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Research Development
and Systematic Literature Review
5J3160_1112_9
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected] -
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Albert Einstein
It is, in fact, nothing short of a miraclethat the modern methods of instruction
have not yet entirely strangled the holy
curiosity of inquiry; for this delicate littleplant, aside from stimulation, stands
mainly in need of freedom; without this
it goes to wrack and ruin without fail.
Cited in Carl Rogers, (1969), Freedom to
Learn
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Writing your Research Proposal
You need a clear and explicit purpose Is the research worthwhile? Why? To whom?
Show a grasp of the literature (Classical and
Modern) Demonstrate a scheme of work to complete
the work.
Is there enough in your proposal for yoursupervisor to assess your ideas?
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Nave Inquiry (NI) Day to day thinking
Information, data, impressions and interpretations.
Conformity, bias, error and lack of insight.
We all know that human inquiry is imperfect, butwhat can we do about it?
Evidence based research
Is all data of equal value?
How (What) was it gathered (for)? How will it be
used and interpreted?
We like NI because it seems real and relevant.
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Disjointed, but with Purpose
There are many textbooks and academic paperswhich critique orthodox research methods.
We can read about experimental method,
statistical significance, dependent andindependent variables, SPSS, Operational
definitions etc, but if we sterilise the real
world, we can never truly understand it.
Our plan is to use both NI (subjective) and
Scientific (objective) methods, and to blend and
interpret our findings.
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Identify Gap;
Set Context andBegin Annotated
Bibliography
State your
ProvisionalResearch Question
Research Design
including EthicalConsiderations
Methodology
(Explain Thinking
Behind your
Choice (s))
Key Definitions,
Scientific
Justification
and Rationale
Resource
Implications
Scope and
Limitations of
Inquiry
Review and
Evaluation;
Rigour in
Explanation
Leads to Ongoing
Development of
Systematic
Literature Review
Preparing the Research Proposal [email protected]
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Typical Structure of the Proposal ITitle Concise and Descriptive. Not just keywords e.g. Marketing
Rationale Why are you doing this? What have you read? Why is
the research needed? Look at notes on writing an Abstract.
Research Questions At the Proposal stage, I am flexible about
these, and you may have more than one question in minduntil your reading progresses further. Explain the ideas
behind your questions e.g. Testing a Hypothesis, providing a
Focus, Designing an experiment
Literature Review Key articles and texts, writers and ideas,debate
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Typical Structure of the Proposal II
Framework and Methodology This is the mainweakness of most Proposals (see Saunders
onion)
Methods Link to Objectives,Data, Analysis,Synthesis, Skills, Resources, Practicalities
Ethical Considerations
Dissemination of Results How can your work beapplied? What needs to be done next?
You are going to be writing a 3,500 word Journal
article on your research findings.
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Theoretical Framework / Methodology
What theoretical resources are you drawingupon, and why?
Demonstrate your knowledge of the problem
Demonstrate your appreciation of TheoreticalFrameworks e.g what is Positivism? Critical
Realism? Pragmatism? Ethnographic Research?
Philosophy is what takes your writing beyondOpinion.
What are the larger issues?
Acknowledge pioneers in the field.
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Getting started
Outline and Identify;
1. Underpinning theory of your topic
2. Research Methodology for investigations
3. Reflective dimension of writing about
practice
4. Contribution to knowledge and to debates
about knowledge
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1) Background Theory Amazingly enough, this begins by doing some
reading. Go to the library.
It is expensive to practice Business without any level
of understanding, and so most established
businesses work according to theoreticalframeworks.
These may be drawn from a number of disciplines
e.g. Strategy, Operations, Marketing, HRM,Statistics, Finance, Quality etc
Show the examiner which principles (cite key writers
/ papers) which have set the Context of your Inquiry
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2) Research Methodology for
Investigations
Aristotle said that there is a body of knowledge,
and that this should be passed on to the next
generation.
But what of new knowledge and discovery?
Thomas Kuhn (the Structure of Scientific
Revolutions, 1996) described Paradigms (ways of
looking at things)
In 2007, Saunders et al, gave us the Research
Onion
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Deriving Order from Chaos
Looking at the Onion, many students begin withthe Data collection and Data analysis
You cant eat an onion from the inside-out.
1. Philosophy (Positivism, Realism, Interpretivismetc) Explain why and say what they mean to you.
2. Approach (Inductive-Deductive)
3. Strategy (Case Study, Action Research,Experiment etc)
4. Choices (Mixed Method, Quants, Qualitative)
5. Then Timescale, then Data collection, geddit???
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Give your writing some depth /
weight/ gravitas
Clearly Outline the Rationale behind your
choices e.g.
