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Cotton: from Grower to User 1Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Contents
Module Overview ....................................................................................................................... 2
Module Objective ....................................................................................................................... 2
Module Contents......................................................................................................................... 2
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................................... 3
Module Symbols.......................................................................................................................... 4
Unit 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5
Unit 2: Cotton: Fundamentals and History ............................................................................. 7
Unit 3: Growing and Harvesting Cotton .............................................................................. 11
Unit 4: Cotton Processing .................................................................................................... 16
Unit 5: Cotton Properties and Varieties ............................................................................... 31
Unit 6: Cotton Counts and Yarns ......................................................................................... 35
Resource Material Introduction ................................................................................................ 39
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Cotton: from Grower to User 2Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
This Module provides participants with an introduction to the growing and harvesting of cotton;an overview of the processes necessary to convert the raw cotton into yarn suitable for weaving;
and, a working knowledge of cotton properties, qualities and grades in preparation for the next
Module on weaving.
The objectives of this Module are to provide participants with:
an understanding of cotton growing and harvesting an overview of the processes involved in converting seeded cotton to yarn in preparation for weaving a working knowledge of cotton properties, qualities and grades specifically in relation to the
cotton yarns used to manufacture towelling products
This Module comprises these sections:
Introduction Introductions and Course Outline Introduction to Module 1
Cotton: Fundamentals and History What is Cotton? Fundamentals of Cotton Cotton Fibre History of Cotton Growth in Cotton Production
Growing and Harvesting Cotton Growing Cotton Harvesting Cotton
Cotton Processing Overview of Cotton Processing Ginning Classing and Baling Cleaning Carding Drawing Combing Roving Spinning
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Cotton: from Grower to User 3Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Cotton Properties and Varieties Cotton Properties Cotton Varieties
Cotton Counts and Yarns Cotton Counts Cotton Yarns
At the completion of this module, participants should be able to:
Learning Outcome 1
Identify a key milestone for the Australian cotton industry
Learning Outcome 2
Identify the main cotton growing areas in Australia
Learning Outcome 3
List the key steps in the cotton growing cycle
Learning Outcome 4
Identify the differences between machine picking and hand picking
Learning Outcome 5State the purpose of ginning cotton
Learning Outcome 6
Identify the key reasons for cleaning cotton
Learning Outcome 7
Outline the steps in carding
Learning Outcome 8Explain the primary purpose of combing
Learning Outcome 9
Describe the differences between ring spun yarn and open end yarn
Learning Outcome 10
Describe the characteristics and properties of cotton that are most relevant to towelling products
Learning Outcome 11
Identify the main types of cotton used in towelling manufacture and describe the properties ofeach
Learning Outcome 12
Outline the two types of cotton count systems
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Cotton: from Grower to User 4Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
The following symbols in the text are designed to assist you to prepare and deliver your training:
Estimated time for activity, including PowerPoint slides and samples
PowerPoint Presentation Slide (PPS)
Note: PPSs are numbered by Module and Slide numbereg. PPS 1.6 is Module 1 Slide 6
Discuss
Sample
Handout
Note: Handouts are numbered by Module and Unit number
eg. Handout 2.3 is the Handout for Module 2 Unit 3
DVD
SHOW
SAMPLES
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Cotton: from Grower to User 5Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Resource Material
The relevant resource material for this section is:
PPS 1.1: Cotton from Grower to User PPS 1.2: Overview of Module 1 Handout 1.1 Samples: Raw Cotton, Yarn CheeseAim
The aims of this section of the module are to provide participants with an:
introduction to Cotton from Grower to User opportunity to formally introduce themselves to each other overview of the contents of Module 1Timing
15 minutes
The estimated time for the Introduction is 15 minutes with 10 minutes for
Introductions and Course Outline and 5 minutes for Introduction to Module 1.
The information is primarily presented using PPSs.
Trainers Notes
Introductions and Course Outline
Welcome the participants and introduce yourself.
Ask the participants to introduce themselves and outline what their expectationsof the course are.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 6Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.1
Introduce the Cotton from Grower to User using the PPS:
Cotton from Grower to User
Module 1:COTTON
Introduction
Cotton: Fundamentals & History
Growing & Harvesting Cotton
Cotton Properties & Varieties
Cotton Counts & Yarns
Cotton Processing
Module 2:MANUFACTURING
Introduction
Yarn Preparation
Weaving
Drying
Finishing
Dyeing
Finished Product
Module 3:COLOUR &
DECORATING
Introduction
Colour Forecasting
Psychology of Colour
Colour Harmonies
Colour: FAQs
Discuss the assessment process.
Give participants Handout 1.1.
Introduction to Module 1
Show the participants the raw cotton and the yarn cheese samples.
Explain that the aim of Module 1 is to outline the process of converting raw cotton
to yarn that is suitable for weaving into towelling products.
PPS 1.2
Give an overview of the content of Module 1 using the PPS:
Overview of Module 1
Ginning Classing and Baling Cleaning
Carding Drawing
Combing Roving Spinning
History
of Cotton
Module 2:MANUFACTURING
Growing &
Harvesting CottonCotton Processing
Cotton Properties
& Varieties
Cotton Counts
& Yarns
SHOW
SAMPLES
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Cotton: from Grower to User 7Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Resource Material
The relevant resources for this section are:
PPS 1.3: What is Cotton? PPS 1.4: Fundamentals of Cotton PPS 1.5: Cotton Fibre PPS 1.6: History of Cotton PPS 1.7: History of Cotton in Australia PPS 1.8: Growth in Cotton Production Handout 1.2Aim
The aims of this section of the module are to provide participants with an overview of the:
The fundamentals of cotton and cotton fibre history of cotton over the last 5,000 years key milestones in the cotton industry in Australia since 1788 growth of the cotton industry in Australia based on production of the raw materialTiming
8 minutes
The estimated time for Cotton: Fundamentals and History 8 minutes.
The information is primarily presented using PPSs.
Trainers Notes
Give participants Handout 1.2.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 8Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.3
Explain cotton to participants using the PPS:
What is Cotton?
Cotton fibres are the seed hairs of the plantGossypium
Each fibre is formed by the elongation of a single cellfrom the surface of the seed
The word cotton is derived from its Arabic namepronounced kutan, qutn or qutan
Under a microscope, acotton fibre appears asa very fine, regular fibre,looking like a twistedribbon. These twists arecalled convolutions
PPS 1.4
Outline the fundamentals of cotton using the PPS:
Fundamentals of Cotton
Cotton is composed of long cellulosic molecules
It is typically around 88 96% cellulose. The rest is
protein, pectic substances, ash and wax
After scouring and bleaching, cotton is then about 99%
cellulose
The cellulosic wall of the cotton fibre give cotton its
unique characteristics: its crimp, wall thickness,
maturity, pliability, moisture absorbance andretainability
These characteristics contribute to making cotton the
most sought after natural fibre in the world
PPS 1.5
Outline the characteristics of cotton fibre using the PPS:
Cotton Fibre
The cotton fibre length varies with the
type and quality
It is stronger when wet
Cotton absorbs moisture readily, which
makes cotton clothes comfortable to
wear in warm weather (water retention of
50%, moisture regain of 7%)
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Cotton: from Grower to User 9Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.6
Outline the key milestone in the world history of cotton using the PPS:
History of Cotton
USA producing > 50% of worlds cotton1920s
Cotton gin invented1793
Cotton seeds arrive in Australia on First Fleet1788
Spinning Jenny invented in England1769
India produced fine quality cotton fabric.
