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Running head: Ancient Egyptian Courts
1
Ancient Egyptian Court Systems:
King Menes & King Bocchoris
Gordon Tunstall
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Ancient Egyptian Courts 2
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian laws, legislation, and administrative regulations were never
codified. However, evidence of their existence has been found on the walls of palaces
and temples. Major differences exist between the court systems of King Menes in the 1st
Dynasty, King Bocchoris in the 24th Dynasty, and the current judicial system in the
United States. These differences include dissimilar court structure, jurisdictional
hierarchy, and appellate practices, particularly with regard to human rights.
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abolished the death penalty. According to Baines (2001), King Bocchoris wrote the first
laws in recorded history governing contracts involving loaning or borrowing money.
Egyptian Ancient History
King Menes of the 1st Dynasty.
In the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (circa 3050 BC – 2890 BC), the 1st
Dynasty was founded by King Menes (Edwards, 1971; Beck, et al., 1999). Menes, whose
birth name was Horus Aha, came from the Thinite province in Upper Egypt (Lloyd,
1994). Menes is the royal nebty-name meaning “he who endures” (Edwards, 1971, p. 11).
In the 1st Dynasty, the Horus name was used for living pharaoh kings, the nebty-nameMenes was used to honor this pharaoh when writing about him after his passing (Lloyd,
1994). There were a total of seven pharaoh kings that ruled during the 1st Dynasty. The
people of Egypt did not refer to the kings as pharaohs; this word was used by the Greeks
and Hebrews.
King Menes “led the army across the frontier and won great glory,” uniting Upper
and Lower Egypt (Verbrugghe & Wickersham, 2001, p. 131). Unification of Egypt took
place around 3050 BC, at the beginning of this Dynasty. Upper and Lower Egypt had
been separate for hundreds of years and could not settle their differences (Millet, 1990;
Cervelló-Autuori, 2003). The two separate states could never function properly because
various individuals vied for power and both states being separate were prone to invasions
(Huzayyin, 1939). Menes made Memphis the capital of Egypt which did not favor either
Upper or Lower Egypt. The capital city was on an island on the Nile that was fortified so
it could be easily defend from attacks or invasions (Cervelló-Autuori, 2003). The king
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combined the red crown of Lower Egypt with the white crown of Upper Egypt creating
one crown showing the Egyptian people that both lands were united as one.
This became the first unified and centralized state in history, with an organized
system of government, administration, judiciary, education, police, and army (Fairservis,
1991). King Menes is credited with laying down the oldest legislative system in human
history when he issued the law of “Tehut,” god of wisdom, as the only law that was
applicable over all of Egypt (Wigmore, 1928; Savage, 2001). The law of Tehut was
based on ancient moral codes and outlined the basic understanding of what was
considered right and wrong (Emery, 1949). During these times, moral codes had areligious quality; religion and government were never separate in the ancient Egyptian
world (Emery, 1949). King Menes also made a single religion for all Egyptians to follow
and built the city Crocodopolis, where he established a place of worship for the god Ptah.
(Budge, 1969). The god Ptah was believed to have brought the world into being
(Morenz, & Keep, 1980). Menes had temples built all over Egypt for his people to have
easily accessible places to worship (Huzayyin, 1939).
King Menes used religion and law to help unite the people of Egypt (Redford,
2002). He issued edicts designed to improve food production and distribution, guard the
rights of the ruling families, improve education, and enhance knowledge of the natural
world through geometry and astronomy (Bard, 1992). The king controlled the executive
and judicial powers and exercised his executive powers with the assistance of many civil
servants. In choosing the civil servants, the king abided by the legal rules of seniority
and took into account their literacy level (Brown, 1981). Menes spent most of his time as
king ruling from Memphis. The king collected taxes and managed all of Egypt from the
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capital city. Most of the government officials also resided in the capital city (Millet,
1990). After all of Egypt was united under one king, one government, and one religion,
Menes invaded Nubia to the south of Egypt. Before the king unified Egypt, the Nubians
controlled a portion of Upper Egypt. King Menes invaded Nubia to expand Egypt’s
borders so the Nubians would not attempt to invade Upper Egypt and occupy this land
again (Ward, 1969).
