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IJSRES International Journal of Scientif ic Research in Environmental Sciences
wwwi jsrpubcom
October 2013
Volume 1 Issue 10
Pages 263 ndash 305
Table of Contents
Article Author(s) page
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger Delta Nigeria
Francis Sikoki Sidney Nzeako Betty Nchege
263
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako Florence O Nduka Obilete A Origie
268
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami Ali Reza Eivazi 273
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar 285
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
291
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan Toyin Gideon Okedayo Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
300
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p263-267
263
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New
Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger Delta Nigeria
Francis Sikoki Sidney Nzeako Betty Nchege
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences College of Natural and Applied Sciences
University of Port Harcourt Nigeria
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 8 August 2013
Abstract A total of 100 samples of Oreochromis niloticus from the lower New Calabar River were examined to determine
their levels of nematode parasitemia using standard parasitological techniques An overall prevalence of (59) was recorded
comprising (5) ectoparasites and (54) endoparasites Sex related parasitemia showed that males harboured more parasites
(43) compared to (16) recovered in the females (Pgt005) Parasite specificity revealed three nematodes Capillaria spp
(21) Eustrongylide spp (15) and Goezia sigalasi (Ascarididae) (18) and Lernaeocera branchialis (5) a crustacean
were recovered from the samples However the study revealed a progressive increase in parasitemia as age of the fish host
increased (Plt005) The high parasitemia observed in this study was associated with the tidal effects of the water system which
influences the organic load of the benthos directly and fish nutrition indirectly
Key word Parasitemia ectopaarasites endoparasites sex related parasitemia tidal effect organic load and benthos
1 INTRODUCTION
Parasites are always present in any community (plants
and animals) and usually infect hosts species that
dominate the higher trophic levels in any food chain
(Maclinnis 1976 Edem et al 2008) Fish which
naturally occupies the top of the predator-prey
pyramid in freshwater and marine environments is
most affected by parasites due to some predisposing
factors such as physiologic specificity (age genotype
sex etc) nutritional specificity and ecologic
characteristics (Ravichandran and Ajithkumar 2008
Adam et al 2009)
11 Effect of parasites on fish species
Parasitism of fish and fishery is a cause of worry to
fish culturists and artisanal fishermen in the in-land
and coastal waters of Nigeria (Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren
et al 1988 Onwuliri and Mgbemena 1998
Awharioma and Okaka 1999 and Edema and Okaka
2008) This concern is attributed to parasite induced
economic losses and negative health implications
manifesting in forms of poor fish productivity poor
marketability of caught fish reduction in protein
availability and reduction in job opportunities due to
lack of motivation to invest in aquacultural activities
by potential investors (Meyer and Hoffman 1976
Van Dan Brook 1979 and Awharitoma and Ehigiafor
2012)
Tillapia a cherished cichlid of variable species
common in Nigeria is greatly infected by parasites
(Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren et al 1988 Onwuliri and
Mgbemena 1998 Awharioma and Okaka 1999
Edema and Okaka 2008 and Awharitoma and
Ehigiafor 2012) Studies have indicated that
Tillapiarsquos adaptability to various aquacultural systems
is due to its high fecundity hardiness tolerance to
poor water quality salinity temperature and pH
(Chervinski 1973 Abbas et al 2009 Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) characteristics which inevitably
predisposes it to parasitism In the Niger Delta where
more than 60 of the populace depend on
aquacultural activities for their livelihood it is apt to
determine the current status of nematode parasitic
fuana of O niloticus from the lower New Calabar
River
22 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out on the lower New Calabar
River situated at Choba in ObioAkpor LGA Rivers
State of Nigeria The area lies between latitude 5˚ 54
295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53 889 and 7˚E
experiences an average rainfall of 2500cm3 and
temperature range of between 28˚C-30˚C annually
which supports the rainforest type of vegetation The
area is sub-urban in structure with about 40 of the
populace predominantly rural artisanal fishermen and
subsistent farmers However the life style of the
indigenes is greatly influenced by the presence of the
University of Port Harcourt and several industries
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
264
22 Collection of samples
Hundred (100) freshly caught Oniloticus were
selected using the stratified random sampling
technique (the fourth fish out of every four counts
was selected) between the months of August to
October 2012 Each fish was put in a properly
labelled polyethene bag which was secured in a vat
and transported to the laboratory for examination
23 Physical examination
Fish samples were isolated from vat weighed and