Grown in the USA, China, Japan, Middle East
& Pakistan
3,000
years ago
Remnants found woven with feathers & fur5000
years ago
Background Information:
Cotton is one of the oldest known fibres It has been grown and used for more than 5,000 years Cotton was first cultivated in Pakistan Invention of the Spinning Jenny in England enabled cheap mass-production Invention of the Cotton Gin in the USA to remove the seeds from cotton fibrelead to further improvements in production
PPS 1.7
Outline the key milestones in the history of cotton in Australia using the PPS:
History of Cotton in Australia
Environmental audit and introduction of Best
Management Practices
1992
Cotton production increases as availability of
irrigation increases
1970s
First exportable surplus produced
Emerged as major crop
Cotton consistently profitable
1960s
Cotton industry all but non-existent1954
Australia fills gap caused by the US Civil War1861 >
Cotton seeds arrive on First Fleet1788
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Cotton: from Grower to User 10Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.8
Show the PPS on cotton production to demonstrate the growth of the cotton
industry in Australia:
Growth in Cotton Production
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1980 1985 1992 1995 1997 1999
Millions of Bales
Background Information and Notes on PPS:
1830 3 bags of cotton were exported to England
1934 Production was 17,000 bales
1971 Production was 87,000 bales
1975 Production was 110,000 bales
1992 Production was about 2% of the worlds ginned cotton
1995 Production dropped due to drought
The Australian cotton industry:
is internationally competitive is increasingly efficient at processing cotton has a substantial share of its total production exported as cotton yarn, fabric or
finished product
Note to Trainer:
The following information is provided as background information only, should
any of the participants ask specific questions about genetically modified cotton.
Information on genetically modified cotton can be misunderstood andmisinterpreted so it is best not to raise the topic and only provide information if a
specific question is asked.
Genetically modified cotton actually reduces the need for fertilisers andpesticides because it is more pest resistance. Therefore it is better for the
environment and that is the focus of Australian research on genetically
modified cotton.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 11Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Resource Material
The relevant resources for this section are:
PPS 1.9: Ideal Growing Conditions PPS 1.10: Cotton Growing in Australia PPS 1.11: The Cotton Cycle PPS 1:12: Harvesting: Machine Picking PPS 1.13: Harvesting: Hand Picking Handout 1.3 Sample: Seeded CottonAim
The aims of this section of the module are to provide participants with an overview of:
the growing cycle of cotton the types of machines used to harvest cotton machine harvesting versus hand pickingTiming
15 minutes
The estimated time for Growing and Harvesting Cotton is 15 minutes.
The information is presented using PPSs.
Trainers Notes
Give participants Handout 1.3.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 12Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Growing Cotton
PPS 1.9
Outline the environmental conditions needed to grow cotton using the PPS:
Ideal Growing Conditions
Cotton needs:
Warm, humid climate or a warm climate
with adequate irrigation
Long, frost-free period of 6-7 months
Mild temperatures
About 12 hours of sunlight per day
During the growing cycle 7.5cm12.5cm
of rain monthly or adequate irrigation
Background Information:
China is the leading producer of cotton world-wide Other major producers are the USA, the states of the former Soviet Union,
India, Pakistan, China, Brazil and Australia
PPS 1.10
Show the key cotton growing areas in Australia using the PPS:
Cotton Growing in Australia
Qld
NSW
Notes on PPS:
Cotton is primarily grown in central and north-western NSW and central andsouthern Queensland
Approximately 70% of Australias cotton is produced in NSW, with most of itbeing grown in the Murray-Darling Basin
The majority of cotton grown in Australia is irrigated cotton
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Cotton: from Grower to User 13Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
There are few areas in Australia suitable for non-irrigated or dryland cottongrowing
Hence most cotton is grown on land near major irrigation schemes and rivervalleys
PPS 1.11
Explain the cotton growing cycle using the PPS:
The Cotton Cycle
Cotton Seed
Planted
Open BollCotton Blossoms
Boll
Harvest 100 days
By end of 2nd day50 to 80
days
GROWING
SEASON
DAY 0
DAY
180
Notes on PPS:
From planting time to harvesting time is approximately 180 days or about 6
months
Day 1: Cotton seed is planted
Day 3-5: Seedlings appear
Day 100: Cotton blossoms
The cotton plants blossom over a period of time
and their yellowish/pink flowers bloom for 1 day
By the end of the 2ndday the flowers wither and
drop to reveal the formation of the boll or youngseed pod
Between Blossoming andMaturity:
Bolls grow and mature
It is during this time in the growing cycle that the
bolls need adequate rainfall or irrigation
Day 150 -180: Bolls open to reveal the white fluffy cotton
Each boll contains about 30 seeds and up to
500,000 fibres of cotton
Again the bolls do not all open together so the
picking season occurs over a period of time.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 14Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
In Australia most on-farm activities related to cotton growing occur in Australia
between August and May
August September: Soil PreparationSeptember October: Planting
November February: Growing Season
March May: Picking and Ginning
Background Information:
Cotton comes come from the Arabic word kutun which describes a finetextile
Cotton is a bushy plant that is a member of the Hibiscus familyShow the participants a sample of seeded cotton
Harvesting Cotton
PPS 1.12Harvesting: Machine Picking
Cotton is harvested by either a:
Cotton Picker: removes the cotton fromthe bolls without damaging the plant
Cotton Stripper: strips entire boll off the
plant
Australian cotton is harvested by pickers because the cotton
is cleaner
Notes on PPS:
Cotton pickers give much greater cleaning efficiency as the picker does notcollect as much trash, or unwanted twigs and leaves, as a cotton stripper.
Cotton that is cleaner when it is picked lessens the requirement for cleaning
during the ginning process
Machine picking of cotton allows mass harvestingBackground Information:
Australia, the USA and Israel are the only countries in the world to harvesttheir cotton exclusively with machines
SHOW
SAMPLES
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Cotton: from Grower to User 15Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.13
Outline the key points about hand picked cotton using the PPS:
Harvesting: Hand Picking
Hand picking cotton:
is slower than machine picking
better preserves fibre characteristics
leaves behind unwanted trash like
leaves and boll
selects fully grown cotton and leaves
young cotton for later picking
Show DVD
Note to Trainer:
Introduce DVD Reinforce key points
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Cotton: from Grower to User 16Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Resource Material
The relevant resources for this section are:
PPS 1.14: Cotton Processing PPS 1.15: Ginning PPS 1.16: Classing & Baling PPS 1.17 & PPS 1.18: Cleaning PPS 1.19: Carding PPS 1.20: Drawing PPS 1.21: Combing: Lap Former PPS 1.22: Combing: Comber PPS 1.23: Combing: Grouping of the Combed Sliver PPS 1.24: Combing PPS 1.25 & PPS 1.26: Roving PPS 1.27: Spinning: Speed Frame PPS 1.28: Spinning PPS 1.29: Ring Spinning PPS 1.30: Winding PPS 1.31: Twisting PPS 1.32: Assembly Winding PPS 1.33: Open End Spinning PPS 1.34 & 1.35: Vortex Spinning PPS 1.36: Blending of Cotton with other Fibres PPS 1.37: Cotton Fibre Testing Handout 1.4 Samples: Ginned Cotton, Sliver Fibres, Seeded Cotton, Yarn CheeseAim
The aims of this section of the module are to provide participants with an overview of:
the stages involved in preparing cotton for spinning spinning cotton into yarn ready for weavingTiming
25 minutes
The estimated time for Cotton Processing is 25 minutes.
