Behaviourism
� All things should be looked at from the
perspective of behaviour.
Behaviourism argues that there is no mind,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Behaviourism argues that there is no mind,
no thoughts, no feelings, and the only
important thing to consider is behaviour.
Behaviorism Key Ideas
Deterministic- The way you act is determined by external stimuli provided by the culture in which you live.
Observable- Over time the individual develops a “behavioral repertoire” (Steinberg, 1980) that
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
“behavioral repertoire” (Steinberg, 1980) that can be used to predict behavior.
Controllable-
� Desirable behaviors can be brought about byincentives;
� undesirable behaviors can be eradicated by consequences or punishment.
What Behaviorist Reject�Concepts of
�Freedom
�Dignity (self esteem or respect)
Self-fulfillment
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
�Self-fulfillment
�Skinner said: although people look and feel free they are always controlled by the environment – Education & Religion control people = NO FREE WILL
Behaviourism.
• Period: 1920’s to 1950’s
• Question: How is behaviour learned?
Behaviourism
Goal was to explain complex behaviour in terms of
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Goal was to explain complex behaviour in terms of learning from simple behaviour
� Logic: if you can control the simple behaviour, and have a theory of learning, you can predict complex behaviour.
Behaviorism Recap (summary)...
• Method: Experimentation
• Contributions:– Rigorous scientific methodology
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methodology
• Objective observation– Theories of associative learning
Behaviourists
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Thorndike
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
� Born Sept 14, 1849
� Died Feb 27, 1936
� born in Ryazan, Russia
� physiologist, psychologist, and
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
psychologist, and physician
� awarded the NobelPrize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1904 for research on the digestive system
Classical Conditioning
� A type of learning that occurs when
individuals learn to produce
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
involuntary emotional or physiological
responses similar to instinctive or
reflexive responses.
Unconditioned stimulus
� Object or event causing the instinctive or
reflexive physiological or emotional
response.(food)
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
response.(food)
Unconditioned response
� Instinctive or reflexive physiological or
emotional response caused by the
unconditioned stimulus.(salivation)
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
unconditioned stimulus.(salivation)
Neutral stimulus
� An object or event that does not initially
impact behaviour one way or the other.(bell)
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Conditioned stimulus
� Formerly neutral stimulus that becomes
associated with the unconditioned
stimulus.(bell)
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stimulus.(bell)
Conditioned response
� A learned physiological or emotional
response that is similar to the unconditioned
response.
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response.
Main idea for classical
conditioning
� The conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
must exist at the same time.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Pavlov’s Experiment
Food Unconditioned Stimulus
SalivationUnconditioned Response
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Salivation(natural, not learned)
Bell Conditioned Stimulus
Salivation Conditioned Response (to bell)
Generalization
� Occurs when stimuli is similar- but not
identical - to a conditioned stimulus elicit the
conditioned response by themselves (N.
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conditioned response by themselves (N.
Jones, Kemenes, & Benjamin, 2001)
�Discrimination: conditioned response doesnot occur to all possible similar stimuli-learned difference between stimuli
�Reaction Patterns: specific reactions-conditioned responses-past experience-
Generalization
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
conditioned responses-past experience-positive response = likesnegative response = dislikes
�Reactions-learned not innate
�When pairing of conditioned and unconditional stimulus stops
Association weakens-
Extinction
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
�Association weakens-conditioned response lessfrequent� till disappears
Therapeutic techniques based on Therapeutic techniques based on
classical conditioning conceptsclassical conditioning concepts
Systematic desensitizationSystematic desensitization
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Flooding therapyFlooding therapy
Systematic Desensitization (De-conditioning of phobias)
�Extinguishes fear by
1. gradually relaxing subject
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
1. gradually relaxing subject
2. and simultaneous gradual introduction of the fear inducing stimulus
Edward Lee Thorndike
� Born August 31, 1874
� Died August 9, 1949
� Born in Williamsburg,
Massachusetts
Studied animal behaviour
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Studied animal behaviour
and the learning process
� led to the theory of
connectionism
� Laying the foundation for
modern educational
psychology.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
�Learning come thru trial and error
�Consequences of behavior will either strengthen or weaken the
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Consequences of behavior will either strengthen or weaken the behavior
�Learn to do actions which bringrewards-help avoid pain
Thorndike’s Theory of
ConnectionismConnectionism
Law of Effect
If Situation + Response is followed by a positive consequence then� the connection between the Situation + Response is
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
between the Situation + Response is strengthened.
If Situation + Response is followed by a negative consequence then� the connection between the Situation + Response is weakened.
In Thorndike’s words:
“When a modifiable connection between an situation and a response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased: When made or accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased.” (Thorndike, 1913b)
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
decreased.” (Thorndike, 1913b)
Note: Thorndike(1932) later modified the Law of Effect when research showed that while positive consequences strengthened connections, negative consequences did not necessarily weaken them.