total lengths determined Skin examination of the
samples were carried out with a x10 hand lens to
detect any attached parasite afterwards the skins of
the fish samples were scraped and the scrapings used
to prepare thin smears for microscopic examination
Gill examination was carried out by the use of x10
hand lens in situ and on detached gills Further
examinations of detached gills were conducted with a
stereoscopic microscope
The abdominal cavities of the samples were
opened and the mesenteries examined for migratory
juveniles of nematodes Gastrointestinal tract of the
samples were excised and contents extracted into a
5ml beaker containing normal saline and later stored
in properly labelled sterile vials containing 4
formalin and processed using the formal-ether
concentration method for further microscopic
examination
24 Microscopy
Thin and thick smears of skin scrapings were prepared
and observed under x10 and x40 objectives for
presence of parasites Gastro-intestinal endothelial
scrapings were used to prepare wet smears (stained
with Lugolrsquos iodine) The intestinal contents of the
samples were also examined using the formal-ether
concentration technique and microscopically
examined at x10 and x40 objectives Identification of
parasites was done using Zdenek Locky (1977) and
Cheng (1986) guides
25 Statistical analysis
Measures of central tendency and chi square were
used to analyse the results
3 RESULTS
Table 1 shows the prevalence of Oniloticus from the
lower New Calabar river A total of 100 fish samples
were examined showing an infection of 59(59) out
of which 5(50) and 54(540) were for
ectoparasites and endoparsites respectively Age
related prevalence increased as age increased
Sex related prevalence of parasites in the sampled
fishes indicated an overall prevalence of 43(43) and
16(16) for male and female respectively The data
further showed higher prevalence of endoparasites
(43) to ectoparasites (16) (Figure 1)
The study revealed two phyla of parasites
Nematode and the Arthropoda in Oniloticus from the
study area Amongst the nematodes were the
Capillaria spp Eustrongylide spp and Ascarididae
(Goezia sigalasi) while Lernaeocera branchialis was
the only crustacean discovered (Figure 1)
4 DISCUSSION
The overall prevalence (590) of parasites in
Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River was
rather high for a tidal river but within the range for
inland waters as stated by Onwuliri and Mgbemena
(1998) Umuoeren et al (1988) and Awharioma and
Okaka (1999) However the study showed variability
in the density of parasites within the groups with the
gt225cm length range harbouring the highest
prevalence (90) This pattern of parasitism was
consistent with (Paperna 1996 Mbahinzireki 1980
Wanderson et al 2012 Ashade et al 2013) who
observed a gradual consistent increase in parasitemia
as fish aged However this trend was not consistent
with the ectoparasites which drastically declined as
fish samples aged A trend the researchers attribute to
possible accidental dislodgement of some
ectoparasites due to out of water fish resistance by the
fish samples The higher parasitemia (43) in female
samples than the male counterparts (16) an
observation that contradicts the report by Olurin et al
(2012) and agrees with that of Thomas (1964) is an
issue that has enjoyed flux in opinion by researchers
(Price and Clancy1983 and Olorin and Somorin
2006) However this physiological preference was
attributed to host specific factors On specific parasitamia the endoparastes
consisting the nematodes had a higher density on
individual sample basis than the crustaceans
(ectoparasites) Also there was a progressive
increase in nematode parasitemia as fish samples aged
(Mbahinzireki 1980 Paperna 1996 and Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) This result was consistent with
Paperna (1996) who attributed the age related
prevalence to repeated infections and accumulation of
parasite load with increased age Other factors which
may have influenced the high prevalence of parasitic
nematodes in this study include the tidal
characteristics of the river coupled with the rich
organic constitution of the benthos which harbours
rich population of annalides that aid in the
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
265
transmission of nematode parasites as fish ingest them
(Kennedy 1975 Cheng 1986 Ukoli 1988 Edema
and Okaka 2008) The absence of monogenean
parasites in the examined samples was in line with
some previous studies in inland waters of Africa by
Paperna and Thurston (1968) The absence of
monogenean in the study area could also be an
indication of the quality of the environment or the
immune status of the samples (Wanderson et al
2012 Ashade et al 2013)
Table 1 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites and endoparasites in Oniloticus caught ins Lower New Calabar River
Length(cm) Number
examined
Number infected () Total()
female male
ecto endo ecto endo
100-145 30 1(33) 9(30) 1(33) 5(10) 16(533)
145-185 23 1(43) 7(304) 1(43) 2(86) 11(478)
185-225 37 1(27) 20(54) 0 (0) 2(54) 23(622)
gt225 10 0(0) 4(40) 0(0) 5(50) 9(900)
Total ()
Overall total ()
100 3(30) 40(400) 2(20) 14(140) 59(59)
43(43) 16(16)
Fig 1 The population of the parasitic fauna of Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River
Fig 2 The overall prevalence parasites in Oniloticus from lower New Calabar river
Acknowledgement
We recognize the assistance of the Laboratory crew of
the Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of
