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6.1 What Are the Three Ways We Learn?
• Learning: a relatively enduring change in behavior due to experience– Central to almost all areas of human existence
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We Learn From Experience
• Behaviorism: a formal learning theory from the early twentieth century– John Watson: focused on environment and
associated effects as key determinants of learning– B. F. Skinner: designed animal experiments to
discover basic rules of learning
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We Learn From Experience
• Critical for survival• Adapt behaviors for a particular environment– Which sounds indicate potential danger?– What foods are dangerous?– When is it safe to sleep?
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We Learn in Three Ways
1. Non-associative learning2. Associative learning3. By watching others
• Let’s look at these on the following slides
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We Learn in Three Ways
1. Non-associative learning: information about one external stimulus (e.g., a sight, smell, sound)
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We Learn in Three Ways
• 1a. Habituation: exposure to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly, leads to a decrease in behavioral response– Especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor
rewarding
• See Figure 6.2a on the next slide . . .
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We Learn in Three Ways
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We Learn in Three Ways
• 1b. Sensitization: exposure to a stimulus over a long time, or repeatedly, leads to an increase in behavioral response– Heightened preparation in a situation with
potential harm or reward
• See Figure 6.2b on the next slide . . .
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We Learn in Three Ways
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We Learn in Three Ways
• 2. Associative learning: understanding how two or more pieces of information are related
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We Learn in Three Ways
• 2a. Classical conditioning: learn that two stimuli go together– Example: music from scary movies elicits
anxiousness when heard
• 2b. Operant conditioning: learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome– Example: studying leads to better grades
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We Learn in Three Ways
• 3. Learning by watching others– Observational learning – Modeling– Vicarious conditioning
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The Brain Changes During Learning
• Long-term potentiation (LTP): the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons– Recall that “cells that fire together, wire together”– Exposure to environmental events causes changes
in the brain to allow learning
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6.2 How Do We Learn By Classical Conditioning?
• Familiar example: association between scary music in movies and bad things happening to characters
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related
• Pavlov: Nobel Prize in 1904 for research on the digestive system
• Observed dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food– Salivating at sight of a bowl is not automatic– Behavior acquired through learning by association
• See Figure 6.3b on the next slide . . .
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn Stimuli Are Related
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning: learning begins with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response– Much like a reflex
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Four key steps:1. Present unconditioned stimulus: evokes
unlearned response2. Present neutral stimulus: no response3. Pair stimuli from Steps 1 and 2: learned response
(conditioning trials)4. Neutral stimulus alone will trigger learned
response (critical trials)
• Let’s look at this on the next slide
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Step 1: presenting food causes salivary reflex– Unconditioned stimulus (US): nothing is learned
about the stimulus (e.g., food)– Unconditioned response (UR): an unlearned
behavior, like a simple reflex (e.g., salivation)
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Step 2: clicking metronome is neutral stimulus– Neutral stimulus: anything seen or heard; must
not associate with the unconditioned response
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Step 3 (conditioning trials): start of learning– Dog begins to associate US (food) and neutral
stimulus (metronome)
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Step 4 (critical trials): association learned– Metronome alone, without food, makes dog
salivate
• See Figure 6.3 on the next slide . . .
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): after conditioning, previously neutral stimulus (NS) reliably produces unconditioned response (UR)
• Conditioned response (CR): behavior only after conditioning; usually weaker than unconditioned response
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Animals adapt via conditioning• Learning to predict outcomes leads to new
adaptive behaviors
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
• Acquisition: gradual formation of learned association between CS and US to produce CR– Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is
presented slightly before US
• See Figure 6.5a on the next slide . . .
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
• Extinction: CS no longer predicts arrival of US• Sometimes associations are no longer
adaptive• See Figure 6.5b on the next slide . . .
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery: original association between CS and US is relearned• Can occur after only one pairing following
extinction– Response will get weaken if CS-US pairings do not
continue
• See Figure 6.5d on the next slide . . .
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
• Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar, but not identical to, CS that produces CR– Animals respond to variations in CS
• See Figure 6.6 on the next slide . . .
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
• Stimulus discrimination: differentiate between similar stimuli; one is consistently associated with US and the other is not
• See Figure 6.7 on the next slide . . .