“Spare the reward, spoil the child” by E.L. Thorndike
The Big Idea
1. Consequences of behavior effect
behavior
2. responses resulting in satisfying
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
2. responses resulting in satisfying
consequences are learned.
Behavioral theories explain learning
in terms of environmental events.
E.L. Thorndike
Initial work with animal learning in laboratory setting- cat in box experiment”
Comprehensive analogy of human learning-Three volume work, Educational Psychology
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Three volume work, Educational Psychology( 1913a, 1913b, 1914 )
The Cat Learned !!!
Behavior Change = Learning
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Behavior Change = Learning
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
� Thorndike looked at how cats learned to
escape from puzzle boxes
� The puzzle box experiments were
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motivated by Thorndike's dislike for
statements that animals made use of
insight in their problem solving.
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
� Thorndike's use learning curves which plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box
� He said that if the animals were showing
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� He said that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape wouldsuddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curveas an abrupt drop;
� while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradualcurves.
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
� His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Principles of Learning
� Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:� The Law of Effect states that the likely
recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment.
� The Law of Recency states that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence.
� The Law of Exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.
Law of Effect
� "Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur"
� Thorndike, E. L. (1911). “Animal intelligence:
Experimental Studies”. p. 244
Theory of Learning
� Thorndike created 13 basic rules
� I want us to pause after each one and check
if you think this is a universal principle.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
if you think this is a universal principle.
� Also see if there is some technology or
teaching approach you can imagine that
might help support this rule
Theory of Learning
1. The most basic form of learning is trial and
error learning.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Theory of Learning
2. Learning is incremental( في زيادة ( not
insightful.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Theory of Learning
5. Law of Readiness:
� Interference with goal directed behaviour
causes frustration
� causing someone to do something they
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
do not want to do is also frustrating. � a. When someone is ready to perform some act +
become able to do so� is satisfying.
� b. When someone is ready to perform some act +
prevented to do so � is annoying.
� c. When someone is not ready to perform some act
+ and is forced to do so � it is annoying.
Theory of Learning
6. Law of Exercise: We learn by
doing. We forget by not doing. � a. Connections between a stimulus and a
response are strengthened as they are
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
response are strengthened as they are
used. (law of use)
� b. Connections between a stimulus and a
response are weakened as they are not
used. (law of disuse)
Theory of Learning
7. Law of Effect:
� If the response in a connection is
followed by a satisfying state of
affairs, the strength of the connection
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
is considerably increased
� whereas if followed by an annoying
state of affairs, then the strength of
the connection is marginally
decreased.
Theory of Learning
8. Multiple Responses: A learner would keep
trying multiple responses to solve a
problem before it is actually solved.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Theory of Learning
9. Set or Attitude: What the learner already
possesses, like prior learning
experiences, present state of the learner,
etc., while it begins learning a new task.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
etc., while it begins learning a new task.
Theory of Learning
10. Prepotency of Elements:
� a learner could filter out irrelevant aspects
of a situation and respond only to
significant (proponent) elements in a
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
significant (proponent) elements in a
problem situation
� The aspects of a situation that will be noticed
depend upon the learner's species
membership and past experience.
Theory of Learning
11. Response from analogy: New problems
are solved by using solution techniques
employed to solve analogous problems.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Theory of Learning
12. Associative Shifting:
� Let stimulus S be paired with response R.
� Now, if stimulus Q is presented
simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly,
� then stimulus Q is likely to get paired with
response R.
Theory of Learning
13. Belongingness: If there is a natural
relationship between the need state of an
organism and the effect caused by a
response, learning is more effective than if
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response, learning is more effective than if
the relationship is unnatural.
John Broadus Watson
� Born Jan 9, 1878
� Died Sept 25, 1958
� Born in Greenville, South Carolina
American psychologist
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� American psychologist
� established the psychological school of behaviourism
� “Little Albert” experiment
John B. Watson
� Watson changed the focus of psychology
from introspection, to environmentalism.
He believed that environmental shaping of
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� He believed that environmental shaping of
behavior began prenatally, and focused
his studies on infants and children.
John B. Watson
He demonstrated the conditioned response
in the case of “Little Albert” (Watson, 1925),
who was exposed to an alarming noise and
a rat at the same time, and developed not
only a fear of rats, but transferred the fear
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
only a fear of rats, but transferred the fear
to all furry )له فراء او شعر( objects.
"Little Albert" experiment
� Occurred in 1920
� One of the most
controversial
experiments in the
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
experiments in the
history of psychology
� It was an experiment
showing empirical
evidence of classical
conditioning in humansRosalie Rayner
Albert B.