After the invasion of Nubia, the king sent his ambassador to Canaan and Byblos
in Phoenicia to establish diplomatic relations and to establish trade routes. The country
flourished with the trade policies established under these meetings. Under King Menes,the government controlled the army and the treasury which allowed for the strengthening
of its armed forces. The Egyptian military was provided the necessary funds to employ
more officers and the forces were equipped with the necessary weapons to defend the
country (Ward, 1969). King Menes had a child with a woman named Neithotepe, but his
wife during his rule was Queen Berenib. King Menes ruled Egypt until he died at 63
years of age. When his child Djer was old enough, he became the next king of Egypt
(Ward, 1969).
Overview of the 1st through 24th Dynasties (circa 3050 AD – 720 AD).
The king was the Head of State who appointed the Great Treasurer, who was
responsible for collecting taxes from the people. The king controlled the executive and
judicial powers and exercised his executive power with the assistance of many civil
servants. The king established the laws, controlled the people, government, and the
country’s economy. The legal system was obligatory and binding to the king whose
powers in selecting and promoting civil servants were restricted (Meltzer, 1990).
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Throughout the twenty-four dynasties, the Egyptian legal and legislative system
provided its people with the rights to purchase property (Grimal, 1988). The disposition
of any owned property was a guaranteed right of its owner. Each Egyptian man had the
right to marry only one woman (Dodson, 2004). A woman was considered equal to a
man, and was able to own or sell property (Davies, 2004). Every Egyptian was able to
make their own will, but upon their death, the inheritance had to be distributed equally
among all siblings (Fisher, 1913). Slavery was not sanctioned by Egyptian law, but
foreigners living in Egypt did own slaves (El Amir, 1969). Egyptian water rights laws
allowed for water to be shared by all for drinking, bathing, and watering of crops. In the3rd Dynasty, a decree was issued limiting the amount of hours farmers were to work their
crops (Breasted, 1906).
Royal Court.
The royal court handled legal matters concerning religion as well as civil, judicial,
criminal, and military issues. The royal court also served as the notarizing agency where
land transfers and import contracts could be formally recorded (Bates, 1907). Court
scribes would authenticate legal documents on behalf of a mostly illiterate population
(Meltzer, 1990).
Council of the big ten.
In the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty, the Council of the Big Ten was established.
This was the highest council of the government which was comprised of senior state
officials, army commanders, and one of the royal’s sons. This council controlled Egypt’s
administrative functions and ensured the enforcement of legislative and royal decrees. In
the 5th Dynasty, this council assumed judiciary functions (Meltzer, 1990).
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Vizier.
By the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty, the position of the vizier was established.
(Morenz & Keep, 1992; Breasted, 1916). Some of the vizier’s duties included dealing
with complaints brought by citizens concerning other public officials. He punished these
officials if necessary and his punishments were based on common law, customs, and
precedence (Wigmore, 1928).
Police.
The prevention of crime and apprehension of criminals was the duty of local
police and local officials. Special guards were posted at tombs to prevent looting.Investigations were conducted by the police, usually after a citizen’s complaint. Suspects
whose guilt was apparent were held for trial or ordered by police to make amends
(Breasted, 1916). Heads of Police and district representatives had to keep the vizier
informed of activities occurring in the districts they managed. Any government official
who was not enforcing the laws or managing their departments well would be replaced by
the vizier (Breasted, 1916).
In ancient Egypt, the police collected evidence, checked public records, and
organized reenactments of crime scenes (Smith, 1955). In the earlier Dynasty period,
police applied physical coercion through beatings of suspects to obtain a confession to a
crime. Some suspects were flogged until they confessed or provided the authorities with
information about others involved in the crime (Maspero, 1898; Pritchard, 1969).