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
• Second-order conditioning: second CS becomes associated with first CS; elicits CR when presented alone
• Neither US nor original CS present– Example: pairing black square (second CS) with
metronome (first CS) so black square produces salivation (CR) on its own
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We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• Phobia: acquired fear that is very strong in comparison to threat
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The Case of Little Albert• Classical conditioning demonstrated in
phobias:– Showed “Little Albert” various neutral objects
(e.g., white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, white wool)
– Paired rat (CS) and loud clanging (US) until rat alone produced fear (CR)
• Fear generalized to all similar stimuli• See Figure 6.8 on the next slide . . .
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The Case of Little Albert
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Counterconditioning
• Classical conditioning techniques valuable in treating phobias
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Counterconditioning
• Counterconditioning: exposing subject to phobia during an enjoyable task
• Systematic desensitization: exposure to feared stimulus while relaxing
– CS -> CR1 (fear) connection replaced with CS -> CR2 (relaxation) connection
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Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s belief: any two events presented together would produce learned association
• By 1960s, data suggested that some conditioned stimuli more likely to produce learning
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Evolutionary Influences
• Certain pairings more likely to be associated– Conditioned taste aversions: easy to produce
with smell or taste cues– Auditory and visual stimuli: value for signaling
danger
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Cognitive Influences
• Through classical conditioning, animals predict events– Easier when CS before US rather than after US– Easier when CS is more unexpected or surprising
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6.3 How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning?
• Human behaviors are purposeful• Operant conditioning: relationship between
behavior and consequences
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We Learn Effects of Behavior Through Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning: animals operate on environments to produce effects
• Consequences determine likelihood of behavior in future
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Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action
• Thorndike’s puzzle box: challenged food-deprived animals to find escape– Trap door would open if animal performed
specific action– Animal quickly learned to repeat behavior to free
itself and reach the food
• See Figure 6.10 on the next slide . . .
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Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action
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Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action
• Thorndike’s general theory of learning– Law of effect: any behavior leading to a “satisfying
state of affairs” likely to be repeated– Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of
affairs” less likely to reoccur
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Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner’s learning theory based on the law of effect:– Reinforcer: stimulus occurs after response and
increases likelihood of response reoccurring
• Believed that behavior occurs because reinforced
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Shaping
• Shaping: operant-conditioning technique; reinforce behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior
• See Figure 6.12 on the next slide . . .
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Shaping
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Reinforcers Can Be Conditioned
• Primary reinforcers: satisfy biological needs, necessary for survival (e.g., food, water)
• Secondary reinforcers: serve as reinforcers, do not satisfy biological needs; established through classical conditioning
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Reinforcer Potency
• Some reinforcers are more powerful• Premack principle: more valued activity can
reinforce performance of less valued activity– Example: “Eat your spinach and then you’ll get
dessert.”
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior– Reinforcement: behavior more likely to be
repeated– Punishment: behavior less likely to occur again
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Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Both positive and negative reinforcement increase likelihood of a given behavior
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Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement: addition of stimulus that increases probability behavior will reoccur– Example: feeding a rat after it has pressed a lever
• Negative reinforcement: removal of stimulus that increases likelihood of given behavior– Example: taking a pill to get rid of a headache
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Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Both positive and negative punishment reduce likelihood that behavior will be repeated
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Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Positive punishment: addition of stimulus decreases probability of behavior being repeated – Example: electrical shock, speeding ticket
• Negative punishment: removal of stimulus decreases probability of behavior being repeated – Example: loss of food, loss of privileges
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Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Continuous reinforcement: behavior reinforced each time it occurs– Fast learning, uncommon in real world
2. Partial reinforcement: behavior is occasionally reinforced – More common in real world
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• How reinforcement given x how consistently given = four common schedules1. Fixed schedule: predictable basis2. Variable schedule: unpredictable basis3. Interval schedule: based on passage of time4. Ratio schedule: based on number of responses
• See Figure 6.15 on the next slide . . .
