Download - 20th Century Psychology
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Contemporary Psychology
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The lack of history…
Regarding the homage (or lack thereof) to 19 th century psychology andprior:
“o introductory course in psychology and certainly no concentrationor !ma"or# in psychological studies is considered complete or e$enrespecta%le unless the great old names are periodically trotted out&dusted off& congratulated for ha$ing seen farther than most& and thengently returned to their crypts as psychology gets on 'ith morepressing matters *$en the history classes al'ays %egin 'ith the +reeks& may spend a %it
'ith ,-uinas and ,ugustine& mo$e on to the modern era 'ith paid respectsto .escartes and /ocke& then the !real# study of psychology can %egin.
“This approach to the foundations of the discipline $irtually guarantees
to each generation of psychologists the pri$ilege of redisco$eringsome of the more compelling ideas in the history of thought 0t alsoconfers on psychology that state of perpetual youth 'hich isproclaimed %y most of its spokesmen in all of its ages .aniel Ro%inson& The Intellectual History of Psychology
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Recent times
2unctionalism
3eha$iorism
+estalt PsychologyPsychoanalysis
4umanistic Psychology
Cogniti$e PsychologyToday5
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2unctionalism
6ffshoot of the pragmatic thought of .e'ey& 7ames andPeirce *arly philosophy and psychology in the 8:
tage one& moral and mental philosophy: Psychology included topics such as ethics& di$inity& and
philosophy To learn psychology 'as to learn the accepted theology of the
day
tage t'o& intellectual philosophy Psychology %ecame a separate discipline and %ecame primarily
influenced %y the cottish common sense $ie's (Reid andothers)
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2unctionalism
tage three& the 8 Renaissance Psychology %ecomes an empirical science The late 1;#s sa' the pu%lishing of 7ohn .e'ey#s
te
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2unctionalism
e$er a 'ell>defined school 'ith one recogni=ed leader and an agreed>onmethodology
Common themes& ho'e$er& ran through the 'ork of 'hose callingthemsel$es functionalists: 6pposed the elementarism of structuralism ?anted to understand the function of the mind& not a description of its contents
The function 'as to aid the organism in adapting to its en$ironment ?anted to %e a practical science& apply findings to the impro$ement of the
human condition 8rged that research include animals& children& and a%normal humans as
su%"ects They also urged the use of any methodology that 'as useful
Concern for the “'hy of mental processes led directly to an interest in
moti$ation ,ccepted %oth mental processes and %eha$ior as legitimate interests for
psychology @ore interested in indi$idual differences among organisms than similarities 0nfluenced %y .ar'in#s theory of e$olution
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Aey 2igures in 2unctionalism
4ar$ard ?illiam 7ames7ames 4ugo @unster%erg @ary ?hiton Calkins + tanley 4all
2rancis umner Aenneth Clark
Chicago 7ohn .e'ey 7ames ,ngell 4ar$ey Carr
Colum%ia 7ames Cattell Ro%ert ?ood'orth *d'ard / Thorndike
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3eha$iorism
The =eitgeist of the time resulted in the de$eloping ofthe philosophy and psychology of %eha$iorism
Objective psychology 'as already esta%lished inRussia and se$eral functionalists 'ere discussing
openly many ideas later emphasi=ed %y 7ohn ?atson The strain %et'een those using introspection
(structuralism and many functionalists) and thoseproposing a strict o%"ecti$e science of psychologycreated the atmosphere 'hich ultimately led to the“%eha$iorist re$olution
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Aey 2igures in 3eha$iorism
Russian o%"ecti$e psychology 0$an echeno$ 0$an Pa$lo$ Bladimir 3echtere$
,merican 3eha$iorism ?atson
Psychology is a purely o%"ecti$e e
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eo%eha$iorism
0deas and concepts preceding de$elopment ofneo%eha$iorism:
Positi$ism in $arious forms had %een acti$e forcenturies
*ssentially& positi$ism argues that 'hat constitutes appropriate dataare o%ser$ations that are pu%lic domain ,lso& it is important to a$oid or at least& minimi=e theoretical
speculation from the data
/ogical positi$ism (de$eloped %y the Bienna Circle)di$ided science into t'o parts the empirical and the
theoretical 0n turn& it 'edded the t'o together& %y adding theory as apart of empirical science
,%stract theoretical terms 'ere allo'ed only if such termscould %e logically tied to empirical o%ser$ations
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eo%eha$iorism
6perationism the insistence that all a%stract scientific terms %eoperationally defined
,n operational definition is the defining of an a%stract& theoretical concept%y the procedures used to measure it 0n other 'ords& operational definitions tie theoretical terms to o%ser$a%le
phenomena