Port Harcourt and Miss Siapkere Marvis during the
course of this study
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
REFERENCES
Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
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Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Table of Contents
Article Author(s) page
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger Delta Nigeria
Francis Sikoki Sidney Nzeako Betty Nchege
263
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako Florence O Nduka Obilete A Origie
268
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami Ali Reza Eivazi 273
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar 285
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
291
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan Toyin Gideon Okedayo Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
300
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p263-267
263
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New
Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger Delta Nigeria
Francis Sikoki Sidney Nzeako Betty Nchege
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences College of Natural and Applied Sciences
University of Port Harcourt Nigeria
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 8 August 2013
Abstract A total of 100 samples of Oreochromis niloticus from the lower New Calabar River were examined to determine
their levels of nematode parasitemia using standard parasitological techniques An overall prevalence of (59) was recorded
comprising (5) ectoparasites and (54) endoparasites Sex related parasitemia showed that males harboured more parasites
(43) compared to (16) recovered in the females (Pgt005) Parasite specificity revealed three nematodes Capillaria spp
(21) Eustrongylide spp (15) and Goezia sigalasi (Ascarididae) (18) and Lernaeocera branchialis (5) a crustacean
were recovered from the samples However the study revealed a progressive increase in parasitemia as age of the fish host
increased (Plt005) The high parasitemia observed in this study was associated with the tidal effects of the water system which
influences the organic load of the benthos directly and fish nutrition indirectly
Key word Parasitemia ectopaarasites endoparasites sex related parasitemia tidal effect organic load and benthos
1 INTRODUCTION
Parasites are always present in any community (plants
and animals) and usually infect hosts species that
dominate the higher trophic levels in any food chain
(Maclinnis 1976 Edem et al 2008) Fish which
naturally occupies the top of the predator-prey
pyramid in freshwater and marine environments is
most affected by parasites due to some predisposing
factors such as physiologic specificity (age genotype
sex etc) nutritional specificity and ecologic
characteristics (Ravichandran and Ajithkumar 2008
Adam et al 2009)
11 Effect of parasites on fish species
Parasitism of fish and fishery is a cause of worry to
fish culturists and artisanal fishermen in the in-land
and coastal waters of Nigeria (Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren
et al 1988 Onwuliri and Mgbemena 1998
Awharioma and Okaka 1999 and Edema and Okaka
2008) This concern is attributed to parasite induced
economic losses and negative health implications
manifesting in forms of poor fish productivity poor
marketability of caught fish reduction in protein
availability and reduction in job opportunities due to
lack of motivation to invest in aquacultural activities
by potential investors (Meyer and Hoffman 1976
Van Dan Brook 1979 and Awharitoma and Ehigiafor
2012)
Tillapia a cherished cichlid of variable species
common in Nigeria is greatly infected by parasites
(Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren et al 1988 Onwuliri and
Mgbemena 1998 Awharioma and Okaka 1999
Edema and Okaka 2008 and Awharitoma and
Ehigiafor 2012) Studies have indicated that
Tillapiarsquos adaptability to various aquacultural systems
is due to its high fecundity hardiness tolerance to
poor water quality salinity temperature and pH
(Chervinski 1973 Abbas et al 2009 Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) characteristics which inevitably
predisposes it to parasitism In the Niger Delta where
more than 60 of the populace depend on
aquacultural activities for their livelihood it is apt to
determine the current status of nematode parasitic
fuana of O niloticus from the lower New Calabar
River
22 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out on the lower New Calabar
River situated at Choba in ObioAkpor LGA Rivers
State of Nigeria The area lies between latitude 5˚ 54
295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53 889 and 7˚E
experiences an average rainfall of 2500cm3 and
temperature range of between 28˚C-30˚C annually
which supports the rainforest type of vegetation The
area is sub-urban in structure with about 40 of the
populace predominantly rural artisanal fishermen and
subsistent farmers However the life style of the
indigenes is greatly influenced by the presence of the
University of Port Harcourt and several industries
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
264
22 Collection of samples
Hundred (100) freshly caught Oniloticus were
selected using the stratified random sampling
technique (the fourth fish out of every four counts
was selected) between the months of August to
October 2012 Each fish was put in a properly
labelled polyethene bag which was secured in a vat
and transported to the laboratory for examination