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Fixed interval schedule (FI): reinforcement after fixed amount of time– Example: paycheck
2. Variable interval schedule (VI): reinforcement after unpredictable amount of time– Example: pop quiz– More consistent response rates than fixed interval
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Schedules of Reinforcement
3. Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement after fixed number of responses – Example: paid by the completed task– Often yields better response rates than fixed interval
4. Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement after variable number of responses – Example: slot machine
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Partial-reinforcement extinction effect: behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
• To condition behavior to persist:– Use continuous reinforcement initially– Slowly change to partial reinforcement
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Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Imagine a parent says no to a candy bar, so child throws a tantrum– Parent yells, “If you don’t stop screaming, you’re
going to get a smacked bottom!”
• Will this approach get the desired behavior?
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Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• To be effective, punishment must be:– Reasonable– Unpleasant– Applied immediately– Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior
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Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• Punishment can cause confusion:– Wrongly applied after desirable behavior– Leads to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety)– Fails to offset reinforcing aspects of the undesired
behavior
• Reinforcement teaches desirable behavior• See Figure 6.16 on the next slide . . .
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Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
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Behavior Modifications
• Behavior modification: operant conditioning replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors
• Most unwanted behaviors can be unlearned
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Behavior Modifications
• Token economies: opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and lose tokens for behaving badly– Tokens later traded for objects or privileges
• Gives participants sense of control
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Behaviorists believed conditioning principles explained all behavior
• In reality, reinforcement explains only a certain amount of human behavior
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Dopamine Activity Affects Reinforcement
• Biological influence on how reinforcing something is– Drugs that block dopamine’s effects disrupt
operant conditioning– Drugs that enhance dopamine activation increase
reinforcing value of stimuli
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Biology Constrains Reinforcement
• Some animal behaviors hardwired– Difficult to learn behaviors counter to evolutionary
adaptation
• Conditioning most effective when matched to animal’s biological predispositions
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Learning Without Reinforcement
• Tolman argued that reinforcement impacts performance more than knowledge acquisition– Ran rats through complex mazes to obtain food– Cognitive map: maze-specific mental
representation that Tolman believed each rat developed
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Learning Without Reinforcement• Three groups of rats traveled maze–Group 1: no reinforcement–Group 2: reinforcement every trial–Group 3: reinforcement only after first 10
trials• See Figure 6.19 on the next slide . . .
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Learning Without Reinforcement
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Learning Without Reinforcement
• Latent learning: learning without reinforcement
• Group 1: slow, many wrong turns• Group 2: faster, fewer errors each trial• Group 3: –Before reinforcement, similar to Group 1–After reinforcement, better than Group 2
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Learning Without Reinforcement
• Insight learning: solution suddenly emerges after delay; type of problem solving
• Reinforcement does not fully explain but predicts behavior’s repetition
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6.4 How Do We Learn by Watching Others?
• Behaviors we learn by watching others:– Mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational
anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion
• Three ways we learn by watching:1.Observational learning2.Modeling3.Vicarious conditioning
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Three Ways We Learn Through Watching
1. Observational learning: individual acquires or changes behavior after viewing it at least once– Examples: foods safe to eat, objects and situations
to fear
• Powerful adaptive tool• See Figure 6.20 on next slide . . .
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Three Ways We Learn Through Watching
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Bandura’s Research Reveals Learning Through Observation
• Observation of aggression: Bandura’s Bobo doll study– Group 1: watched film of adult playing quietly
with Bobo, an inflatable doll– Group 2: watched film of adult attacking Bobo
• Viewers of aggression were more than twice as likely to play aggressively
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Learning Through Modeling
2. Modeling: imitation of observed behavior• More likely to imitate actions of attractive,
high-status models similar to ourselves• See Figure 6.22 on the next slide . . .
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Learning Through Modeling
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Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning
3. Vicarious conditioning: learning about consequences by watching others– Rewarded behavior more imitated– Punished behavior less imitated
• See Figure 6.23 on the next slide . . .
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Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning
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Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
• Meme: shared piece of cultural knowledge– Similar to genes, selectively passed across
generations, can spread much faster– Animals also show this kind of knowledge sharing
• See Figure 6.24 on the next slide . . .
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Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
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Biology Influences Observational Learning
• Mirror neurons: fire in your brain and other person’s brain every time you watch them engaging in an action – Does not always lead to imitation
• Scientists still debating mirror neurons’ function