzdescribesaseriesofinterviews,analysis

ofclassroomobservationsandartifactswith11bilingualteachersoverathree-yearperiod


20

todemonstratecriticalissuesrelatedtoknowledgeinpractice,orbilingual

epistemologies.Shedescribeshowteachersusecross-culturalknowledgetoadvocate

fortheirstudents,understandingtheirparticularcircumstances.Shedescribeshow

bilingualteachersusetranslinguisticrepertoiresforteachingandstrategiestobring

nativelanguagein“fromthemargins”ofclassroominstruction,includingtheusecognates

asbridgesbetweenEnglishandSpanish.Shethendescribestheuseoftranslanguagingin

theclassroomtorespecttheactualwaysinwhichstudentsusemorethanonelanguagein

naturalcommunication—unlikethemorerigidformsofinstructionthatrequirestrict

separationoflanguages.(Thisisanareaofbilingualpedagogythatisstillunder

considerablediscussion.)Lavadenzalsoprovidesmultipleexamplesofbilingualteachers’

criticalagencyinwhichtheseteachersidentifiedunjustpracticesandbeliefsystemsand

acted,ofteninconcertwiththeirstudents,toaddresstheseinjustices.Inonecasethe

teacherandherclassroombeganacampaigntoincludeacriticaleventinMexican

Americanhistorythathadbeenomittedfromtheirhistorybooks.Thisultimatelyresulted

inalegislativebillthatchangedthestatecurriculum.

Lavadenzendsonanoteabouttheimportanceofpreparingbilingualteachersto

havecriticalconsciousnessabouttheirwork“especiallyinthistime”whensomany

injusticesarebeingexperiencedbystudentsfromimmigrantcommunities.

ShellySpiegel-Coleman,ResponsetoLavadenz

Spiegel-Colemandirectsaconsortiumthatiscomprisedonapproximately20

individualprogressiveorganizationsinCaliforniathatareprimarilyengagedinpromoting

educationalequity.HercommentstoProfessorLavadenz’spaperfocusedonwaysin

whichitcouldbestrengthenedbyincorporatingadditionalconversations,suchas


21

providingmorediscussionabouttheissueoftranslanguaginginactualpractice.Spiegel-

Colemanquestionstheconclusionthatfailingtorespecttranslanguagingintheclassroom

leadstodenigrationofstudents’identities,orweakerlearning.InherpresentationSpiegel-

ColemanarguedthatthecriticalissueforDLIistherecruitmentandpreparationofhighly

qualifiedbilingualteachersandpointedtowardCalifornia’sTogetherpolicybriefon

BilingualTeacherShortageinCalifornia.Shepointedoutthatthebrief,basedonsurveysof

dozensofdistricts,notesthattherearethousandsofteacherswhocouldqualifyas

bilingualteachersbutthattheyneed–bytheirownadmission—intensiveprofessional

developmenttobereadytoentertheclassroom.This,Spiegel-Colemanarguesiswhere

oureffortsshouldbefocusedasqualityofinstructionisthemostimportantissueforDLI.

SectionIII

Thepaperssucceededinprovokingdiscussionamongparticipants.Itwasclear,

however,thatdiscussionoftheequityininstructionalpracticesintheclassroom

overwhelmedtheconversationandtendedtolimitdialogueonotherequityissues,

particularlythoseraisedbyLindholm-Leary’spaper.Ascanhappeninuncomfortable

conversationsaboutequityandinjustice,somevoicesareheardmoreloudlyand

consistentlythanothers,andsomeappeartobesilenced.Duringtheconcludingdiscussion

weidentifiedanuneasinessamonganumberofparticipantsthatimportantequityissues

hadbeenignored.Forthisreason,weendedthetwo-daymeetingwithanappealto

participantstocompleteaveryshortsurveyexpressingtheiropinionsonafewkey

questionstobemailedoutshortlyaftertheconference.Ourappealwastocaptureall

voicesandensurethatallperspectiveswereultimatelyincorporatedinthefinalreportand

workthatwouldcontinue.Afterseveralgentleremindersvirtuallyallparticipants


22

responded.Belowisasnapshotoftheresponses,whichrangedfromasinglesentenceto

morethanapage.