23 Physical examination
Fish samples were isolated from vat weighed and
total lengths determined Skin examination of the
samples were carried out with a x10 hand lens to
detect any attached parasite afterwards the skins of
the fish samples were scraped and the scrapings used
to prepare thin smears for microscopic examination
Gill examination was carried out by the use of x10
hand lens in situ and on detached gills Further
examinations of detached gills were conducted with a
stereoscopic microscope
The abdominal cavities of the samples were
opened and the mesenteries examined for migratory
juveniles of nematodes Gastrointestinal tract of the
samples were excised and contents extracted into a
5ml beaker containing normal saline and later stored
in properly labelled sterile vials containing 4
formalin and processed using the formal-ether
concentration method for further microscopic
examination
24 Microscopy
Thin and thick smears of skin scrapings were prepared
and observed under x10 and x40 objectives for
presence of parasites Gastro-intestinal endothelial
scrapings were used to prepare wet smears (stained
with Lugolrsquos iodine) The intestinal contents of the
samples were also examined using the formal-ether
concentration technique and microscopically
examined at x10 and x40 objectives Identification of
parasites was done using Zdenek Locky (1977) and
Cheng (1986) guides
25 Statistical analysis
Measures of central tendency and chi square were
used to analyse the results
3 RESULTS
Table 1 shows the prevalence of Oniloticus from the
lower New Calabar river A total of 100 fish samples
were examined showing an infection of 59(59) out
of which 5(50) and 54(540) were for
ectoparasites and endoparsites respectively Age
related prevalence increased as age increased
Sex related prevalence of parasites in the sampled
fishes indicated an overall prevalence of 43(43) and
16(16) for male and female respectively The data
further showed higher prevalence of endoparasites
(43) to ectoparasites (16) (Figure 1)
The study revealed two phyla of parasites
Nematode and the Arthropoda in Oniloticus from the
study area Amongst the nematodes were the
Capillaria spp Eustrongylide spp and Ascarididae
(Goezia sigalasi) while Lernaeocera branchialis was
the only crustacean discovered (Figure 1)
4 DISCUSSION
The overall prevalence (590) of parasites in
Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River was
rather high for a tidal river but within the range for
inland waters as stated by Onwuliri and Mgbemena
(1998) Umuoeren et al (1988) and Awharioma and
Okaka (1999) However the study showed variability
in the density of parasites within the groups with the
gt225cm length range harbouring the highest
prevalence (90) This pattern of parasitism was
consistent with (Paperna 1996 Mbahinzireki 1980
Wanderson et al 2012 Ashade et al 2013) who
observed a gradual consistent increase in parasitemia
as fish aged However this trend was not consistent
with the ectoparasites which drastically declined as
fish samples aged A trend the researchers attribute to
possible accidental dislodgement of some
ectoparasites due to out of water fish resistance by the
fish samples The higher parasitemia (43) in female
samples than the male counterparts (16) an
observation that contradicts the report by Olurin et al
(2012) and agrees with that of Thomas (1964) is an
issue that has enjoyed flux in opinion by researchers
(Price and Clancy1983 and Olorin and Somorin
2006) However this physiological preference was
attributed to host specific factors On specific parasitamia the endoparastes
consisting the nematodes had a higher density on
individual sample basis than the crustaceans
(ectoparasites) Also there was a progressive
increase in nematode parasitemia as fish samples aged
(Mbahinzireki 1980 Paperna 1996 and Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) This result was consistent with
Paperna (1996) who attributed the age related
prevalence to repeated infections and accumulation of
parasite load with increased age Other factors which
may have influenced the high prevalence of parasitic
nematodes in this study include the tidal
characteristics of the river coupled with the rich
organic constitution of the benthos which harbours
rich population of annalides that aid in the
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
265
transmission of nematode parasites as fish ingest them
(Kennedy 1975 Cheng 1986 Ukoli 1988 Edema
and Okaka 2008) The absence of monogenean
parasites in the examined samples was in line with
some previous studies in inland waters of Africa by
Paperna and Thurston (1968) The absence of
monogenean in the study area could also be an
indication of the quality of the environment or the
immune status of the samples (Wanderson et al
2012 Ashade et al 2013)
Table 1 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites and endoparasites in Oniloticus caught ins Lower New Calabar River
Length(cm) Number
examined
Number infected () Total()
female male
ecto endo ecto endo
100-145 30 1(33) 9(30) 1(33) 5(10) 16(533)
145-185 23 1(43) 7(304) 1(43) 2(86) 11(478)
185-225 37 1(27) 20(54) 0 (0) 2(54) 23(622)
gt225 10 0(0) 4(40) 0(0) 5(50) 9(900)
Total ()
Overall total ()
100 3(30) 40(400) 2(20) 14(140) 59(59)
43(43) 16(16)
Fig 1 The population of the parasitic fauna of Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River
Fig 2 The overall prevalence parasites in Oniloticus from lower New Calabar river
Acknowledgement