Thus& there is no am%iguity a%out the definition of the theoretical term 6nce operationism 'as presented most psychologists agreed 'ith the
logical positi$ists that unless a concept can %e operationally defined it isscientifically meaningless
Physicalism the desire for the unification of and a common $oca%ularyamong the sciences including psychology
6ne outcome of logical positi$ism 'as that all sciences 'ere $ie'ed asessentially the same follo'ing the same principles& 'ith the sameassumptions and all attempting to e
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eo%eha$iorism
eo%eha$iorism The com%ination of %eha$iorism and logicalpositi$ism
Though there 'ere ma"or differences among the neo%eha$iorists&they all tended to agree on a fe' important issues
0f theories are used& they must %e used in 'ays demanded %y logicalpositi$ism
,ll theoretical terms must %e operationally defined onhuman animals should %e used as research su%"ects for t'o
reasons: Rele$ant $aria%les are easier to control in animals than 'hen using
human su%"ects Perceptual and learning processes in nonhuman animals differ only in
degree from those processes in humans the information gained fromresearch 'ith nonhuman animals can %e generali=ed to humans
/earning processes are of prime importance %ecause learning isthe primary mechanism %y 'hich organisms ad"ust to a changingen$ironment
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Aey 2igures in eo%eha$iorism
*d'ard C Tolman
Clark / 4ull
*d'in R +uthrie 3 2 kinner
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tatus of 3eha$iorism Today
kinner remains the most influential of all the%eha$iorists ,s e$idence of his influence& in a sur$ey (in 1991) of historians
of psychology and chairpersons of graduate programs inpsychology 'ere asked to rank the most importantpsychologists of all time and the 1; most importantcontemporary psychologists 6n the “all time list historians ranked ?undt first and kinner
eighth& chairpersons ranked kinner first and ?undt si
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+estalt Psychology
,ntecedents of +estalt psychology e$eral +erman psychologists took issue 'ith
?undt#s elementism arguing that consciousnesscould not %e reduced to elements 'ithout distorting
the true meaning of conscious e
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+estalt Psychology
PhilosophersEantecedent $ie's 0mmanuel Aant %elie$ed that consciousness cannot %e reduced to sensory
stimulation& and conscious e
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Aey 2igures in +estalt Psychology
2ounding of +estalt psychology @a< ?ertheimer proposed that our perceptions are different
than the sensations that comprise them The phi phenomenon& a perception of apparent mo$ement 'hen the
elements of the e
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3asic principles of +estalt psychology
2ield theory +estaltists propose that the %rain contains structural fields of
electrochemical forces 8pon entering a field& sensory data %oth modify the structure of the field and
are modified %y the field 6ur e
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3asic principles of +estalt psychology
/a' of PrFgnan= the psychological organi=ation 'ill al'ays %e as good as
conditions allo' %ecause fields of %rain acti$ity 'ill al'aysdistri%ute themsel$es in the simplest 'ay possi%le under thepre$ailing conditions
The la' assets that all cogniti$e e
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3asic principles of +estalt psychology
Principles of perceptual organi=ation 2igure>ground the perceptual field can %e di$ided into t'o
parts& the figure and the ground Continuity stimuli that ha$e continuity 'ith one another
(intrinsic togetherness& seem to go together) 'ill %e
e
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Psychoanalysis
,ntecedent ideas , case can %e made that all components of the theory e
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,ntecedents of Psychoanalysis
iet=sche also sa' humans as engaged in aperpetual %attle %et'een the irrational and therational
4elmholt=#s concept of the conser$ation ofenergy 'ithin humans influenced 2reud topostulate a use of psychic energy to %edistri%uted in $arious 'ays
0t may %e said that 2reud#s theory 'as asynthesi=ing of his philosophical heritage and aproduct of the =eitgeist of his time
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*arly direct influences on the
de$elopment of psychoanalysis
7osef 3reuer 2reud 'orked 'ith 3reuer 'ith the famous case of ,nna 6 8sing hypnosis as his therapeutic method 3reuer found that disco$ering the
origin of physical symptoms& 'hich 'ere usually a traumatic e
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Aey 2igures in Psychoanalysis
That one dudeTheory of Personality and Consciousness
0d& *go uperego
.efense mechanisms u%limation& reaction formation etc
.ream interpretation
Psychose
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Contri%utions of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis (o%$iously) created a ne'&uni-ue 'ay to deal 'ith mental disorders
*
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Common criticisms of Psychoanalysis