Approaches to study
Concepts and Themes
Experiential learning
Social constructivism Meta-cognition
Critical realism (you can pick anything from the
Onion)
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Our Traditional view of scientists is of people wearing
white coats and measuring things in laboratories. Empirical approaches of observation, experiment
and the subsequent derivation of laws and theories,
follow some kind of logical procedure.
And yet, Galileo, Newton, Darwin and Einstein did
not devise their theories using these techniques.
(How many apples did Newton watch falling from
trees in his garden?; What did Einstein measure andobserve before arriving at e=mc ?)
Scientific Method
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Nave Inductivism starts with observation and
comment e.g. I know that my 12 ruler is
straight, but when I dip it into the water, it
appears bent.
The straight ruler, standing in the beaker of
water, appears bent is a singular statement.
All observation statements are singular
statements.
Inductivism and Inductive Reasoning
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When light passes
from a less dense toa more dense
substance, (for
example passingfrom air into water),
the light is refracted
(or bent) towardsthe normal.
Lets add some Physics;
The normal is a line perpendicular(forming a 90 degree angle) to theboundary between the twosubstances. The bending occurs
because light travels more slowly in adenser medium.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxmlUniversity of Illinois
The green statement above is called a UNIVERSAL Statement, and doesNot refer to a singular observation on a single day.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxmlhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxmlhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxmlhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxmlhttp://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/refr/less.rxml -
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So, the Inductivists believe that if certain
conditions are satisfied, it is legitimate to
generalise a finite number of observations as
the basis of a universal law.
The ruler dipped in water appears bent, andwill always appear bent if air and water, or oil,
or soup etc are of different densities.
Inductivism Continued
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1. The number of observations is large2. The observations are repeated under a wide
variety of conditions
3. No observation statement conflicts with thederived universal law.
The purpose of this scientific approach is to
explain or predict.For an Inductivist, the source of truth is not
logic, but experience.
Inductive Generalisation is allowed if;
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Bertrand Russell and the Inductive Turkey;
1. A Turkey is fed daily at 9.00 (repeatedobservations), whatever the weather (range of
circumstances), and after 100 measurements the
turkey predicted a guaranteed feed on Christmasday.
2. We need lots of measurements to make
predictions, which may or may not be valid.
3. Is One measurement enough, or must we repeat
experiments many times? (Hiroshima, Nagasaki,
both 1945)
(See Chalmers, A.F. What is this thing called Science, OU Press)
Limitations of Inductivism I
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1. We assume that science starts with
observation.2. We assume that observation yields a secure
basis from which knowledge can be derived.
Both of the above statements are questionable.
Limitations of Inductivism II
What you see(young girl orold lady) can
depend on yourpoint of view
Or your levelof expertise
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People see what they expect to see.
In a playing card experiment with a red ace ofspades (people remembered seeing the ace of
hearts or ace of diamonds).
Education or training (more knowledge) canshape perception. (people forewarned of the
red ace of spades were not deceived).
But, if we go down this path, Theory isinforming our observations whereas the
inductivists suggest that observations inform
theory.
Improving Observations
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Observation statements are always made in
the language of accepted theory, and will be
as precise as the theoretical framework or the
conceptual framework is precise. (Chalmers,
1994)
Observation Statements
http://stephensteach-wiki.wikispaces.com/CALS+Physics+Wikipedia
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Deduction is concerned with the derivation of
statements from other given statements.
Deductivistsdont need experience, as they
can use Logic.
1. Tesco sells alcohol
2. Alcoholics drink alcohol
3. All Tesco customers are alcoholics
Sometimes, our logic can be flawed.
Deductive Reasoning I
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So, the process starts off with;
1. Laws and Theories
2. Initial Conditions
Which then lead to
3. Predictions and Explanations
In Euclidian geometry, we have laws and theories about
the properties of a right angled triangle.
If we know that, in addition to the right angle, another
angle is 30 (initial conditions), and the longest side
is 10 centimetres, then we can deduce the missing
information (angles and sides) on the triangle.
Deductive Reasoning II
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Induction and Deduction
We acquire facts
through observation
We predict and
explain outcomes
We derive Laws and
Theories
Then, Through Induction
Then, Through Deduction
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Deductive Theory
(Bryman and Bell, 2009)
Theory is used
to give a framework
for the generation of
new tests and ideas
on the topic.
Hypothesis
Confirmed or
Rejected
Revision of Theory.
Initial Findings
Review of Methodology
Further Investigation
Data Collection
Quantitative vs
Qualitative
Representative
Samples
"a scientific
hypothesis that
survives experimental
testing becomes a
scientific theory";
A Hypothesis offers a
tentative insight into
the natural world; aconcept that is not yet
verified but that if true
would explain certain
facts or phenomena;
What is the Nature of the Relationship between Theory and Research?