We recognize the assistance of the Laboratory crew of
the Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of
Port Harcourt and Miss Siapkere Marvis during the
course of this study
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
REFERENCES
Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
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Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p263-267
263
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New
Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger Delta Nigeria
Francis Sikoki Sidney Nzeako Betty Nchege
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences College of Natural and Applied Sciences
University of Port Harcourt Nigeria
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 8 August 2013
Abstract A total of 100 samples of Oreochromis niloticus from the lower New Calabar River were examined to determine
their levels of nematode parasitemia using standard parasitological techniques An overall prevalence of (59) was recorded
comprising (5) ectoparasites and (54) endoparasites Sex related parasitemia showed that males harboured more parasites
(43) compared to (16) recovered in the females (Pgt005) Parasite specificity revealed three nematodes Capillaria spp
(21) Eustrongylide spp (15) and Goezia sigalasi (Ascarididae) (18) and Lernaeocera branchialis (5) a crustacean
were recovered from the samples However the study revealed a progressive increase in parasitemia as age of the fish host
increased (Plt005) The high parasitemia observed in this study was associated with the tidal effects of the water system which
influences the organic load of the benthos directly and fish nutrition indirectly
Key word Parasitemia ectopaarasites endoparasites sex related parasitemia tidal effect organic load and benthos
1 INTRODUCTION
Parasites are always present in any community (plants
and animals) and usually infect hosts species that
dominate the higher trophic levels in any food chain
(Maclinnis 1976 Edem et al 2008) Fish which
naturally occupies the top of the predator-prey
pyramid in freshwater and marine environments is
most affected by parasites due to some predisposing
factors such as physiologic specificity (age genotype
sex etc) nutritional specificity and ecologic
characteristics (Ravichandran and Ajithkumar 2008
Adam et al 2009)
11 Effect of parasites on fish species
Parasitism of fish and fishery is a cause of worry to
fish culturists and artisanal fishermen in the in-land
and coastal waters of Nigeria (Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren
et al 1988 Onwuliri and Mgbemena 1998
Awharioma and Okaka 1999 and Edema and Okaka
2008) This concern is attributed to parasite induced
economic losses and negative health implications
manifesting in forms of poor fish productivity poor
marketability of caught fish reduction in protein
availability and reduction in job opportunities due to
lack of motivation to invest in aquacultural activities
by potential investors (Meyer and Hoffman 1976
Van Dan Brook 1979 and Awharitoma and Ehigiafor
2012)
Tillapia a cherished cichlid of variable species
common in Nigeria is greatly infected by parasites
(Ukoli 1988 Umuoeren et al 1988 Onwuliri and
Mgbemena 1998 Awharioma and Okaka 1999
Edema and Okaka 2008 and Awharitoma and
Ehigiafor 2012) Studies have indicated that
Tillapiarsquos adaptability to various aquacultural systems
is due to its high fecundity hardiness tolerance to
poor water quality salinity temperature and pH
(Chervinski 1973 Abbas et al 2009 Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) characteristics which inevitably
predisposes it to parasitism In the Niger Delta where
more than 60 of the populace depend on
aquacultural activities for their livelihood it is apt to
determine the current status of nematode parasitic
fuana of O niloticus from the lower New Calabar
River
22 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out on the lower New Calabar
River situated at Choba in ObioAkpor LGA Rivers
State of Nigeria The area lies between latitude 5˚ 54
295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53 889 and 7˚E
experiences an average rainfall of 2500cm3 and
temperature range of between 28˚C-30˚C annually
which supports the rainforest type of vegetation The
area is sub-urban in structure with about 40 of the
populace predominantly rural artisanal fishermen and
subsistent farmers However the life style of the
indigenes is greatly influenced by the presence of the
University of Port Harcourt and several industries
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
264
22 Collection of samples
Hundred (100) freshly caught Oniloticus were
selected using the stratified random sampling
technique (the fourth fish out of every four counts
was selected) between the months of August to
October 2012 Each fish was put in a properly
labelled polyethene bag which was secured in a vat
and transported to the laboratory for examination
23 Physical examination
Fish samples were isolated from vat weighed and
total lengths determined Skin examination of the
samples were carried out with a x10 hand lens to
detect any attached parasite afterwards the skins of
the fish samples were scraped and the scrapings used
to prepare thin smears for microscopic examination
Gill examination was carried out by the use of x10
hand lens in situ and on detached gills Further
examinations of detached gills were conducted with a
stereoscopic microscope
The abdominal cavities of the samples were