The information is presented using PPSs and samples of cotton at various stages of
processing and spinning.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 18Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
In a saw gin, circular saws grip fibres and pull them through narrow slotsleaving the seed behind. Saw gins are used with shorter fibres
Saw gins are primarily used in Australia because we grow more short staplelength cotton In a roller gin a rough roller grabs fibres and pulls them under a rotating bar
with gaps too small for seed. Roller gins are used with longer fibres
The by-products of ginning are:Lint:
Lint is the technical name for cotton fibre produced in the ginningprocess
Lint is used to produce cotton yarnMotes:
Mixture of trash like dirt, stalks, leaves and fibre The fibre can be used for lower grade cotton and paper but requires
further processing
Seed:
Seed contains linters or short, very fine fibres The cleaned seed is crushed to produce cotton seed oil and the
residue can be used for cattle feed. It may also be used as seeds to
plant again for the next cotton crop
Background Information:
The word gin in cotton gin is related to the word engine and means device. Itis unrelated to the alcoholic drink called gin!
55% of ginned cotton is made up of cottonseed, 35% is lint and 10% is trash. Cotton fibre waste has been used to clean up oil spills in the sea, as it soaks
up the oil well but the natural waxes that it contains help to keep the fibre
afloat.
Cotton trash such as left over sticks and leaves can be used as compost, and
put back into the soil.
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Cotton: from Grower to User 19Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.16
Outline classing and baling using the PPS:
Fibre is measured
against a set of
standards or
grades to
assesses quality
of ginning,
fineness and fibre
length.
Classing & Baling
Ginning Classing
Lint is pressed
into bales of a
standard size
Bailing
Notes on PPS:
Classing is the process of measuring the fibres against a set of standards or gradesThe lint is graded on a scale of 1 to 6, which assesses the quality of ginning,fineness and fibre length.
Raw fibre or lint is passed from the gin through pipes to a press The press compresses the lint into bales Each bale weighs 227 kg or 500 lbs, which is the standard Australian size. The
standard bale size for the rest of the world is 400 lbs.
A sample for classing is taken from every bale The bales are then sold to local spinning mills or overseas buyers or they are storedBackground Information:
A standard Australian bale of cotton makes approximately 500 light bath towelsShow the participants the sample of ginned cotton
SHOW
SAMPLES
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Cotton: from Grower to User 20Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Cleaning
PPS 1.17
Explain the key reasons for cleaning the cotton lint using the PPS:
Cleaning
Ginning
Removes
Seeds
Lint & Trash
Ginning
Cleaned
Blended
Leaf
Stalk
Sand
Soil
Dust
Removes
40-70%
Trash
Notes on PPS:
Ginning removes seeds but not trash Trash is leaf, stalk, sand, soil and dust that is mixed in with the lint Lint needs to be opened, cleaned and blended to remove the trash
PPS 1.18
Explain the various stages of cleaning that occur in the blow room using the PPS:
CleaningBales
of Lint
Opening Blending Cleaning
CardingSeparator opencotton
Break it into small
tufts or flocks
Blow Room
Blend or mix fibresfrom different bales
together
Create uniformity of
staple and colour
Beatersprogressively open
cotton
Release trash
Lap
3-7 major cleaningpoints
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Cotton: from Grower to User 21Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Carding
PPS 1.19
Outline the carding process using the PPS:
CardingCleaning
Blow Room
Opening &
Cleaning
Removes short fibres
Disentangles neps (knots)
Partially aligns fibres length wise
Blends fibres into web
Removes 80-90%
Dust & Impurities
Carding Machine
Lap
(long rollof cotton
SingleFibres
Drawing
Sliver (long,
loose strand
of cotton)Fibres
Notes on PPS:
Brushes, cleans, disentangles and straightens the cotton fibre All yarn is carded The sliver is output into cans for storageCompare the sliver sample to the seeded cotton sample to demonstrate that it isnow clean and looks more like a strand of cotton, ie. it is longer and finer.
Drawing
PPS 1.20
Outline the drawing process of converting a sliver to a finer yarn using the PPS:
Drawing
Sliver
Straightens and parallelises the fibres
Blend slivers to improve regularity of
weight, length
and fibre mix
Draw out slivers
to produce
slivers of
required weight
and length
Drawing
Carding Combing
Spinning
SHOW
SAMPLES
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Cotton: from Grower to User 22Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Background Information and Notes on PPS:
The carded slivers are coiled in cylindrical cans with spring-loaded bases sothat there is no tension applied to the slivers when drawn out. In the sliver thecotton fibres are not parallel
The carded slivers then are passed through a drawing process:slivers are laid parallel in groups of 6 or 8 and passed through high-speedpressure rollersthe speeds of these rollers are varied so that the group of is "drawn" toform a single sliver
The slivers vary in thickness. Feeding slivers together is known as doublingand leads to an improvement in regularity in the sliver. When fed together thethick part of one sliver is offset by the thin part of another
This process improves the uniformity of the sliver because of the multipledoubling
Doubling feeds multiple slivers together and so it blends the fibres too Each succeeding pair of rollers runs faster than the preceding pair. The fibres
are gripped by a faster pair and drawn out from the preceding slower pair
The action of reducing the thickness of the feed sliver (input) by drawing isknown as drafting
The operation of doubling and drafting may be carried out two or three timesusing identical machines. One operation does not usually give sufficientregularity, fibre parallelism and blending
Fibre parallelism means that the fibres are running parallel to each otherlengthwise along the strand
Parallel fibres are the key to fine yarns and higher yarn strength
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Cotton: from Grower to User 24Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.24Combing
Removes short fibres, leaving longest fibres
Fibres are prepared in the form of a lap which
is even in thickness with fibres parallel to the
length of the lap
Only best quality yarns are combed due to
cost
Combing produces a cleaner, finer, more even
yarn
Roving
PPS 1.25
Outline the roving process using the PPSs:
Roving
Roving reduces the thickness of the sliver to
10 to 15% of its original thickness
This process involves drawing the slivers
through pressure rollers running at varying
speeds
This size reduction (from approx. 5,000 grams
per km to approx. 600 grams per km) gets the
feeder material right for the next process, ie.