Suspects were held by police until trial. In the earlier dynasties there were no jail
facilities. Suspects were placed into pits or deep wells, deep enough to hold the offender
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to prevent any escape and the prisoners were not fed by during their incarceration. In
later dynasties, prisoners were held behind locked gates in temples (Breasted, 1906).
Administrators as judges.
In the early dynasties, there were no professional judges for the Royal Court. All
civil and criminal cases were tried before administrators consisting of scribes, priests, and
high officials (Smith, 1958). They were responsible for evaluating the merits of a
petition that came before them and rendering a decision. These administrators were
appointed by and answered to the vizier (Smith, 1958). In the 4th Dynasty, a civilian
administrator was appointed to oversee legal matters concerning the royal shipping ports. Judicial changes and public freedoms.
In the 18th Dynasty (circa 1330 BC), King Horemheb issued laws to reestablish
order in Upper and Lower Egypt, divided legal power, and appointed another vizier to
manage the city of Thebes. Now there were two viziers, one in the city Thebes, and one
in the city of Memphis (Grimal, 1992). The king also reestablished the people’s law by
appointing ten judges to the courts in Thebes and ten judges for the courts in Memphis.
He selected fair-minded and honest legal scholars as judges. This was the beginning of
the appointment of legal professionals by the king. Previously, kings were limited in
their selection by the laws of seniority and administrators for the courts were chosen from
a group of clerics, elders, oracles, and sages who were not legal scholars. King Horemheb
also set up regional tribunals to deal with legal issues on a localized level. He also
reestablished religious authority so the clerics, elders, oracles, and sages could help deal
with local moral, civil and legal issues with the authority of the king (Allam, 1991).
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King Horemheb also issued several decrees to end corruption and mistreatment of
citizens by public officials. He decreed that Royal Officers, guards, police officers, and
soldiers would be penalized—with flogging, compensation to the victim, or cutting off of
the nose or ear—for any mistreatment or theft of person or goods, stealing of boats,
kidnapping of female servants, intimidating citizens for food, stealing of crops from
private farms, and false or fraudulent taxation of citizens. Under the king’s decree, stolen
religious items were returned to the temples, stolen property was returned to its rightful
owners and virtually all corruption by state officials ended (Allam, 1991).
Judicial changes in the 18th Dynasty: judges, vizier, and the courts.
In the 18th Dynasty, court judges were legal scholars and the position became a
profession. From this period forward, administering the law ran in families: sons of
judges grew up to become judges (Shaw, 2000). The viziers were at the top of the
judicial hierarchy. The vizier also performed judicial functions and became the chief
justice over the Royal Court. The vizier wore a pendant with the insignia of Maat, the
ancient Egyptian Goddess of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat
represented the spirit of truth and fairness in which justice was to be applied (Morenz &
Keep, 1992). Toward the end of the 18th Dynasty, however, Maat lost importance as a
symbol of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Loyalty towards King
Horemheb became paramount, and he became the symbol of truth and justice for the
Egyptian people.
There were courts at different levels; the highest six courts of justice were the Six
Great Houses. The vizier served as the Chief of the Six Great Houses. Additionally, the
Tribunal of Thirty was established to deal with issues of the dead and the afterworld as
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well as issues of the living in regards to property rights, land measurement, and
compensation issues regarding the sale of grain (Breasted, 1906). Citizen courts were
also established with juries, where foremen, artisans, scribes, and workers sat in judgment
over their peers. These courts generally dealt with minor local offenses. In complicated
cases where a decision could not be reached, the people appealed to an oracle. The
punishment the citizen courts could impose ranged from fines, beatings, or the removal of
a tomb-worker’s name from the tomb he was working on—a punishment Egyptians
believed would prevent life after death and which was, therefore, considered worse than a
death sentence (Breasted, 1906).Serious criminal cases were handled by one of the courts in the Six Great Houses
with the state as prosecutor. Serious crimes included crimes against the state, the king,
the gods, and against persons, such as murder or bodily harm (Weeks, 2001). The
accused was presumed guilty unless proven innocent during trial. However, the courts
gave special protections and consideration to widows, orphans, and the timid who were
accused of a crime. The courts viewed these individuals as being incapable of looking
after their own interest (Breasted, 1906).