opened and the mesenteries examined for migratory
juveniles of nematodes Gastrointestinal tract of the
samples were excised and contents extracted into a
5ml beaker containing normal saline and later stored
in properly labelled sterile vials containing 4
formalin and processed using the formal-ether
concentration method for further microscopic
examination
24 Microscopy
Thin and thick smears of skin scrapings were prepared
and observed under x10 and x40 objectives for
presence of parasites Gastro-intestinal endothelial
scrapings were used to prepare wet smears (stained
with Lugolrsquos iodine) The intestinal contents of the
samples were also examined using the formal-ether
concentration technique and microscopically
examined at x10 and x40 objectives Identification of
parasites was done using Zdenek Locky (1977) and
Cheng (1986) guides
25 Statistical analysis
Measures of central tendency and chi square were
used to analyse the results
3 RESULTS
Table 1 shows the prevalence of Oniloticus from the
lower New Calabar river A total of 100 fish samples
were examined showing an infection of 59(59) out
of which 5(50) and 54(540) were for
ectoparasites and endoparsites respectively Age
related prevalence increased as age increased
Sex related prevalence of parasites in the sampled
fishes indicated an overall prevalence of 43(43) and
16(16) for male and female respectively The data
further showed higher prevalence of endoparasites
(43) to ectoparasites (16) (Figure 1)
The study revealed two phyla of parasites
Nematode and the Arthropoda in Oniloticus from the
study area Amongst the nematodes were the
Capillaria spp Eustrongylide spp and Ascarididae
(Goezia sigalasi) while Lernaeocera branchialis was
the only crustacean discovered (Figure 1)
4 DISCUSSION
The overall prevalence (590) of parasites in
Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River was
rather high for a tidal river but within the range for
inland waters as stated by Onwuliri and Mgbemena
(1998) Umuoeren et al (1988) and Awharioma and
Okaka (1999) However the study showed variability
in the density of parasites within the groups with the
gt225cm length range harbouring the highest
prevalence (90) This pattern of parasitism was
consistent with (Paperna 1996 Mbahinzireki 1980
Wanderson et al 2012 Ashade et al 2013) who
observed a gradual consistent increase in parasitemia
as fish aged However this trend was not consistent
with the ectoparasites which drastically declined as
fish samples aged A trend the researchers attribute to
possible accidental dislodgement of some
ectoparasites due to out of water fish resistance by the
fish samples The higher parasitemia (43) in female
samples than the male counterparts (16) an
observation that contradicts the report by Olurin et al
(2012) and agrees with that of Thomas (1964) is an
issue that has enjoyed flux in opinion by researchers
(Price and Clancy1983 and Olorin and Somorin
2006) However this physiological preference was
attributed to host specific factors On specific parasitamia the endoparastes
consisting the nematodes had a higher density on
individual sample basis than the crustaceans
(ectoparasites) Also there was a progressive
increase in nematode parasitemia as fish samples aged
(Mbahinzireki 1980 Paperna 1996 and Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) This result was consistent with
Paperna (1996) who attributed the age related
prevalence to repeated infections and accumulation of
parasite load with increased age Other factors which
may have influenced the high prevalence of parasitic
nematodes in this study include the tidal
characteristics of the river coupled with the rich
organic constitution of the benthos which harbours
rich population of annalides that aid in the
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
265
transmission of nematode parasites as fish ingest them
(Kennedy 1975 Cheng 1986 Ukoli 1988 Edema
and Okaka 2008) The absence of monogenean
parasites in the examined samples was in line with
some previous studies in inland waters of Africa by
Paperna and Thurston (1968) The absence of
monogenean in the study area could also be an
indication of the quality of the environment or the
immune status of the samples (Wanderson et al
2012 Ashade et al 2013)
Table 1 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites and endoparasites in Oniloticus caught ins Lower New Calabar River
Length(cm) Number
examined
Number infected () Total()
female male
ecto endo ecto endo
100-145 30 1(33) 9(30) 1(33) 5(10) 16(533)
145-185 23 1(43) 7(304) 1(43) 2(86) 11(478)
185-225 37 1(27) 20(54) 0 (0) 2(54) 23(622)
gt225 10 0(0) 4(40) 0(0) 5(50) 9(900)
Total ()
Overall total ()
100 3(30) 40(400) 2(20) 14(140) 59(59)
43(43) 16(16)
Fig 1 The population of the parasitic fauna of Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River
Fig 2 The overall prevalence parasites in Oniloticus from lower New Calabar river
Acknowledgement
We recognize the assistance of the Laboratory crew of
the Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of
Port Harcourt and Miss Siapkere Marvis during the
course of this study
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
REFERENCES
Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
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(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
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142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
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Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