@ethod of data collection no control .efinition of terms not clear& not operationally defined .ogmatism no toleration for conflicting ideas 6$eremphasis on se< many of his follo'ers %roke 'ith him
"ust for that reason
elf>fulfilling prophesy he found 'hat he 'as looking for%ecause he 'as looking for it
/ength& cost& and limited effecti$eness of psychoanalysis takes too long and too costly for most people
/ack of falsifia%ility > a good theory must ha$e thischaracteristic
?ell… let#s "ust say it 'asn#t scientific in general %efore getting intogrand assumptions of ho' science progresses
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4umanistic (Third>force) Psychology
,ntecedents to humanistic psychology 4istory %y the mid>G;th century structuralism&
functionalism& and +estalt psychology had lost theirdistincti$eness as schools of thought
6nly %eha$iorism and psychoanalysis remainedinfluential
0n the 19H;s the $ie's of humans pro$ided %y%eha$iorism and psychoanalysis 'ere $ie'ed %ymany as incomplete& distorted& or %oth
@any 'ere looking for a ne' $ie'& one thatemphasi=ed the human spirit rather than strictly themind or %ody
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4umanistic psychology
0n the early 19H;s& led %y ,%raham @aslo' agroup of psychologists started a mo$ementreferred to as third>force psychology
This 'as a reaction to the shortcomings (as they
sa' them) of %eha$iorism and psychoanalysis todeal fully 'ith the human condition
?hat 'as needed 'as a model of humans thatemphasi=ed their uni-ueness and their positi$e
aspectsThis third force com%ines the philosophies of
romanticism and e
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,ntecedents to humanistic psychology
Phenomenology > focuses on cogniti$e e
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Aey 2igures in 4umanistic Psychology
,%raham @aslo' Tenets of humanistic psychology
/ittle of $alue can %e learned a%out humans %y studying animals u%"ecti$e reality is the primary guide for human %eha$ior tudying indi$iduals is more informati$e than studying 'hat groups of
indi$iduals ha$e in common , ma"or effort should %e made to disco$er those things that eactuali=ation
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Aey 2igures in 4umanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers Theory of personality
Postulated an innate human dri$e to'ard self>actuali=ation& if peopleuse this actuali=ing tendency as a frame of reference in li$ing their li$esthey are said to %e li$ing according to the organismic $aluing process
, pro%lem usually arises %ecause in childhood 'e ha$e a need forpositi$e regard %ut 'e recei$e this only if 'e act or think in certain 'ays&this sets up conditions of 'orth This stunts the organismic $aluing process
The only 'ay to a$oid imposing conditions of 'orth on people is to gi$ethem unconditional positi$e regard
6nly people 'ho recei$e unconditional positi$e regard can %ecome a
fully functioning person Rogers# person>centered psychology has %een applied to such
di$erse areas as religion& medicine& la' enforcement& ethnic andcultural relations& politics& and organi=ational de$elopment
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Criticisms and contri%utions of humanistic
psychology
Contri%utions include *
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Psycho%iology
The physiological roots of psychology are $ery
old as 'e#$e discussed 4ippocrates etc
3iological psychology attempts to e
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Aey 2igures in Psycho%iology
Aarl /ashley used the a%lation method 'ithlearning paradigms
@ass action > loss of a%ility to perform a particular learned%eha$ior follo'ing destruction of parts of the corte< is relatedmore to the amount of destruction than to the location& thecorte< appeared to 'ork as a unified 'hole
*-uipotentiality > any part of a functional area of the %raincan perform the function associated 'ith that area
/ashley spent decades searching for the engram the neurophysiological locus of memory and learning
4e e$entually conceded that it 'as not possi%le to locate theengram
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Aey 2igures in Psycho%iology
.onald 4e%% eural interconnections de$elop 'ith e%rains and hemispheric speciali=ation
The disunity of consciousness
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Psycho%iology
3eha$ioral genetics The study of genetic influence on cognition and %eha$ior
*thology the study of instincti$e animal %eha$ior 6f ma"or importance to ethologists is species>specific
%eha$ior ho' mem%ers of a species typically %eha$eunder specific en$ironmental conditions
ocio%iology attempts to e
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Cogniti$e psychology
4istorically& psychology has al'ays %een (a fe'esol$ing and thinking& among many others& refer to
hypothetical stages or aspects of cognition Cogniti$e Psychology is the domain of psychology
in$ol$ed in the scientific analysis of mental processesin order to %etter understand %eha$ior
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.e$elopment %efore 19K;