In court cases for the crimes of robbery, theft, and sexual aggression, the victim
had to bring the case before the court themselves. The accused could have a professional
barrister or lawyer represent them during the trial. Judgment was based on written and
oral evidence. Documents were generally composed by official scribes and witnesses
gave testimony under oath. Judges were expected to be impartial during the trial and
when handing down their sentence. Punishment handed down by a judge was not to be
too lenient or too harsh. Potential punishments included restitution, fines, confiscated
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property, imprisonment, beatings, mutilation, banishment, or death. Death sentences
were very rare but, when imposed, the person was burned to death while strapped to a
stake (Ocernoy, 1937).
The convicted could appeal their sentence to the vizier. The vizier was under
strict legal time requirements to review the case and respond to the appeal. The time
frames were based upon travel time from one point to another within Egypt (Breasted,
1906). The vizier could override the sentence, make a new judgment, or let the sentence
stand. Regardless of the vizier’s decision on an appeal, the vizier was obligated to
explain his decision in detail to the petitioner (Shaw & Nicholson, 1995).The Six Great Houses, Tribunal of Thirty, priest, or private referees dealt with
civil matters. Most civil matters involved property rights, inheritance, prenuptial
agreements, and other civil disputes (Breasted, 1906). If a person was found in breach of
an agreement, they were required to rectify the matter and pay a fine on a specific day
ordered by the court. If they failed to pay the fine and rectify matters, the fine was either
doubled or they were beaten in public (Quirke & Spencer, 1992).
Not even the king was above the law in Egypt. Regardless of a person’s social
class status, the law was supposed to be fair but this was not always the case. Individuals
who were rich or well connected with government officials did not always follow the
chain of command if they ran into legal issues. Some would appeal directly to the vizier
or the king in an attempt to circumvent the legal process to avoid conviction (Teeter &
Larson, 1999). Additionally, sometimes criminal investigators were killed so suspects
could avoid any prosecution (Lichtheim, 1973).
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At the end of the 21st Dynasty, Egypt was split again and there were separate
states of Upper and Lower Egypt. It remained split throughout the 24th Dynasty. The
24th Dynasty was in the Ptolemaic period of Egypt (circa 724 BC – 712 BC). King
Bocchoris was the second king that ruled in this Dynasty (Redford, 2002). Even though
his reign as king was very short, his law involving contracts for loaning and borrowing
money shaped future contract laws.
King Bocchoris of the 24th dynasty.
King Bocchoris was the second king of the 24th Dynasty. His royal name was
Wahkare which means “Spirit of Re” (Clayton, 1994, p. 188). He ruled Lower Egyptfrom the city of Sais which was located in the region of the western delta of the Nile
River. Under his rule, he controlled the Nile Delta and he ruled from circa 725 BC to 720
BC; this period is known as the Sais Dynasty (Clayton, 1994).
King Bocchoris was very wise and was praised for his judicial decisions and the
laws he enacted during his reign (Wilson, 1959). He wrote all of the laws that governed
the people in his administration. He also wrote the laws for all of the citizens of Lower
Egypt (Siculus, 1933). He abolished the death penalty and punished the condemned
through the use of forced labor. The convicted were placed on chain gangs where they
worked building dykes and digging canals. In the eyes of the citizens, this showed the
king’s humility. Additionally, the work done by the prisoners benefited the communities
immensely by providing water to citizens and farmers for their crops (Siculus, 1933).