264
22 Collection of samples
Hundred (100) freshly caught Oniloticus were
selected using the stratified random sampling
technique (the fourth fish out of every four counts
was selected) between the months of August to
October 2012 Each fish was put in a properly
labelled polyethene bag which was secured in a vat
and transported to the laboratory for examination
23 Physical examination
Fish samples were isolated from vat weighed and
total lengths determined Skin examination of the
samples were carried out with a x10 hand lens to
detect any attached parasite afterwards the skins of
the fish samples were scraped and the scrapings used
to prepare thin smears for microscopic examination
Gill examination was carried out by the use of x10
hand lens in situ and on detached gills Further
examinations of detached gills were conducted with a
stereoscopic microscope
The abdominal cavities of the samples were
opened and the mesenteries examined for migratory
juveniles of nematodes Gastrointestinal tract of the
samples were excised and contents extracted into a
5ml beaker containing normal saline and later stored
in properly labelled sterile vials containing 4
formalin and processed using the formal-ether
concentration method for further microscopic
examination
24 Microscopy
Thin and thick smears of skin scrapings were prepared
and observed under x10 and x40 objectives for
presence of parasites Gastro-intestinal endothelial
scrapings were used to prepare wet smears (stained
with Lugolrsquos iodine) The intestinal contents of the
samples were also examined using the formal-ether
concentration technique and microscopically
examined at x10 and x40 objectives Identification of
parasites was done using Zdenek Locky (1977) and
Cheng (1986) guides
25 Statistical analysis
Measures of central tendency and chi square were
used to analyse the results
3 RESULTS
Table 1 shows the prevalence of Oniloticus from the
lower New Calabar river A total of 100 fish samples
were examined showing an infection of 59(59) out
of which 5(50) and 54(540) were for
ectoparasites and endoparsites respectively Age
related prevalence increased as age increased
Sex related prevalence of parasites in the sampled
fishes indicated an overall prevalence of 43(43) and
16(16) for male and female respectively The data
further showed higher prevalence of endoparasites
(43) to ectoparasites (16) (Figure 1)
The study revealed two phyla of parasites
Nematode and the Arthropoda in Oniloticus from the
study area Amongst the nematodes were the
Capillaria spp Eustrongylide spp and Ascarididae
(Goezia sigalasi) while Lernaeocera branchialis was
the only crustacean discovered (Figure 1)
4 DISCUSSION
The overall prevalence (590) of parasites in
Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River was
rather high for a tidal river but within the range for
inland waters as stated by Onwuliri and Mgbemena
(1998) Umuoeren et al (1988) and Awharioma and
Okaka (1999) However the study showed variability
in the density of parasites within the groups with the
gt225cm length range harbouring the highest
prevalence (90) This pattern of parasitism was
consistent with (Paperna 1996 Mbahinzireki 1980
Wanderson et al 2012 Ashade et al 2013) who
observed a gradual consistent increase in parasitemia
as fish aged However this trend was not consistent
with the ectoparasites which drastically declined as
fish samples aged A trend the researchers attribute to
possible accidental dislodgement of some
ectoparasites due to out of water fish resistance by the
fish samples The higher parasitemia (43) in female
samples than the male counterparts (16) an
observation that contradicts the report by Olurin et al
(2012) and agrees with that of Thomas (1964) is an
issue that has enjoyed flux in opinion by researchers
(Price and Clancy1983 and Olorin and Somorin
2006) However this physiological preference was
attributed to host specific factors On specific parasitamia the endoparastes
consisting the nematodes had a higher density on
individual sample basis than the crustaceans
(ectoparasites) Also there was a progressive
increase in nematode parasitemia as fish samples aged
(Mbahinzireki 1980 Paperna 1996 and Awharitoma
and Ehigiafor 2012) This result was consistent with
Paperna (1996) who attributed the age related
prevalence to repeated infections and accumulation of
parasite load with increased age Other factors which
may have influenced the high prevalence of parasitic
nematodes in this study include the tidal
characteristics of the river coupled with the rich
organic constitution of the benthos which harbours
rich population of annalides that aid in the
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
265
transmission of nematode parasites as fish ingest them
(Kennedy 1975 Cheng 1986 Ukoli 1988 Edema
and Okaka 2008) The absence of monogenean
parasites in the examined samples was in line with
some previous studies in inland waters of Africa by
Paperna and Thurston (1968) The absence of
monogenean in the study area could also be an
indication of the quality of the environment or the
immune status of the samples (Wanderson et al
2012 Ashade et al 2013)
Table 1 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites and endoparasites in Oniloticus caught ins Lower New Calabar River
Length(cm) Number
examined
Number infected () Total()
female male
ecto endo ecto endo
100-145 30 1(33) 9(30) 1(33) 5(10) 16(533)
145-185 23 1(43) 7(304) 1(43) 2(86) 11(478)