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Grounded Theory GT Glaser and Strauss, (1967), and Glaser (1978) are the
research papers to consult first.
Constant comparison method. Look, see what you
get, how does it compare with previous results, look
again. They talk about a systematic approach and
theoretical sampling, followed by saturation, at
which point further observation offers no new results
to add significance to existing categories and theirproperties.
GT has been Critiqued by Rowan (1981) as Efficiency
Questions
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Data Collection
Content Analysis is an approach to the analysisof documents and texts that seeks to quantify
content in terms of predetermined categories,
and in a systematic and replicable mannerBryman and Bell, 2003
A Research Method is simply a technique for
collecting data (questionnaires, focus groups,participation, observation, secondary data
(meta) analysis.) Alan Bryman, Emma Bell, 2007
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Objective vs Subjective
The Objective Positivist Approach uses
Quantitative data to facilitate interpretation
and inquiry.
The Subjective Interpretive Approach uses
Qualitative data to facilitate interpretation and
inquiry. (Darlington and Scott, 2002)
Applied Research may require a MixedMethods approach (see Cresswell et al, 2007)
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More on Mixed Methods
To the extent that we believe that socialphenomena studied within the fields of Business
and Education are complex, the existence of a
plurality or mixture of perspectives allows the
exploration of, observed or measured,phenomena from diverse frames of reference.
Please do not focus solely on the Quals vs Quants
argument; Study your problems or researchquestion from more than one research
perspective.
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Case Study Research
The student should determine and outline;1. A study's questions
2. Its propositions, if any
3. Its unit(s) of analysis
4. The logic linking the data to the propositions
5. The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin,
1994, p. 20).
Additional reading can be found here;
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html#king
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html -
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The Right Way to do things
Chua (1986, 602) suggests that a community ofscientists share "a constellation of beliefs, values,and techniques" and these beliefs circumscribedefinitions of 'worthwhile problems and
'acceptable scientific evidence. You are not tied to any single approach to research.
Indeed, the Grounded Theory approach, and theCritical Realist approach, specifically preach against
any idea of one best way. Homo Ludens (Johan Huizinga), emphasises that we
Learn while we Play. In the next 6 months, I wantyou to Play with research methodology.
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The value of analysis in the Literature
Review
Culnan (1987), employing bibliographic citation
analysis, identified five intellectual subfields
within current information systems research,
suggesting that a few dominant journals canregulate research in a given field of study.
Studying Information Technology in Organizations
can only progress, if one accepts the argumentthat MIS, like all social sciences, is a multiple
paradigm discipline" (1987, p. 347).
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The example ofCulnans Categories Culnans topic categories include;
1. research foundations,2. organizational approaches to information systems,
3. individual approaches to information systems,
4. information systems management,
5. information systems curriculum. So what she demonstrated, was that there does not appear to be
one dominant theoretical topic area, but rather several different
and distinct streams of research.
We can apply this idea to your own provisional literature review.
Download a dozen journal articles (all related to your research proposal), and
see if you can categorise them into subject areas or approaches.
What questions come to mind? (e.g. have ideas changed since 1970? 2000?
Etc) Why? To what extent? Who are the seminal writers?
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Research Design
The three primary research designs whichemerged from meta analysis (Orlikowski &Baroudi, 1991), are
case studies (13.5%), laboratory experiments
(27.1%) and surveys (49.1%). These three designs account for almost 90% of the
studies.
Surveys, however, were clearly the dominantresearch method in this sample.
The Social Science equivalent of Laboratoryexperiments is Hypothesis Testing.
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Miles and Huberman (1984)Some researchers have suggested that if the Case Study were made
conducive to statistical analysis, the process would be easier and
more acceptable. This quantitative approach would be appealing
to some of the critics of the case study methodology. However
not all case studies lend themselves to this type of analysis. Miles
and Huberman (1984) suggested analytic techniques such asrearranging the arrays, placing the evidence in a matrix of
categories, creating flowcharts or data displays, tabulating the
frequency of different events, using means, variances and cross
tabulations to examine the relationships between variables, andother such techniques to facilitate analysis.
Miles, M., & Huberman, M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A
source book for new methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications
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Easy Marks I Theoretical basis (who, when, why, where?)
Methodology (quants, quals, identify and
address suppositions, dialogue, synthesis,
analysis, correct use of language)
Stakeholders (who is it for and can anyone
contribute or get involved?)
Remember Ethics (and Bias, and include the
theories).
Reflection and Persistence (review and
improve, think Deming Plan, Do, Check, Act)
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Easy Marks II
How have you engaged with the process? Have you focussed on a range of aspects of
the problem or situation?
Which academic sources have you used toreach a realistic conclusion?
Answer the question; Could this research be
done differently? Identify your contribution to knowledge in the
field.