Bocchoris wrote laws governing contracts which involved the loaning or
borrowing of money. These contract laws are the first laws of their kind in recorded
history (Baines, 2001). Under the Bocchoris contract laws, anyone who borrowed money
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without signing a contract could deny their indebtedness by taking an oath claiming they
did not owe the debt. The purpose of this law was to establish the importance of oaths
before the gods. This law also established for those who abuse the oath, that confidence
in lending money would be lost to the abusers of the oath but not to the process of
lending and borrowing money as a whole. The king believed that basing the law on a
person’s honor would encourage everyone to be virtuous in their character and pay their
debts accordingly (Siculus, 1933). Additionally, the king wrote in his law governing loan
contracts that creditors were forbidden to increase the interest on the principle debt in
excess of double the original amount of the principle loan amount. If a debtor defaultedon the terms of the loan, and a creditor attempted to recover their losses, the creditor
could only recover the property of the debtor, they could no longer take property that was
owned by other family members. Also, creditors could no longer subject debtors or their
family members to bondage or imprisonment for defaulting on a loan (Siculus, 1933).
King Bocchoris wrote these laws to protect all citizens, especially the soldiers in
his military. The citizens could be required to enlist in the military and be sent to defend
Lower Egypt. Bocchoris did not want any of his current or potential military force to be
imprisoned as a result of defaulting on a debt, either as a result of their own doing or as a
result of being sent off to war (Theodorides, 1971).
King Bocchoris was captured by his rival Shabaka who executed him by burning
him to death at the stake. Bocchoris was forty-four years old when he died and was the
last king of the 24th Dynasty. Shabaka became the king of the 25th Dynasty (Clayton,
1994). Even though his reign as king was short-lived, King Bocchoris made the first
recorded law in history involving contracts. His law set the foundation for future contract
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laws. Societies all over the world depend on the free exchange of goods and services in
the marketplace and the ability to borrow and lend money to buy those goods and
services. These transactions depend upon contracts and contract laws.
Discussion
Ancient Egyptian Dynasties Judicial System Compared to the United States’
Judicial System
There are major differences between the court systems of the 1st and 24th
Dynasties of ancient Egypt. There are differences in the two dynasties’ jurisdictional
hierarchies, their appellate practices, and in their approaches to human rights. Whencomparing these two ancient Egyptian court systems to the United States’ judicial
system, there are also stark differences in the courts’ structure, the appellate procedures,
and concepts concerning human rights.
1st dynasty’s judicial system.
During the 1st Dynasty, the laws for all of Egypt were based on the moral and
religious ideology of the time and were written by King Menes with the aid of a vizier
(Wigmore, 1928). There is no record that the ancient Egyptians codified their laws or
provided equality to their citizens under their laws (Bard, 1992). In the 1st Dynasty,
there was only one Royal Court that served all of Egypt, and the court heard both civil
and criminal cases. The king had limited authority in appointing judges to the courts.
The king had to follow the laws of seniority when picking from a group of scribes,
priests, and high officials (Ward, 1969). The judges were not educated in law (Brown,
1981). The accused were considered guilty until proven otherwise and were not
represented by any sort of legal counsel. Elders and religious members acted as judges,
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heard the legal cases and issued their judgments. Egyptians believed that if mortal judges
were not impartial, the offender would be judged correctly in the afterworld (Lichtheim,
1976). Decisions and sentences were final and could not be appealed; there were no
appellate procedures or appellate courts in place during the 1st Dynasty. Criminal
sentences were often brutal and included beatings, mutilation, banishment, and death.
24th dynasty’s judicial system.
During the 24th Egyptian Dynasty, the laws for Lower Egypt were based on
moral and religious ideology and legal precedence (Clayton, 1994). Most of the laws
created in the 18th Dynasty that established equality for the citizens and judicial fairnesswere still in effect during the 24th Dynasty (Wilson, 1959). King Bocchoris wrote all the
new laws for Lower Egypt and he is known for writing the first laws involving loan
contracts (Siculus, 1933). In the 24th Dynasty, there were several local tribunals and
multiple courts to serve the people of Lower Egypt. The local tribunals dealt with most
of the civil matters and the higher courts dealt with some of the civil matters and all of
the criminal cases. The king had the authority to appoint professional judges who were
educated legal scholars. The accused were considered guilty until proven innocent and
they could be represented by a barrister as their legal counsel (Meltzer, 1990). Judges
heard the legal cases and issued their judgments. Their decisions and sentences could be
appealed to the vizier. If the accused was not satisfied with the vizier’s decision, they
could appeal to the king. Thus, there were two levels of appellate review: appeal to the
vizier and then to the king. Criminal sentences were often fair and fit the crime.