Throughout psychology#s history human cogniti$e a%ilities ha$e %eenstudied philosophically& and later e
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.e$elopment during the 19K;s
+eorge @iller argues that a symposium oninformation theory sponsored %y the @assachusetts0nstitute of Technology (@0T) marked the %eginning ofmodern cogniti$e psychology
,llen e'ell and 4er%ert imon presented papers oncomputer logic& oam Chomsky presented his $ie's onlanguage& and @iller presented his research on short>termmemory
?ith the ad$ent of computing technology& a ready
analogy 'as a$aila%le to help understand ho'humans deal 'ith and interact 'ith their en$ironment 3road%ent& Perception and Communication& (19K)
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.e$elopment after 19H;
4e%%#s ,P, Presidential address urged the use of the scientificrigor of the %eha$ioral researchers to study cogniti$eprocesses
4e noted the 'ork of 2estinger& @iller& +alanter& and Pri%ram asgood starts to'ard this rigorous cogniti$e psychology
4e 'as also encouraged %y the possi%ility of using computer
models for studying cogniti$e processes @iller and his colleagues continued to mo$e the interest in
cogniti$e psychology along 'ith se$eral contri%utions @iller& +ilanter and Pre%ram argued that cy%ernetic concepts (such
as information feed%ack) edirected human %eha$ior%etter than >R concepts do
@iller and 3runer founded a center for cogniti$e studies through'hich Piaget#s ideas 'ere populari=ed in the 8 eisser pu%lishes (ognitive Psychology 19HL
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,rtificial intelligence
pecial %ranch of computer science that in$estigatesthe eprocessing psychology
,pproach to studying cognition& 'hich uses thecomputer as a model for human informationprocessing 0t follo's the rationalist tradition& and hasa strong nati$istic component
0nformation processing marks a return to facultypsychology and the recent disco$ery that the %rain isorgani=ed into many “modules (groups of cells)each associated 'ith some specific function alsocontri%utes to this return to faculty psychology
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Connectionism
eural net'orks > a model of a comple< system of artificial neurons ,s in the %rain the associations among neurons in the net'ork changeas a function of e
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Contemporary psychology
.i$ersity of contemporary psychology4istorically there 'as hostility among the
different schools of thoughtToday there is a relati$ely peaceful co>e
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Contemporary psychology
8neasy relationship %et'een scientific and appliedpsychology
2rom psychology#s inception as a science there 'astension %et'een those 'anting psychology to %e a
pure science (such as ?undt) and those 'antingpsychological principles to %e applied to practicalmatters (such as 4all& Cattell& and @unster%erg)
The founding of the ,P, did not decrease thistension
The tension resulted in Titchener refusing to participate inany of its acti$ities and he created his o'n organi=ation& The*
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Training of clinical psychologists
/ightner ?itmer esta%lished the tradition thatclinical psychology 'ould %e closely aligned'ith scientific psychology
Mears later a ne' professional degree& thedoctor of Psychology (Psy.) 'as institutedfor those 'ho 'ere trained as appliedclinicians 'ithout the research training
6ne may ask though> ho' can you apply a scienceyou are not familiar 'ith5
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The rift
,s ,P, continued to e$ol$e the applied
mem%ers %egan to outnum%er the research
oriented psychologists
0n 19H; a group of scientific psychologists leftthe ,P, and formed their o'n organi=ation
Psychonomic ociety
/ater& another group 'as organi=ed to form the
,merican Psychological ociety (,P) o' the ,ssociation for Psychological cience
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Postmodernism
,s 'e ha$e noted throughout the course& !postmodernism# isancient
Postmodernism& also called social constructionism& %egan itsattack on enlightenment ideals of e19H;s
0n essence& postmodernism %elie$es that “reality is created %yindi$iduals and groups 'ithin $arious personal& historical andcultural conte
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Psychology#s status as a science
There is no clear unifying principle& a group of
facts 'ith different interpretations
, -uestion is: can psychology e$er %e
unified5 The ans'er is %ased on the indi$idual#s $ie'
of 'hether it e$en should it %e
@ost 'ould agree that psychology is still acollection of different facts& theories&
assumptions& methodologies& and goals
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Psychological cience
?hate$er psychology#s status as a science& it
continues on though it#s unclear at this time 'hat
direction it may %e heading
?hile its di$ersity is a mainstay and to %ehighlighted as a strength& perhaps a ne'
paradigm is needed to push us for'ard
0n any e$ent& kno'ing psychology#s past 'ill
help us %etter understand its present& and
prepare for its future