1. Inorderofimportance,whatdoyouconsidertobemostimportantandurgentissuesinvolvingequityintwo-wayduallanguageprograms?

Thesingleissuemostoftenraisedbyrespondentswasequityinaccess.Yetall

respondentsdidnotmeanthesamethingbythis.Manyworriedaboutsufficientaccessby

Englishlearners,thatmiddleclassEnglishspeakershavegreateraccesstotheprograms.

Somenotedother“minoritizedstudents,”specialeducationstudents,speakersofother

languages,studentswhowereheritagelanguagespeakersandalsoEnglishspeakers

(IFEPs),andparticularlyAfricanAmericanstudents.Thisconcernwasexpressedbyone

respondentaschangingthenarrativethatallEnglishspeakersarewhite.Buttherewere

alsoconcernsexpressedthatequitableaccessneededtofocusonstudentsfromdifferent

backgrounds(andnotsimplyminoritizedstudents)gainingcross-culturalcompetence.

Otherissuesthatwereraisedbymultiplerespondentsasimportantandurgent

were(1)therecruitmentandpreparationofteachersforwhatisaverycomplexjob;(2)

assessmentthatalignswiththeduallanguagenatureoftheprogramsandthatdoesnot

simplyfocusontheacquisitionofEnglish;(3)participationofallparents,whichrequires

thatprogramsprovideadequateinformationtoallparents.Therewasnotalotmentioned

aboutthemethodsforselectingstudentswhentherearelonglistsofstudentswanting

access.Weknowthistobeachallengeforpractitioners.

2. Whydoyouthinktheissue(s)you’vementionedaresocritical?

Theconcernaboutwhogetsaccesstotheseprogramswasdrivenbycompeting

notionsofgood:“manyofourDLIprogramsarecovetedbymainstreamwhiteEnglish

dominantculture....andshiftstomeettheinterestsofthosestudents”versus


23

“MultilingualismforALLisamessagethatIbelieveisheretostay.Wecannotreturntothe

daysofbilingualeducationforsome.”Ifbi/multilingualismistobeforall(which,bythe

way,isinherentinCalifornia’snewGlobal2030policy),andthereisalimitedsupply,then

whodeservesitmost?Howdoweequitablyallocatealimitedresource?Thesearethe

questionslurkingbeneaththeconcernsaboutequitableaccessexpressedbyrespondents.

Testingthatdrivespedagogy(especiallystandardizedtestinginEnglishonly)was

namedbyseveralrespondentsasakeyimpedimenttoprovidingequitableeducationforall

students.Assessmentandaccountabilityneedtoreflectthecoredifferencesinthese

programsversusmonolingualEnglishinstruction.

3. Dobestpracticescurrentlyexistthatmighthelpaddresstheseissues?Ifso,pleasedescribethesebestpractices.

Alargenumberofrespondentswereeitherunsureofwhatthesepracticesmightbe

orwereconcernedabouthowwidelyapplicabletheymightbeacrossdifferentcontexts.

However,withrespecttoequityofaccess,severalpeoplementionedlotteriesforadmission

andholdingacertainnumberofseatsforELs.OnerespondentnotedthatCaliforniapolicy

istoadmitnofewerthan40%ELand40%Englishdominantinordertomaintainagood

balanceofthetwogroups.Ofcourse,itisnotclearwherethebilingualstudentfitsintothis

paradigmorwhetherrace/ethnicityshouldbetakenintoaccount,ornot.

Intermsofotherurgentissues,somerespondentsnotedtheimportantresearchon

culturallysustainingpedagogiesandtheopportunitytopressstatesforsomethinglikea

Spanish-Englishteacherlicensureexam.Anotherpracticementionedbymorethanone

respondentwasbetteroutreachto“minority”communitiesandfamilies.Itwasmentioned

thatorganizationsinthestatessuchasCaliforniaAssociationforBilingualEducation

(CABE)offerworkshopsforpractitionersonplanningDLIprograms.Anotherrespondent


24

offeredthatacompilationofbestpracticesintheliteraturewouldbeausefulcontribution

tothefield.Onerespondentreplied“Ofcoursetherearebestpracticesbutthereisno

consensusaboutwhattheyare.”