ring spinning
PPS 1.26Roving
After the thickness is reduced the material is called
Roving and the machine used here is either called aRoving frame or Simplex frame
The roving is wound on to spools weighing up to 2 to
3kg in the roving frames
These rovings are held together without breaking by
having it twisted slightly
The twist given to the roving is a false twist, since this
is removed whilst unwound in the ring frame
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Cotton: from Grower to User 25Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
Spinning
PPS 1.27
Outline the speed frame using the PPS:
Spinning: Speed Frame
Roving
on
Bobbin
Draws sliver to reduce it to a
fineness suitable for spinning
Inserts a small amount of twist
to strengthen the roving
Winds the roving onto a
bobbin ready for spinning
Speed Frame
Carding
Combing
Spinning
Background Information:
Both the carded and combed slivers go through the speed frame Adding twist to the yarn adds strength Drafting is another term for drawing
PPS 1.28
Outline the spinning process using the PPS:
Spinning
Roving
on
Bobbin
Yarn
on
Bobbin
Draws roving to reduce the
thickness
Adds twist to strengthen yarn
Winds yarn evenly onto
bobbin in preparation for
weaving
Spinning
WeavingSpeed
Frame
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Cotton: from Grower to User 26Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.29
Explain the key differences between ring spinning and open end spinning using
the PPSs:
Ring Spinning
Used for finer yarns
and all combed yarns
Involves 6 processes
for carded ring spun
yarn and 8 processes
for combed ring spun
yarn
PPS 1.30
Outline winding using the PPS:
Winding
The ring spun yarn is wound on small ring tubes calledRing Cops mounted on spindles on the ring frames
Since the format of this package is so small, this yarn hasto be rewound on to larger cones
This process is called winding
During the winding process, any weak spots in the yarnsare removed and clear of any contamination, thick places orother faults
Yarn from ring tubes which is approx around 50 grams pertube is wound on to larger cones up to 4 kg
This yarn is packed and transported to the end user suchas a knitter or weaver
PPS 1.31
Outline twisting using the PPS:
Twisting
Twisting is used to make ply yarns for specificend uses
The end product out of spinning is always a
single ply yarn
This can be doubled along with an identical
yarn to form a doubled ply yarn
This is achieved through twisting frames
The process is achieved in two stages
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Cotton: from Grower to User 27Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
PPS 1.32
Outline assembly winding using the PPS:
Assembly Winding
In this process the two single yarns are assembled
next to each other and wound on to a parallel package
This package is then fed on to the twisting frame
The twisting frame draws the assembled single
threads and twists it together to the pre set twist
The direction of twisting whilst doubling is always
opposite to that of the single yarn
This is done to retain a balanced yarn for subsequent
processing
PPS 1.33
Outline open end spinning using the PPS:
Open End Spinning
Also known as rotor
spinning
Generally used on
coarser counts of
yarn
Not used for combed
yarn Involves 4 stages or
processes
Notes on PPSs:
The two most popular methods of spinning are ring spinning and open endspinning
The open end spinning is a relatively new technology compared to ringspinning
In Ring Spinning, the cotton fibres are twisted to form the yarn by threadingthe fibres through a small ear shape metal piece called a traveller onto thehigh-speed ring tube
The fibre is held in cohesion through out the transition stage from fibre to yarn The yarn produced by ring spinning is known as ring spun yarn In Open end spinning, the fibres are inserted loose into a spin box
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Cotton: from Grower to User 28Prepared by Effective ChangePty Ltd
The spin box consists of a funnel spinning at speeds of over 50,000 rpm The cotton fibres direct from the sliver form are fed into the funnel from the
outer rim of the spinning funnel
The fibres coming into contact with the inner walls of the spinning funnel getthrown along the surface by centrifugal force
The fibres are then guided through a fine groove in the inner surface of thefunnel and drawn out from the centre of the funnel
The drawn yarn is wound directly onto packages ready for delivery to the enduser
The yarn produced by rotor spinning is known as open ended yarn In open end spinning, both the roving process for pre Ring spinning and the
winding process for post Ring spinning is eliminated
The cost of Open end spinning is therefore reduced dramatically compared toring spinning
PPS 1.34
Outline vortex spinning using the PPSs:
Vortex Spinning
This is a recent invention (1997) on spinning
methods as a further advancement to the open
end (OE) spinning
The production output rates are double of that
of OE spinning and the quality of the yarn is
closer to that of the ring spun yarn
The cotton fibre used must have a long staple
length (28mm and above) and be stronger
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PPS 1.35Vortex Spinning
In vortex spinning, the drafted f ibres are sucked into a
nozzle where a high speed 'vortex' air current wraps
the fibres around the outside of a hollow stationary
spindle
A vacuum around the base of the spindle acts to
'comb' out shorter fibres and neps
Fibres are pulled down a shaft that runs through the
middle of the spindle
Yarn twist is inserted as the fibres swirl around the
apex of the spindle before being pulled down the
spindle shaft
Notes on PPS:
This system has the same advantages of the OE spinning as the yarn isproduced directly from the sliver without any roving process and thelimitation of the ring spinning processes
PPS 1.36
Blending of Cotton with other
Fibres
Though not used in terry towel production, cotton
fibre is blended with many other man made fibres
to achieve excellent end products
One of the most popular cotton blended yarn is
Poly cotton
The Poly cotton yarn is popularly used in apparels,
as the cotton component takes care of the
moisture absorbency, the polyester gives the
required durability and design/colour feature to the
product
Notes on PPS:
Cotton is also blended with regenerated cellulosic fibres like staple viscose In this blend both fibres have very similar characteristics due to the cellulosic
fibres
The blending is usually done in the draw frame or the blow room of thespinning mill
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Resource Material
The relevant resources for this section are:
PPS 1.38: Cotton Properties PPS 1.39: Cotton Varieties PPS 1.40: Egyptian Cotton PPS 1.41: Pima Cotton PPS 1.42: Upland Cotton Handout 1.5Aim
The aims of this section of the module are to familiarise participants with the:
properties of each variety in relation to towelling products different varieties of cottonTiming
10 minutes
The estimated time for Cotton Types and Properties is 10 minutes.
The information is presented using the PPSs and samples
Trainers Notes
Give participants Handout 1.5.
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Cotton Properties
PPS 1.38
Outline the characteristics and properties of cotton that make it such a valuable
and sought after fibre. Highlight those that are particularly valuable and desirablein the production of towelling
Cotton Properties
Handle
Absorbency
Felting
Laundering
Durability
Hypoallergenic
Colour Clarity
Colour Retention
Shrinkage
Versatility
The characteristics and properties that are valuable/desirable in the production of
towelling products are shown below:
Handle Soft and comfortable feel
Drapes well
No static electricity
Absorbency Naturally absorbent
Can absorb up to 1/5 of its weight before it feels damp
Can absorb 24 - 27 times its own weight
Is stronger wet than dry
Felting Does not felt or mat like wool
Does not form pill(s) like wool,
acrylic or polyester fibre
Laundering Machine washable
Can be sterilised/sanitisedCan be tumble dried
Dry cleanable
Durability Long-lasting if well looked after
Hypoallergenic Does not irritate sensitive skin or cause allergies
Colour
Retention &
Clarity
Easily dyed
Prints well
Reflects colour well
Retains colour
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Shrinkage Occurs only to remove stretching in manufacture
Occurs usually only at first wash
Occurs the least in leading brand quality products
Versatility Easy to handle and sew
Can be easily blended with other fibres
Can be treated, eg. for heat resistance, wrinkle resistance,stain resistance or permanent press
Cotton Varieties
PPS 1.39
Name the three main varieties of cotton using the PPS:
Cotton Varieties
Egyptian
Pima
Upland
There are many varieties of cotton used in
towel production, some are:
PPS 1.40
Outline the properties of Egyptian Cotton using the PPS:
Egyptian Cotton
Extra Long Staple (ELS) cotton grown in Egypt
is classified as Egyptian cotton
Generally regarded as best cotton fibre
Natural colour enhances colour of final product
Roller ginned because of its long fibre length
Generally combed and ring spun
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PPS 1.41
Outline the properties of Pima Cotton using the PPS:
Pima Cotton
Pima cotton is ELS length cotton
Originated in Peru
Hybrid of Upland and Sea Island cotton
Grown primarily in the USA, Australia and Peru
Longer and stronger fibre
Roller ginned because of its long fibre length
Spun into higher count yarns for better qualityproduct
Can be made into fine quality fabric
Relatively costly to produce and to process
Background Information:
What is Supima?Licensed brand name for Pima cotton
PPS 1.42
Outline the properties of Upland Cotton using the PPS:
Upland Cotton
Originally named American Upland but
commonly called Upland Grown in many countries, including Australia
Average staple length is 2 to 3 centimetres
Most commonly available cotton
Light cream to off-white in colour
Either combed or carded
Can be ring or open end
Used for large range of very good to averagequality cotton goods
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Resource Material
The relevant resources for this section are:
PPS 1.43: Cotton Count Systems PPS 1.44: English Cotton Count PPS 1.45: Tex Direct System PPS 1.46: Yarn Count Conversion PPS 1.47: Ring Spun Cotton PPS 1.48: Open End Yarn Handout 1.6 DVDAim
The aims of this section of the module are to provide participants with a working knowledge of:
cotton counts and their application in the manufacture and retailing of towelling products the types of yarn used in the manufacture of towelling productsTiming
15 minutes
The estimated time for Cotton Counts and Yarns is 15 minutes.