John B. Watson
"Little Albert" experiment
� Watson and Rayner selected
an infant named Albert, at
approximately 9 months of age,
� he was tested and was judged
to show no fear when
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to show no fear when
successively observing a
number of live animals (e.g., a
rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a
monkey), and various
inanimate objects (e.g., cotton,
human masks, a burning
newspaper).
"Little Albert" experiment
� He was, however, judged to show fear
whenever a long steel bar was
unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer
just behind his back.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
just behind his back.
"Little Albert" experiment
� Watson and Rayner attempted to condition
him to fear a white rat.
� This was done by presenting a white rat to
Albert, followed by a loud clanging sound (of
the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert
touched the animal.
� After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two
sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with
crying and avoidance when the rat was
presented without the loud noise.
The Behaviorist Manifesto
� In 1913, Watson published the article
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"
— sometimes called "The Behaviorist
Manifesto".
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Manifesto".
� In this article, Watson outlined the major
features of his new philosophy of
psychology, called "behaviorism".
The Behaviorist Manifesto
� The first paragraph of the article concisely
described Watson's behaviorist position:
� “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of
natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.
Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its
data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to
interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a
unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and
brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a
part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.”
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
� Born March 20, 1904
� Died August 18, 1990
� Born in Susquehanna,
Pennsylvania
� American
psychologist, author,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
psychologist, author,
inventor, advocate for
social reform and
poet.
� Innovated his own
philosophy of science
called Radical
Behaviorism
Radical Behaviorism
� Skinner views (Radical behaviourism)
differed from other behaviourists
(Methodological behaviourism) in that he
felt that thoughts and feelings could be
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
felt that thoughts and feelings could be
taken into account when considering that
psychology of the individual
Radical Behaviorism
� Radical behaviourism seeks to understand
behaviour as a function of environmental
histories of reinforcing consequences.
� Reinforcement processes were
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Reinforcement processes were
emphasized by Skinner, and were seen as
primary in the shaping of behaviour.
� A common misconception is that negative
reinforcement is some form of punishment.
Radical Behaviorism
� Positive reinforcement is the strengtheningof behaviour by the application of some event (e.g., praise after some behaviour is performed),
� Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g.,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).
� Both types of reinforcement strengthenbehaviour, or increase the probability of a behaviour reoccurring.
Radical Behaviorism
� Punishment and extinction have the effect
of weakening behaviour, or decreasing the
probability of a behaviour reoccurring, by
the application of an aversive event
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
the application of an aversive event
(punishment) or the removal of a rewarding
event (extinction).
Operant Conditioning Learning
� In terms of observable responses that change in
frequency or duration as the result of
consequences, events that occur following
behaviours. (B.F. Skinner, 1953, 1954)
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
behaviours. (B.F. Skinner, 1953, 1954)
� In summary, behaviours are largely controlled
by consequences rather that by stimuli
preceding the behaviour.
� The consequence of an action results in the
behaviour portrayed.
Reinforcements
� The process of applying reinforcers to
increase behaviour
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Positive reinforcements
� Process of increasing the frequency or
duration of a behaviour as the result of
presenting a reinforcer. Sometimes,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
presenting a reinforcer. Sometimes,
reinforcing of undesirable behaviour may
result.
Negative reinforcements
� Process of increasing behaviour by
avoiding or removing an aversive stimulus
(Baldwin & Baldwin, 2001; B.F. Skinner,
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
(Baldwin & Baldwin, 2001; B.F. Skinner,
1953)
Shaping
� Reinforced succecssive
approximation of the desired
behaviour through a process called
shaping.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
shaping.
OPERANT CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES
� POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a
behavior by administering a reward
� NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing
a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
when a behavior occurs
� PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by
administering an aversive stimulus following a
behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus
� EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not
rewarding it
Type of
stimulus
Action Behaviour Concept
DesirablePresent
StrengthenPositive
Reinforcement
AversiveStrengthen
Negative
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Aversive
Remove
Negative
Reinforcement
Present
Weaken Type 1 punishment
Aversive
Desirable
Remove
Weaken
Type 2 punishment:
Time out
Type of
stimulus
Action Behaviour Concept
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Desirable
Withheld
Weaken
Extinction
Inventor
� Operant Conditioning Chamber
(“Skinner Box”)
� Cumulative Recorder
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Cumulative Recorder
� Teaching Machine
� Air Crib
Skinner Box�Subject segregated from all irrelevantenvironmental influences
�Only stimuli were controlled by experimenter
�Reinforcement rates & schedule were measured
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
measured
�Positive-food, negative-electro shock
�Evolved into teaching machines and self-paced teaching regimens
Operant Conditioning Chamber
(“Skinner Box”)
� A box large enough to easily accommodate
the animal being used as a subject (including
lab rats, pigeons, and primates).