4. Whatequityissueswerenotraisedduringtheforumthatshouldhavebeen?

Manyrespondentscouldnotthinkofanimportantissuethatwasnotraised,

howeveramongthosethatofferedanissue,theseincluded:

• Raceandthecriticalroleitplaysinallofeducation,inparticularwithrespect

toduallanguageeducation

• Transportation(thiswasnotelaboratedonbutisknowntobeamajorissue

inequityofaccesstoanykindofmagnetprogram)

• RuralschoolsattemptingtoestablishDLIprograms

• Theimpactofimmigrationenforcementontheseprograms

• LatearrivingELsandaccesstotheseprograms

• Funding,e.g.,howtousefederalfundsfortheseprograms

• ResearchonculturallyresponsiveDLIprogramsforAfricanAmericansand

other“globalmajority”students

TheissueofDLIasatoolfordesegregation,whileraisedbysome,wasnotdiscussedinany

depthduringtheforum,somethingthatsurprisedtheorganizerswhohadseenthisasa

keyissueandpotentiallypowerfuloutcome.Noonementioneditasnumber1or2urgent

orimportantissues.


25

5. Whatdoyouseeascriticalworkthatneedstobedonebyresearchersandpractitionerstoaddressthemostimportantissues?

Twomajorthemeswerementionedinresponsetothisquestion:(1)Morefine-

grainedandlongitudinalresearchonavarietyofoutcomesfortheseprogramsandbetter

understandingofbestpracticeswithdiversestudentsandcontexts;and(2)researchon

bestpracticesforpreparingteachersforDLIprograms.Withrespecttotheformer

respondentsarticulatedaneedforcasestudyresearchtounderstandprocessesaswellas

longitudinaldatacollectiononavarietyofoutcomes,notjusttestscores.Onerespondent

alsosuggestedtyingthisresearchtoothernationalstudiesthatexaminedoutcomesfor

ESSA,forexample.Severalrespondentsmentionedtheneedtohavebetterunderstanding

ofstudents’needsbeyondthearchtypesofLatinoELand“white”Englishspeakers.

Inherentinanumberofresponsesthroughoutthesurveywastheneedtogaina

consensusonthecriticalcompetenciesforDLIteachersbeforeitwillbepossibletodefine

bestpracticesforteacherpreparation.Someworkexistsnowinthisarena(e.g.,Faltis&

Valdés,2016;Menken&Antuñez,2001),butthisislargelyreviewsofexpertopinionsand

perspectivesratherthanempiricalstudies.Empiricalresearchoncriticalcompetenciesfor

thesub-fieldofduallanguagelearningwithinthebroadercontextofbilingualeducation

couldmovethefieldforward.

6. Therewasdiscussionofwhattocallspeakersofotherlanguages(ELs).Doyouhavepreferredterminology?

Thereappearstobeagrowingconsensusthatitistimetocomeupwithabetter

wayofdescribingstudentslearningintwolanguagesthantheterm“EnglishLearners,’

whichonlydescribeswhattheydonotpossess—English—ratherthanamoreassets-

basedtermthatreflectswhattheyDOhave—atleastoneotherlanguageinadditionto


26

theonetheyarelearning.Thisisespeciallytrueforstudentswhoareindeedlearning

intwolanguages.However,therewasnoconsensusatallonabetterlabel.Asmany

respondentsrepliedtheyhadnoideasinthisregardasofferedasuggestion.Many

statedforbureaucraticpurposesitwassimplyeasiertostickwithEL,whileanequal

numbersuggestedtermssuchasbilinguallearner,multilinguallearner,emergent

bilingual,duallanguagelearner(whichhasbeenwidelyadoptedamongpre-school

practitioners).ItwouldappearthatthefieldwillprobablystickwithELforthetime

being,untilabroaderconsensusformsaroundsomenewterminology.Butlabelscan

bepowerfulinframingbeliefsystemsandthisshouldremainanareaofactivedebate

asitcanchangecommonperceptionsofthevalueofmultilingualismandthe

individualswhopracticeit.