The information is presented using PPSs and samples.
Trainers Notes
Give participants Handout 1.6.
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Cotton Counts
PPS 1.43
Give an overview of cotton count systems using the PPS:
Cotton Count Systems
All yarn count systems measure lineardensity to denote the thickness andheaviness of the yarn
Indirect Systems are based on:
Length per Unit Weight
Direct Systems are based on:
Weight per Unit Length
PPS 1.44
Explain the English Cotton Count System using the PPS:
English Cotton Count
English Cotton Count or ECC is an indirect
system
The basic unit is an Nec
A Nec is the number of hanks, each 840 yardsin length required to weigh 1 pound, ie.
Nec = 840 yards / 1lb
The higher the Ne number the finer the yarn,
the lower the Ne number the thicker the yarn
PPS 1.45
Explain the Tex System using the PPS:
Tex Direct System
Basic unit is the Tex
A Tex is the weight, in grams, per 1,000
Metres or 1 kilometre of the yarn
Tex = grams / 1,000 metres
The higher the Tex number the thicker
the yarn, the lower the Tex number the
finer the yarn
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PPS 1.48
Outline the characteristics and properties of open end cotton using the PPS:
Open End Yarn
Can have a harsher feel if not treated
correctly
Hard wearing and durable
Great absorbency due to the hollow
structure of the yarn
Used for the ground or base of the towel
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This section contains the following resource material for Module 1. Cotton:
Glossary Assessment Tasks Learning Checklist Handouts
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Glossary
Bale A basic tradeable unit of lint or ginned cotton. In Australia a standard
bale weighs 227kgs.
Blending Fibres from different bales of cotton are mixed together to make sure
that the spun yarn is uniform in physical characteristics such as stapleand colour.
Blowing Room The room in a cotton spinning mill where the preparatory processes of
opening, cleaning and blending occur.
Bobbin A cone shaped object that holds yarn.
Boll The fruit or seed pod of the cotton plant. The boll contains the cottonfibre, which are long, white hair like fibres attached to the cotton
seeds.
Each boll contains about 30 seeds and up to 500,000 fibres of cotton.
Carded yarn Carding of the cotton fibre is the basic method of preparing cotton for
spinning. It basically draws and lays the fibres parallel to each other in
preparation for the spinning process.
Carding The cotton fibres are combed using a carding machine to make them
run in straight lines.
Each line of fibre is called a sliver.
Combed yarn Combed yarn has been processed to remove the shorter fibres before
the spinning process leaving the longer fibres. The longer the fibres the
better the quality, yarn fineness, strength, fibre shedding and colour
intensity.
Creel A structure for holding bobbins or cheeses of yarn.
Delinting Removal of the fibres that remain on the cotton seed after ginning.
Once the fibres have been removed the cotton seed can be furtherprocessed into oil or used to planting.
Gin A machine designed to remove the cotton fibres (lint) from the cotton
seed.
Lap A long roll of cotton.
Lint Cotton fibre produced by the ginning process once the cotton seed,
leaves and casing have been removed. Lint is used to produce cotton
yarn.
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Linters Very fine, short fibres which are still attached to the cotton seed after
ginning.
Linters are chemically removed and used in the manufacture of rayonand other products.
Motes A mixture of trash and fibre as a by-product of ginning.
The fibre can be used for lower grade cotton yarns and paper but
requires special opening and cleaning.
Nep A small knot of entangled fibres, usually dead or immature cotton
hairs.
Opening The separating of closely packed fibres of cotton. Opening occurs in
the early stages of processing raw cotton into yarn.
Picker A machine used to harvest cotton that removes the seeded cotton fromthe boll.
Roving Relatively fine fibrous strands used in the later or final processes of
preparation for spinning.
Ring Spinning A yarn spinning method in which roving (a thin strand of fibre with
very little twist) is fed to a "traveler" which rotates around the edge of a
ring. Inside the ring is a faster rotating bobbin. The process
simultaneously draws and twists the roving into yarn and winds itaround the bobbin.
Rotor Spinning A method of open-end spinning which uses a rotor (a high speed
centrifuge) to collect individual fibres into a yarn. The fibres on
entering a rapidly rotating rotor are distributed around its
circumference and temporarily held there by centrifugal force. The
yarn is withdrawn from the rotor wall and because of the rotation, twist
is generated.
Sliver An assembly of fibres in continuous form without twist.
Spinning The final stage of cotton processing using machines that stretch out thecotton sliver and make it into long, thin threads of yarn.
Staple Length of the cotton fibres, eg. short staple length or long staple length.
Stripper A machine used to harvest cotton that strips the entire boll off the
plant.
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Assessment Tasks
1. When did cotton first come into Australia?
2. When did cotton become a major crop and the surplus exported?
3. Mark on the map of Australia the main cotton growing areas.
4. Complete on the diagram the stages of the cotton growing cycle.The Cotton Cycle
100 days
By end of 2nd day50 to 80
days
GROWING
SEASON
DAY 0
DAY
180
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5. What advantages does machine harvesting have over hand picking?
6. What advantages does hand picking have?
7. What is the purpose of ginning cotton?
8. Which by-products of ginning are used to produce cotton?
9. Why is cotton cleaned?
10. How is the cotton carded?
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11. What is the main reason that cotton is combed?
12. What are the key differences between ring spun yarn and open end yarn?
13. Why are these cotton properties important features of towelling products?a. Handleb. Absorbencyc. Launderingd. Durabilitye.
Colour Retention & Clarity
14. Name two major cotton varieties used in the production of towelling products. Describethe properties of each
a.
b.
15. What are the two types of cotton count systems? Give an example of each systema.
b.
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Learning Checklist
LearningOutcomes
Assessment Tasks ResultsDemonstratesCompetence
Yes No
Learning Outcome 1
Identify a key milestone for theAustralian cotton industry
When did cotton first come into Australia?
When did cotton become a major crop and the surplusexported?
Learning Outcome 2
Identify the main cotton growing areasin Australia
Mark on the map of Australia the main cotton growingareas
Learning Outcome 3
List the key steps in the cotton growingcycle
Complete on the diagram the stages of the cotton growingcycle
Learning Outcome 4
Identify the differences between
machine picking and hand picking
What advantages does machine harvesting have over handpicking?
What advantages does hand picking have?
Learning Outcome 5
State the purpose of ginning cotton
What is the purpose of ginning cotton?
Which by-products of ginning are used to produce cotton?
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LearningOutcomes
Assessment Tasks ResultsDemonstratesCompetence
Yes No
Learning Outcome 6
Identify the key reasons for cleaningcotton
Why is cotton cleaned?
Learning Outcome 7
Outline the steps in carding
How is the cotton carded?
Learning Outcome 8
Explain the primary purpose of combing
What is the main reason that cotton is combed?
Learning Outcome 9
Describe the differences between ringspun and open end yarn
What are the key differences between ring spun yarn andopen end yarn?