� It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid
distracting stimuli.
� It contains one or more levers which an
animal can press
� one or more stimulus lights and one or more
places in which reinforcers like food can be
delivered.
Operant Conditioning Chamber
(“Skinner Box”)
� In one of Skinner’s experiments a hungry rat
was introduced into the box. When the lever
was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food
was dropped onto a tray.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
was dropped onto a tray.
� The rat soon learned that when he pressed
the lever he would receive some food.
� In this experiment the lever pressing
behaviour is reinforced by food.
Operant Conditioning Chamber
(“Skinner Box”)
� Skinner also used pigeons in his experiments
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
pigeons would peck to receive food if a light was on, but not receive food when a light was off.
Extinction of the operant behavior occurs
Operant Conditioning Chambers
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Extinction of the operant behavior occurs when you stop giving the rat a food pellet as a reward for pushing the pedal.
Cumulative recorder –records the rate of response of the animal in the operant conditioning chamber
Cumulative Recorder
� an instrument used to
automatically record
behaviour graphically
� The needle would start
at the bottom of the
page and the drum
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
page and the drum
would turn the roll of
paper horizontally. Each
response would result in
the marking needle
moving vertically along
the paper one tick.
Teaching Machine
� In 1954 B.F. Skinner embarked upon a series of studies designedto improve teaching methods for spelling, math, and other schoolsubjects by using a mechanical device that would surpass the usual classroom experience.
� He believed the classroom had disadvantages because the rate of
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
disadvantages because the rate of learning for different students was variable and reinforcement was also delayed due to the lack of individual attention.
� Since personal tutors for everystudent was usually unavailable, Skinner developed a theory of programmed learning that was to be implemented by teaching machines.
Teaching Machine
� The teaching machine is composed of mainly a
program, which is a system of combined teaching and
test items that carries the student gradually through
the material to be learned.
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-blank
method on either a workbook or in a computer. If the
subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement and
moves on to the next question.
� If the answer is incorrect, the subject studies the
correct answer to increase the chance of getting
reinforced next time.
Teaching Machine
� The teaching machine is merely a device for presenting the set of frames of which the program is composed.
� However, it is not supplementary but all-inclusive. The program will do all the teaching through a response/reward mechanism.
� Skinner also noted that the learning process should be
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
� Skinner also noted that the learning process should be divided into a large number of very small steps and reinforcement must be dependent upon the completion of each step.
� Skinner suggested that the machine itself should not teach, but bring the student into contact with the person who composed the material it presented. He believed this was the best possible arrangement for learning because it took into account the rate of learning for each individual student.
1. People have a fear of failure.
2. The task is not broken down into small enough steps.
1. Give the learner immediate feedback.
2. Break down the task into small steps.
Repeat the directions as
Skinner on Education
Skinner
says that
there are
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
3. There is a lack of directions.
4. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions.
5. Positive reinforcement is lacking.
3. Repeat the directions as many times as possible.
4. Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks.
5. Give positive reinforcement.
there are
five main
obstacles
to learning
Skinner on Education
1. People have a fear of failure Give the learner immediate
feedback.
2. The task is not broken down into small enough steps. Break down
the task into small steps
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
3. There is a lack of directions Repeat the directions as many times as
possible.
4. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions. Work from the most
simple to the most complex tasks.
5. Positive reinforcement is lacking. Give positive reinforcement.
Air Crib
� To help his wife cope with
the day-to-day tasks of
child rearing, Skinner
improved upon the
standard crib with the 'air-
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
standard crib with the 'air-
crib' to meet this challenge.
� An 'air-crib' (also known as
a 'baby tender' or
humorously as an 'heir
conditioner') is an easily
cleaned, temperature and
humidity-controlled box
Skinner designed to assist
in the raising of babies.
Did you know?� Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological
Experiments of the Twentieth Century by Lauren
Slater (2004)
� In this book Slater reveals that B.F. Skinner raised
his daughter Deborah in an operant conditioning
chamber and subjected her to psychological
experiments
“. . . caged for two full years, placing within her cramped
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
“. . . caged for two full years, placing within her cramped
square space bells and food trays and all manners of
mean punishments and bright rewards, and he tracked
her progress on a grid. And then, when she was thirty-
one and frankly psychotic, she sued him for abuse in a
genuine court of law, lost the case, and shot herself in a
bowling alley in Billings, Montana.”
Deborah Skinner is alive and well, living in the UK.
She was understandablydistress about these storiesand wrote an article in The
Guardian
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Guardian
The Guardian, Friday 12 March 2004
“I was not a lab rat”By Deborah Skinner Buzan
Behavior modification
Therapeutic techniques based on
Operant conditioning
Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy
Aversion therapy
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