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1. Define species.
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• Explain this picture.
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Figure 13.00a
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Figure 13.00b
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Figure 13.00c
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Figure 13.00d
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Evolution
Evolution means change over time
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The Earth today is not what it once was
• The earth is thought to be 4.5 billion years old
• Life is thought to have appeared ~3.8 billion years ago
• The early atmosphere had methane, carbon monoxide, and
• Essentially no oxygen
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Species that exist today did not exist in ages past
• Species of the past are radically different from what exists on earth today
• Converse is true- things that exist today are not seen in the past
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Yet there are connections between species of past and present
• Species of today have physical similarities
• This archaeopteryx fossil shows feathers
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People did not know the earth was ancient
• Anglican archbishop James Ussher
• October 23, 4004BC: Earth was created
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Aquatic forms were found far from land
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Charles Lyell proposed that the earth was much, much older
• Posited the idea that continents have moved over time
• Continents move very slowly
• So earth must be very old
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Continents can collide to form mountains
• This raises aquatic sediments from ocean bottoms
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Charles Darwin became curious about how species came about
• Flunked out of med school
• Didn’t much like Divinity school, either
• Became a naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle
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The Voyage of the Beagle
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Darwin’s critical observations were comparisons between island
species and mainland species
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Marine Iguana and South American Iguana
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Flightless cormorants live only on the Galapagos
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A Variety of Finches are found in the Galapagos
Finches each have adaptations for different small island environments
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Darwin’s inference: The finches have a common ancestor
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Likewise, the marine iguanas must have come from the mainland
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Evidence for evolution
• Fossil evidence
• Biogeography
• Comparative anatomy
• Comparative embryology
• Molecular biology
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Layers of sediment are heaped upon layers over time
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Looking down layers is looking back in time
• The principle of superposition
• The layers of the grand canyon go back over 600 million years
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Vestigial Structures suggest terrestrial ancestry in whales
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Fossil Evidence shows variant species in different layers
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Biogeography
• Marsupials are not better adapted to Australia
• Invasive placental mammals are driving many marsupials to extinction
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Comparative anatomy
• Similar structures exist in dissimilar animals, serving dissimilar functions
• Homologous structures suggest a common ancestry
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Comparative embryology
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Figure 13.12a
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Figure 13.12b
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Evidence from Molecular Biology
• Similar animals have similar DNA sequences
• Less similarity of species= less similarity of DNA
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But what was the mechanism?
• How did a species change over time?
• Lamarch proposed a mechanism:
-By repeated strain, a giraffe acquires a long neck
-The long neck is inherited by the offspring
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Darwin’s Mechanism: Natural selection
• Those best suited for their environment are selected for survival
• Genes are inherited by the next generation
• Better-adapted species pass on genes suited for the environment
• Next generation is better suited for environment than previous generation
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The parts of Darwin’s theory
• 1. Overproduction
• 2. Variation of individuals
• 3. Differential reproductive success
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1. Overproduction
• Living things tend to produce more offspring than are able to survive
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2. Individual Variation
• Individuals in a species are different from each other
• Some are better adapted to their environment than others
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3. Differential Reproductive Success
• Those that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive
• Those that survive will pass their genes to their offspring
• Those that don’t, won’t• Do horns on lizards
influence their survival?
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Figure 13.17a
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Figure 13.17b
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Figure 13.17c
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• Define evolution.
• Define natural selection.
• Do individuals evolve? Why or why not?
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Many people didn’t like Darwin’s theory
• One consequence of the theory is that all living things have a common ancestor
• Humans are closely linked with other primates
• Darwin is disliked today also
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Consequences of Natural Selection
• Some insects can tolerate pesticide
• Survivors pass resistance genes to the next generation
• Do these genes exist before the crops are sprayed?
• What other examples are there of this?
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What can be said about these insects?
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Figure 13.2a
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Figure 13.2b
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Figure 13.2c
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A Population: All individuals of a species in a given area
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Individuals in a population have different genes
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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
• Some genes are more common than others
• Gene frequencies will result in populations with known genotype frequencies according to algebra’s quadratic equation:
• p2 +2pq + q2 = 1
• Equilibria can be plugged into a Punnett square
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Figure 13.20
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Genetic Drift
• Natural selection is not the only mechanism by which things evolve
• When populations are finite, gene frequencies can fluctuate by chance
• Small populations flucuate dramatically, large populations less so
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Figure 13.22
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Consequences of Genetic Drift
• What is gene extinction?• How can genetic drift
remove diversity from a population?
• How can diversity be introduced into a population?
• Do genes drift more in small populations or large ones?
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Figure 13.23
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Consequences of a bottleneck
• How can a bottleneck reduce diversity in a population?
The Founder Effect-
Genetic drift in a new population
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Cheetahs have high genetic similarity between individuals
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Figure 13.25
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Figure 13.26
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Figure 13.27
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Kinds of natural selection
• Directional selection
• Disruptive selection
• Stabilizing selection
• Consequences:
• Speciation
• Change in gene frequency
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Figure 13.28_1
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Figure 13.28_2
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Figure 13.28_3
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Sources of natural selection
• Predation• Disease
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Unnumbered Figure 13_UN267a
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Unnumbered Figure 13_UN267b
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How old are these fossils?
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Radiocarbon (carbon-14) dating can tell the age of fossils
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Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5600 years
• Plants take carbon-14 from CO2
• Animals eat plants• When animals die,
the intake of C-14 stops
• Half of C-14 is gone in 5600 years
• The older a sample, the less C-14 it has
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How long is C-14 dating useful?
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Plate tectonics
• In the bay area, we know that the earth does not sit still
• Sudden, violent movement of geologic plates causes earthquakes
• Meeting of two plates is a fault line
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Extra Photo 14.18x
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Consequences of plate tectonics
• Environment in various places has changed dramatically
• Antarctica features fossils of tropical creatures
• Continents move slowly, but a billion years is a long time
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The Ring of Fire
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Mass Extinctions
• Dinosaurs disappeared suddenly 65 million years ago
• Evidence of a large meteor hitting the earth ~65 million years ago on the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico
• Many other extinctions
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Permian extinction, 250 mya
• The “Great dying”• Cause unknown• Very large meteor?• 96% of marine
species extinct• 70% of terrestrial
species extinct