Punishments included fines, forced-labor, beatings, mutilation and banishment (Breasted,
1906).
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United States’ judicial system.
The judicial system in the United States includes a codified set of laws and rules.
The United States Constitution and Bill of Rights provides for equality for all citizens
under the law. There are several court systems at the local, city, county, state, and federal
levels. The civil courts and criminal courts are separated (Harr & Hess, 2002). Judges
are voted in to position by citizens or they are appointed by legislators. Federal judges
are appointed by the President of the United States and approved by Congress. Most
judges are highly educated in the field of law or possess a law degree. An accused is presumed innocent until proven guilty. A person accused of a criminal offense is entitled
to a jury of their peers and to have legal representation by an attorney. If they cannot
afford an attorney, one will be appointed by the state or federal government at no cost
(Harr & Hess, 2002). Litigants can hire legal counsel in civil matters. There is an
appellate process in place for both criminal and civil cases and at both the state and
federal levels. Criminal sentences are fair and based upon the crime committed.
Punishments can range from fines, home arrest, probation, jail sentences of a year or less,
prison sentences of a year or more, to death (Harr & Hess, 2002).
The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are known as the Bill
of Rights and afford the citizens fair and equal treatment and protect human rights under
the law. The ancient Egyptians in both the 1st and 24th Dynasties did not have the same
protections as citizens have under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth
Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.
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The Fourth Amendment protects citizens from unreasonable searches or the
seizing of property (U.S. Const. Amend. IV). The police in ancient Egypt did not have
these restrictions and suspects and their property could be searched (Maspero, 1898, &
Pritchard, 1992). The Fifth Amendment sets forth several restrictions on how the
government may treat a person suspected of a crime, including the right not to be a
witness against one’s self (U.S. Const. Amend. V). In ancient Egypt, many suspects were
beaten or flogged into a confession (Maspero, 1898; Pritchard, 1992). The Sixth
Amendment describes the requirements for a fair trial (U.S. Const. Amend. VI). In both
the 1st and 24th Dynasties, trials were not necessarily fair and, in the earlier dynasties,the judges were administrators with no legal background or education (Breasted, 1906).
Egyptians believed that people who were judged incorrectly on Earth would be judged
correctly in the afterworld (Lichtheim, 1976). The Seventh Amendment preserves the
right to a trial by jury (U.S. Const. Amend. VII). The ancient Egyptians were not
afforded a jury by choice (Quirke & Spencer, 1992). In the 1st Dynasty, there were no
juries; people were judged by an administrator. In the 24th Dynasty, citizen courts which
dealt with minor civil matter had juries of peers, but there were no juries in criminal cases
and in some complicated civil cases (Quirke & Spencer, 1992). The Eighth Amendment
prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment (U.S. Const.
Amend. VIII). Ancient Egyptians who were suspected of a crime were placed in pits and
in later Dynasties locked in rooms in temples and were not fed while incarcerated
(Breasted, 1906). They did not have a bail process and fines that were imposed could be
excessive, in the discretion of the administrator or judge (Breasted, 1906).
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Conclusion
The ancient Egyptians created laws, legislation, and administrative regulations
which evolved over time. Major differences existed in the courts systems of the
Dynasties of King Menes and King Bocchoris. When comparing these two court systems
to the United States judicial system many differences can be found concerning court
structure, jurisdictional hierarchy and the appellate practices. There were very few laws
found in Ancient Egypt that dealt with human rights issues.
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References
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