Learning Outcome 10
Describe the characteristics andproperties of cotton that are mostrelevant to towelling products
Why are these cotton properties important features oftowelling products?
a. Handleb. Absorbencyc. Launderingd. Durability
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LearningOutcomes
Assessment Tasks ResultsDemonstratesCompetence
Yes No
e. Colour Retention & Clarity
Learning Outcome 11
Identify the main types of cotton usedin towelling manufacture and describethe properties of each
Name two major cotton varieties used in the production oftowelling products. Describe the properties of each
Learning Outcome 12
Outline the two types of cotton countsystems
What are the two types of cotton count systems? Give anexample of each system
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Unit 1: Introduction
Cotton from Grower to User
Module 1:COTTON
Introduction
Cotton: Fundamentals & History
Growing & Harvesting Cotton
Cotton Properties & Varieties
Cotton Counts & Yarns
Cotton Processing
Module 2:MANUFACTURING
Introduction
Yarn Preparation
Weaving
Drying
Finishing
Dyeing
Finished Product
Module 3:COLOUR &
DECORATING
Introduction
Colour Forecasting
Psychology of Colour
Colour Harmonies
Colour: FAQs
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Unit 2: Cotton: Fundamentals and History
What is Cotton?
Cotton fibres are the seed hairs of the plantGossypium
Each fibre is formed by the elongation of a single cellfrom the surface of the seed
The word cotton is derived from its Arabic namepronounced kutan, qutn or qutan
Under a microscope, acotton fibre appears asa very fine, regular fibre,looking like a twistedribbon. These twists arecalled convolutions
Fundamentals of Cotton
Cotton is composed of long cellulosic molecules
It is typically around 88 96% cellulose. The rest is
protein, pectic substances, ash and wax
After scouring and bleaching, cotton is then about 99%
cellulose
The cellulosic wall of the cotton fibre give cotton itsunique characteristics: its crimp, wall thickness,
maturity, pliability, moisture absorbance and
retainability
These characteristics contribute to making cotton the
most sought after natural fibre in the world
Cotton Fibre
The cotton fibre length varies with the
type and quality
It is stronger when wet
Cotton absorbs moisture readily, which
makes cotton clothes comfortable to
wear in warm weather (water retention of
50%, moisture regain of 7%)
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History of Cotton
USA producing > 50% of worlds cotton1920s
Cotton gin invented1793
Cotton seeds arrive in Australia on First Fleet1788
Spinning Jenny invented in England1769
India produced fine quality cotton fabric.
Grown in the USA, China, Japan, Middle East
& Pakistan
3,000years ago
Remnants found woven with feathers & fur5000
years ago
Cotton is one of the oldest known fibres It has been grown and used for more than 5,000 years Cotton was first cultivated in Pakistan Invention of the Spinning Jenny in England enabled cheap mass-production Invention of the Cotton Gin in the USA to remove the seeds from cotton fibre lead to further
improvements in production
History of Cotton in Australia
Environmental audit and introduction of Best
Management Practices
1992
Cotton production increases as availability of
irrigation increases
1970s
First exportable surplus produced
Emerged as major crop
Cotton consistently profitable
1960s
Cotton industry all but non-existent1954
Australia fills gap caused by the US Civil War1861 >
Cotton seeds arrive on First Fleet1788
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Growth in Cotton Production
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1980 1985 1992 1995 1997 1999
Millions of Bales
1830 3 bags of cotton were exported to England
1934 Production was 17,000 bales
1971 Production was 87,000 bales
1975 Production was 110,000 bales
1992 Production was about 2% of the worlds ginned cotton
1995 Production dropped due to drought
The Australian cotton industry:
is internationally competitive is increasingly efficient at processing cotton has a substantial share of its total production exported as cotton yarn, fabric or finishedproduct
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Unit 3: Growing and Harvesting Cotton
Growing Cotton
Ideal Growing Conditions
Cotton needs:
Warm, humid climate or a warm climate
with adequate irrigation
Long, frost-free period of 6-7 months
Mild temperatures
About 12 hours of sunlight per day
During the growing cycle 7.5cm12.5cmof rain monthly or adequate irrigation
China is the leading producer of cotton world-wide Other major producers are the USA, the states of the former Soviet Union, India, Pakistan,
China, Brazil and Australia
Cotton Growing in Australia
Qld
NSW
Cotton is primarily grown in central and north-western NSW and central and southernQueensland
Approximately 70% of Australias cotton is produced in NSW, with most of it being grownin the Murray-Darling Basin
The majority of cotton grown in Australia is irrigated cotton There are few areas in Australia suitable for non-irrigated or dryland cotton growing Hence most cotton is grown on land near major irrigation schemes and river valleys
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The Cotton Cycle
Cotton Seed
Planted
Open BollCotton Blossoms
Boll
Harvest 100 days
By end of 2nd day50 to 80
days
GROWING
SEASON
DAY 0
DAY180
From planting time to harvesting time is approximately 180 days or about 6 months
Day 1: Cotton seed is planted
Day 3-5: Seedlings appear
Day 100: Cotton blossoms
The cotton plants blossom over a period of time and their
yellowish/pink flowers bloom for 1 day
By the end of the 2nd day the flowers wither and drop to reveal
the formation of the boll or young seed podBetween Blossoming and
Maturity
Bolls grow and mature
It is during this time in the growing cycle that the bolls need
adequate rainfall or irrigation
Day 150 -180: Bolls open to reveal the white fluffy cotton
Each boll contains about 30 seeds and up to 500,000 fibres of
cotton
Again the bolls do not all open together so the picking season
occurs over a period of time.
In Australia most on-farm activities related to cotton growing occur in Australia between August
and May
August September: Soil Preparation
September October: Planting
November February: Growing Season
March May: Picking and Ginning
Cotton comes come from the Arabic word kutun which describes a fine textile Cotton is a bushy plant that is a member of the Hibiscus family
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Harvesting Cotton
Harvesting: Machine Picking
Cotton is harvested by either a:
Cotton Picker: removes the cotton from
the bolls without damaging the plant
Cotton Stripper: strips entire boll off the
plant
Australian cotton is harvested by pickers because the cotton
is cleaner
Cotton pickers give much greater cleaning efficiency as the picker does not collect as muchtrash, or unwanted twigs and leaves, as a cotton stripper. Cotton that is cleaner when it is
picked lessens the requirement for cleaning during the ginning process Machine picking of cotton allows mass harvesting Australia, the USA and Israel are the only countries in the world to harvest their cotton
exclusively with machines
Harvesting: Hand Picking
Hand picking cotton:
is slower than machine picking
better preserves fibre characteristics
leaves behind unwanted trash like
leaves and boll
selects fully grown cotton and leaves
young cotton for later picking
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Unit 4: Cotton Processing
Overview of Cotton Processing
Cotton Processing
Cotton
FieldsGinning Classing
Spinning
Mills
Bailing
Ginning
Ginning
Ginning separates the cotton fibres from thecotton seed
Lint - fibre
Picked Cotton
Drying and
Removing Trash
Classing
Mote trash & fibres
Seed linters & seed
Bailing
The primary purpose of ginning is to separate the cotton fibre from the cotton seeds. Thisprocess is carried out by a machine called a gin
There are two types of gin: saw gins and roller gins In a saw gin, circular saws grip fibres and pull them through narrow slots leaving the seed
behind. Saw gins are used with shorter fibres
Saw gins are primarily used in Australia because we grow more short staple length cotton In a roller gin a rough roller grabs fibres and pulls them under a rotating bar with gaps too
small for seed. Roller gins are used with longer fibres
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The by-products of ginning are:Lint:
Lint is the technical name for cotton fibre produced in the ginning process Lint is used to produce cotton yarnMotes:
Mixture of trash like dirt, stalks, leaves and fibre The fibre can be used for lower grade cotton and paper but requires furtherprocessing
Seed:
Seed contains linters or short, very fine fibres The cleaned seed is crushed to produce cotton seed oil and the residue can be used
for cattle feed. It may also be used as seeds to plant again for the next cotton crop
The word gin in cotton gin is related to the word engine and means device. It is unrelated tothe alcoholic drink called gin!