SectionIV:Conclusions

Thereasonableexpectationisthatthefirsttwo-daynationalforumonequityand

duallanguagewouldintroduceandinitiateconstructivediscussionofthechallenges

inherentincreatingequitabletwo-wayduallanguageprogramsforstudentsofwidely

varyingbackgroundsattendingschoolsinverydiversecontexts.Fromallaccountsthe

Forumsuccessfullyaddressedthisexpectation.Mostparticipantsnotedthattheyfeltit

representedanimportantfirststepandthatsucheffortsshouldcontinueastheyprovidea

venueforairingconcernsandjointlyaddressingamoresystematicresearchand

implementationagenda.Guidedbysubstantialevidencefromresearcher-practitioner

partnerships,weunderscoretheimportanceoflong-term,mutuallybeneficial

collaborationsthatbridgethegapbetweenresearch,policyandpractice.Therewasa

distinctsenseamongsomeoftheparticipants,includinganumberofpractitioners,thattoo


27

muchtimewasspenton“whitehegemony”and/ornotenoughtimewasspentonanumber

ofpracticalissuesinvolvedinbuildingequitableprograms:howtoimplementthe

programsinawaythat“doesn’toverplayourhandandresultinlosingsupporters.”Butthe

organizersareinagreementthatthismustbeaprocess,startingwithsettingthetableand

acknowledgingthedebatesthatexist.

Movingforward,weareconfidentthattheforuminitiatedanimportantstepinthe

processofaddressingequityissuesinDLI.Toooftenthereisadisconnectbetween

academicresearchersandpractitioners.AsDLIcontinuestoexpanditwillbechallengedby

anumberofcriticalequityissuesanditisimportantthatthesebevettedinaproductive

andopenenvironment.Consequently,itisourbeliefthatnextstepsmustfollowfromthis

forum:

1. Thereisaneedforacensusonhowmany,ofwhatkind,andwherethese

programsexist.Thereispresentlynosuchinformationavailable,makingit

difficulttoknowtheirvariationortheirimpact.

2. TeacherDevelopment.Perhapsthemostseriousthreattothelong-term

viabilityofDLIisteacherrecruitment,preparationandprofessional

development.UniversityteacherprogramsmustworkmorecloselywithDLI

programstoidentifyapproachestoteacherpreparationthatmitigatesomeof

theissuesinherentinteachingaculturally,racially,andlinguisticallydiverse

classroom.

3. Giventhehugedemandfortheseprogramsacrossthecountryitwouldbevery

usefultocreateanetworkthatcanbeaclearinghouseofinformationontopicsof

equityinDLIthatcanbeeasilyaccessedasprogramsareunderdevelopment.


28

4. EqualAccesstoPrograms.DLIprogramsstruggletobalancethedemandsfrom

advantagedanddisadvantagedparentsforaccesstoprograms.Bestpractices

needtobedevelopedtoensurethatprogramsremainbalancedandthataccess

byminoritizedstudentsisprotected.

5. SchoolandSchoolDistrictIntegration.Thedecisionmadebyaschooldistrictto

developandimplementTWDLIprogramsrepresentsaconsciousintentto

addressinclusiveness.WhereTWDLIprogramsaredeveloped,wheretheyare

placedandhowtheyarestructuredhasamajorimpactonschool,districtand

neighborhooddemographics.DLIremainsapowerfultooltohelpreversea

serioustrendtowardsegregationofournation’spublicschools,primarilyamong

LatinxbutalsoAfrica-Americanchildren.Muchtoolittleisknownabouthow

DLIcanandhasimpacteddemographicsandhowitcanbeeffectivelyappliedto

createmoreinclusiveanddiverseschools.


29

References

Cohen,E.G.&Lotan,R.(2004)EquityinHeterogeneousClassrooms,inBanksand

Banks(Eds.),HandbookforMulticulturalEducation,SecondEdition,Jossey-Bass.Pp.736-

750.

Faltis,C.&Valdés,G.(2016).Preparingteacherstoteachinandadvocatefor

linguisticallydiverseclassrooms:Avademecumforteachereducators.InD.H.Gitomer&

C.A.Bell(Eds.),Handbookofresearchonteaching(5thed.,pp.549–592).Washington,DC:

AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation.

Menken,K.,&Antuñez,B.(2001).Anoverviewofthepreparationandcertificationof

teachersworkingwithlimitedEnglishproficient(LEP)students.Washing,D.C.:National

ClearinghouseforBilingualEducation

Download - American Councils | American Councils - Confronting the ......presenters and discussants we invited a representative group of researchers and practitioners. We limited the total to

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