55% of ginned cotton is made up of cottonseed, 35% is lint and 10% is trash. Cotton fibre waste has been used to clean up oil spills in the sea, as it soaks up the oil well
but the natural waxes that it contains help to keep the fibre afloat. Cotton trash such as left
over sticks and leaves can be used as compost, and put back into the soil.
Fibre is measured
against a set of
standards orgrades toassesses quality
of ginning,
fineness and fibre
length.
Classing & Baling
Ginning Classing
Lint is pressed
into bales of a
standard size
Bailing
Classing is the process of measuring the fibres against a set of standards or grades. The lint isgraded on a scale of 1 to 6, which assesses the quality of ginning, fineness and fibre length.
Raw fibre or lint is passed from the gin through pipes to a press The press compresses the lint into bales Each bale weighs 227 kg or 500 lbs, which is the standard Australian size. The standard bale
size for the rest of the world is 400 lbs. A sample for classing is taken from every bale The bales are then sold to local spinning mills or overseas buyers or they are storedA standard Australian bale of cotton makes approximately 500 light bath towels
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Cleaning
Cleaning
Ginning
Removes
Seeds
Lint & Trash
Ginning
Cleaned
Blended
Leaf
Stalk
Sand
Soil
Dust
Removes40-70%
Trash
Ginning removes seeds but not trash Trash is leaf, stalk, sand, soil and dust that is mixed in with the lint Lint needs to be opened, cleaned and blended to remove the trash
CleaningBales
of Lint
Opening Blending Cleaning
CardingSeparator opencotton
Break it into small
tufts or flocks
Blow Room
Blend or mix fibres
from different balestogether
Create uniformity of
staple and colour
Beaters
progressively opencotton
Release trash
Lap
3-7 major cleaningpoints
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Carding
CardingCleaningBlow Room
Opening &
Cleaning
Removes short fibres
Disentangles neps (knots)
Partially aligns fibres length wise
Blends fibres into web
Removes 80-90%Dust & Impurities
Carding Machine
Lap
(long roll
of cotton
Single
Fibres
Drawing
Sliver (long,
loose strand
of cotton)
Fibres
Brushes, cleans, disentangles and straightens the cotton fibre All yarn is carded The sliver is output into cans for storageDrawing
Drawing
Sliver
Straightens and parallelises the fibres
Blend slivers to improve regularity of
weight, length
and fibre mix
Draw out slivers
to produce
slivers of
required weightand length
Drawing
Carding Combing
Spinning
The carded slivers are coiled in cylindrical cans with spring-loaded bases so that there is notension applied to the slivers when drawn out. In the sliver the cotton fibres are not parallel
The carded slivers then are passed through a drawing process:slivers are laid parallel in groups of 6 or 8 and passed through high-speed pressure rollersthe speeds of these rollers are varied so that the group of is "drawn" to form a singlesliver
The slivers vary in thickness. Feeding slivers together is known as doubling and leads to animprovement in regularity in the sliver. When fed together the thick part of one sliver isoffset by the thin part of another
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Cotton: from Grower to User 5 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
This process improves the uniformity of the sliver because of the multiple doubling Doubling feeds multiple slivers together and so it blends the fibres too Each succeeding pair of rollers runs faster than the preceding pair. The fibres are gripped by
a faster pair and drawn out from the preceding slower pair The action of reducing the thickness of the feed sliver (input) by drawing is known as
drafting The operation of doubling and drafting may be carried out two or three times using identicalmachines. One operation does not usually give sufficient regularity, fibre parallelism andblending. Fibre parallelism means that the fibres are running parallel to each otherlengthwise along the strand
Parallel fibres are the key to fine yarns and higher yarn strengthCombing
Combing: Lap Former This process is used to prepare the feeder material for
the combing operation
Similar to the drawing process, slivers are laid parallel
and passed through high speed rollers to form a sheet
of compressed cotton lap, which is wound on to spools
The spools of cotton laps are then transported to the
comber for the crucial combing process
Instead of single slivers, these laps are the feeder
material for the combing process
Combing: Comber
Metal combs tease the cotton lap fed between pressure
rollers, so that the combing process individually separates
every cotton fibre
The amount of short fibre reduction can be controlled by
adjusting the combs in the combing machine
Whilst the fibres are combed, all short fibres and trash are
removed form the cotton
The trash, called Noil can be re used in spinning of coarsercounts of yarn or for waste spinning processes for making
mop yarns etc
Around 18-20 % of re-usable cotton waste (Noil) is
extracted during this process
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Cotton: from Grower to User 6 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Combing: Grouping of the Combed
Sliver One comber machine will have commonly up to eight
comber heads
The combed slivers from all the different combing headsare grouped together along a stainless steel table andpassed through a Drawing process
This drawing process serves the purpose of doubling toimprove the uniformity in the combed sliver
This drawn / combed sliver is coiled individually incylindrical cans with coil springs similar to the gathering ofthe sliver after carding
The combed slivers are further re-processed throughdrawing frames to improve the uniformity and blendingbefore proceeding to the next process
Combing
Removes short fibres, leaving longest fibres
Fibres are prepared in the form of a lap which
is even in thickness with fibres parallel to the
length of the lap
Only best quality yarns are combed due to
cost Combing produces a cleaner, finer, more even
yarn
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Cotton: from Grower to User 7 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Roving
Roving
Roving reduces the thickness of the sliver to
10 to 15% of its original thickness
This process involves drawing the slivers
through pressure rollers running at varying
speeds
This size reduction (from approx. 5,000 grams
per km to approx. 600 grams per km) gets the
feeder material right for the next process, ie.
ring spinning
Roving
After the thickness is reduced the material is called
Roving and the machine used here is either called a
Roving frame or Simplex frame
The roving is wound on to spools weighing up to 2 to
3kg in the roving frames
These rovings are held together without breaking by
having it twisted slightly
The twist given to the roving is a false twist, since this
is removed whilst unwound in the ring frame
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Cotton: from Grower to User 8 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Spinning
Spinning: Speed Frame
Roving
on
Bobbin
Draws sliver to reduce it to a
fineness suitable for spinning
Inserts a small amount of twist
to strengthen the roving
Winds the roving onto a
bobbin ready for spinning
Speed Frame
Carding
Combing
Spinning
Both the carded and combed slivers go through the speed frame Adding twist to the yarn adds strength Drafting is another term for drawing
Spinning
Rovingon
Bobbin
Yarnon
Bobbin
Draws roving to reduce thethickness
Adds twist to strengthen yarn
Winds yarn evenly onto
bobbin in preparation for
weaving
Spinning
WeavingSpeed
Frame
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Cotton: from Grower to User 9 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Ring Spinning
Used for finer yarns
and all combed yarns Involves 6 processes
for carded ring spun
yarn and 8 processes
for combed ring spun
yarn
Winding
The ring spun yarn is wound on small ring tubes calledRing Cops mounted on spindles on the ring frames
Since the format of this package is so small, this yarn hasto be rewound on to larger cones
This process is called winding
During the winding process, any weak spots in the yarnsare removed and clear of any contamination, thick places orother faults
Yarn from ring tubes which is approx around 50 grams pertube is wound on to larger cones up to 4 kg
This yarn is packed and transported to the end user suchas a knitter or weaver
Twisting
Twisting is used to make ply yarns for specificend uses
The end product out of spinning is always a
single ply yarn
This can be doubled along with an identical
yarn to form a doubled ply yarn
This is achieved through twisting frames
The process is achieved in two stages
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Cotton: from Grower to User 10 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Assembly Winding
In this process the two single yarns are assembled
next to each other and wound on to a parallel package
This package is then fed on to the twisting frame
The twisting frame draws the assembled single
threads and twists it together to the pre set twist
The direction of twisting whilst doubling is always
opposite to that of the single yarn
This is done to retain a balanced yarn for subsequent
processing
Open End Spinning
Also known as rotor
spinning
Generally used on
coarser counts of
yarn
Not used for combed
yarn
Involves 4 stages or
processes
The two most popular methods of spinning are ring spinning and open end spinning The open end spinning is a relatively new technology compared to ring spinning In Ring Spinning, the cotton fibres are twisted to form the yarn by threading the fibres
through a small ear shape metal piece called a traveller onto the high-speed ring tube
The fibre is held in cohesion through out the transition stage from fibre to yarn The yarn produced by ring spinning is known as ring spun yarn In Open end spinning, the fibres are inserted loose into a spin box The spin box consists of a funnel spinning at speeds of over 50,000 rpm The cotton fibres direct from the sliver form are fed into the funnel from the outer rim of the
spinning funnel The fibres coming into contact with the inner walls of the spinning funnel get thrown along
the surface by centrifugal force The fibres are then guided through a fine groove in the inner surface of the funnel and drawn
out from the centre of the funnel The drawn yarn is wound directly onto packages ready for delivery to the end user
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Cotton: from Grower to User 11 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
The yarn produced by rotor spinning is known as open ended yarn In open end spinning, both the roving process for pre Ring spinning and the winding process
for post Ring spinning is eliminated The cost of Open end spinning is therefore reduced dramatically compared to ring spinning
Vortex Spinning
This is a recent invention (1997) on spinning
methods as a further advancement to the open
end (OE) spinning
The production output rates are double of that
of OE spinning and the quality of the yarn is
closer to that of the ring spun yarn
The cotton fibre used must have a long staplelength (28mm and above) and be stronger
Vortex Spinning
In vortex spinning, the drafted fibres are sucked into a
nozzle where a high speed 'vortex' air current wrapsthe fibres around the outside of a hollow stationary
spindle
A vacuum around the base of the spindle acts to
'comb' out shorter fibres and neps
Fibres are pulled down a shaft that runs through the
middle of the spindle
Yarn twist is inserted as the fibres swirl around the
apex of the spindle before being pulled down the
spindle shaft
This system has the same advantages of the OE spinning as the yarn is produced directlyfrom the sliver without any roving process and the limitation of the ring spinning processes
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Cotton: from Grower to User 12 of 12Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Blending of Cotton with other
Fibres
Though not used in terry towel production, cotton
fibre is blended with many other man made fibres
to achieve excellent end products
One of the most popular cotton blended yarn is
Poly cotton
The Poly cotton yarn is popularly used in apparels,
as the cotton component takes care of the
moisture absorbency, the polyester gives the
required durability and design/colour feature to the
product
Cotton is also blended with regenerated cellulosic fibres like staple viscose In this blend both fibres have very similar characteristics due to the cellulosic fibres The blending is usually done in the draw frame or the blow room of the spinning mill
Cotton Fibre Testing
The key quality parameters defining the characteristics of the
cotton fibre are:
The staple length of the cotton stated in millimetre ranges
The fibre fineness or maturity stated as Micronaire value
The fibre strength
The cotton colour
The trash content
Presence of honey dew produced by aphids which causesa sticky sugary substance to foul the cotton, or any other
pest damage
Technology has been developed to assess these parameters accurately As cotton is a naturally grown product, these characteristics will vary from crop to cropdepending on the soil and weather conditions
It is therefore crucial that these parameters are well tested before blending of different lots ofcotton in the spinning mill
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Unit 5: Cotton Properties and Varieties
Cotton Properties
Cotton Properties
Handle
Absorbency
Felting
Laundering
Durability
Hypoallergenic
Colour Clarity
Colour Retention
Shrinkage
Versatility
The characteristics and properties that are valuable/desirable in the production of towelling
products are shown below:
Handle Soft and comfortable feel
Drapes well
No static electricity
Absorbency Naturally absorbent
Can absorb up to 1/5 of its weight before it feels dampCan absorb 24 - 27 times its own weight
Is stronger wet than dry
Felting Does not felt or mat like wool
Does not form pill(s) like wool, acrylic or polyester fibre
Laundering Machine washable
Can be sterilised/sanitised
Can be tumble driedDry cleanable
Durability Long-lasting if well looked after
Hypoallergenic Does not irritate sensitive skin or cause allergies
Colour
Retention &
Clarity
Easily dyed
Prints well
Reflects colour well
Retains colour
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Shrinkage Occurs only to remove stretching in manufacture
Occurs usually only at first wash
Occurs the least in leading brand quality products
Versatility Easy to handle and sew
Can be easily blended with other fibresCan be treated, eg. for heat resistance, wrinkle resistance, stain resistance
or permanent press
Cotton Varieties
Cotton Varieties
Egyptian
Pima
Upland
There are many varieties of cotton used intowel production, some are:
Egyptian Cotton
Extra Long Staple (ELS) cotton grown in Egypt
is classified as Egyptian cotton
Generally regarded as best cotton fibre
Natural colour enhances colour of final product
Roller ginned because of its long fibre length
Generally combed and ring spun
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Cotton: from Grower to User 3 of 3Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Pima Cotton
Pima cotton is ELS length cotton
Originated in Peru
Hybrid of Upland and Sea Island cotton
Grown primarily in the USA, Australia and Peru
Longer and stronger fibre
Roller ginned because of its long fibre length
Spun into higher count yarns for better qualityproduct
Can be made into fine quality fabric
Relatively costly to produce and to process
Upland Cotton
Originally named American Upland butcommonly called Upland
Grown in many countries, including Australia
Average staple length is 2 to 3 centimetres
Most commonly available cotton
Light cream to off-white in colour
Either combed or carded Can be ring or open end
Used for large range of very good to averagequality cotton goods
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Unit 6: Cotton Counts and Yarns
Cotton Counts
Cotton Count Systems
All yarn count systems measure lineardensity to denote the thickness andheaviness of the yarn
Indirect Systems are based on:
Length per Unit Weight
Direct Systems are based on: Weight per Unit Length
English Cotton Count
English Cotton Count or ECC is an indirect
system The basic unit is an Nec
A Nec is the number of hanks, each 840 yards
in length required to weigh 1 pound, ie.
Nec = 840 yards / 1lb
The higher the Ne number the finer the yarn,
the lower the Ne number the thicker the yarn
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Cotton: from Grower to User 2 of 3Prepared byEffective ChangePty Ltd
Tex Direct System
Basic unit is the Tex
A Tex is the weight, in grams, per 1,000
Metres or 1 kilometre of the yarn
Tex = grams / 1,000 metres
The higher the Tex number the thicker
the yarn, the lower the Tex number the
finer the yarn
The Tex System is regarded as an international system It is now used in most countries, with the exception of the US
Yarn Count Conversion
From Tex
To:
From ECC (Ne)
To:
Ne = 590
tex
Tex = 590
Ne
Den = 9 x texDen = 5,314
Ne
You cannot directly compare a count from one system to another. You must do theconversion
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Cotton Yarns
Ring Spun Cotton
Ring spun cotton in a finished towel product issofter to the touch
Generally needs less finishing treatments togive a soft handle
Stronger yarn and handles abrasion and wearbetter
More robust/flexible for handling andproduction
Has good colour reflection and betterbrightness
Open End Yarn
Can have a harsher feel if not treated
correctly
Hard wearing and durable
Great absorbency due to the hollowstructure of the yarn
Used for the ground or base of the towel