185-225 37 1(27) 20(54) 0 (0) 2(54) 23(622)
gt225 10 0(0) 4(40) 0(0) 5(50) 9(900)
Total ()
Overall total ()
100 3(30) 40(400) 2(20) 14(140) 59(59)
43(43) 16(16)
Fig 1 The population of the parasitic fauna of Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River
Fig 2 The overall prevalence parasites in Oniloticus from lower New Calabar river
Acknowledgement
We recognize the assistance of the Laboratory crew of
the Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of
Port Harcourt and Miss Siapkere Marvis during the
course of this study
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
REFERENCES
Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
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Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
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nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
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Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
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Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
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Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
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IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
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Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
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Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
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Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
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366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
265
transmission of nematode parasites as fish ingest them
(Kennedy 1975 Cheng 1986 Ukoli 1988 Edema
and Okaka 2008) The absence of monogenean
parasites in the examined samples was in line with
some previous studies in inland waters of Africa by
Paperna and Thurston (1968) The absence of
monogenean in the study area could also be an
indication of the quality of the environment or the
immune status of the samples (Wanderson et al
2012 Ashade et al 2013)
Table 1 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites and endoparasites in Oniloticus caught ins Lower New Calabar River
Length(cm) Number
examined
Number infected () Total()
female male
ecto endo ecto endo
100-145 30 1(33) 9(30) 1(33) 5(10) 16(533)
145-185 23 1(43) 7(304) 1(43) 2(86) 11(478)
185-225 37 1(27) 20(54) 0 (0) 2(54) 23(622)
gt225 10 0(0) 4(40) 0(0) 5(50) 9(900)
Total ()
Overall total ()
100 3(30) 40(400) 2(20) 14(140) 59(59)
43(43) 16(16)
Fig 1 The population of the parasitic fauna of Oniloticus from the lower New Calabar River
Fig 2 The overall prevalence parasites in Oniloticus from lower New Calabar river
Acknowledgement
We recognize the assistance of the Laboratory crew of
the Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology Faculty of Biological Sciences University of
Port Harcourt and Miss Siapkere Marvis during the
course of this study
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
REFERENCES
Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
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142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Sikoki et al
Evaluation of Nematode Parasitemia in Oreochromis niloticus from Lower New Calabar River Port Harcourt Niger
Delta Nigeria
266
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Adam HM Samia H Sayied AS (2009)Protozoan
Parasites of two freshwater fish species
(Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias
gariepienus) in Khartoum State (Sudan) Sud
J Vet Sci Anim Husb 48 (1and 2) 44-
50
Ashade OO Osineye OM Kumoye EA (2013)
Isolation Identification and Prevalence of
Parasites on Oreochromis niloticus from three
selected River Systems Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Science 1(8) 115-121
Awharitoma AO Okaka CE (1999) Observations on
the Cichlid fishes in Ikpoba River and their
parasitic infections Nigerian Journal of
parasitology 20 129-137
Bichi AH Ibrabim AA (2009) A survey of ecto and
intestinal parasites of Tilapia Zilli (Caervias) in
Tiga Lake Kano Northern Nigeria Bayero
Journal of pure and Applied Science 2(1)79-
82
Chervinski J (1982) Environmental Physiology of
Tilapias In Biology of Culture of
Tilapias Pullin RSV and RH Lowe
McConnell (eds) ICLARM Conference
Proceedings International Center of Living
Aquatic Resources Management Manilla
Philippines pp 119- 128
Edema CU Okaka CE (2008) A preliminary study of
parasitic infections of some fishes from
Okhuo River Benin city Nigeria International
Journal of Biomedical and Health
Science 4 120-135
Kennedy CR (1975) Ecological Animal Parasitology
Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford
pp141-167
Maclnnis AJ (1976) How parasites find their hosts
some thoughts on the inception of host parasites
integration In Ecological Aspects of
Parasitology (Eds) pp3-20 North Holland
Amsterdam
Mbahinzireki GB (1980) Observation on some
common parasites of Bagrus docmac Forskahl
(Pisce Siluroidea) of lake Victoria
Hydrobiologia 73 (3) 273-280
Meyer FP Hoffman GL (1976) Parasites and diseases
of warm water fishes US Department of
Interior Fish and Wildlife Fish Farm
Experimental Station No 127
Olorin KB Somorin CA (2006) Intestinal Helminths
of the fishes of Owa stream South-west
Nigeria Research Journal of fisheries and
Hydrobiology 1(1) 6-9
Kayode O Okafor J Alade A Asiru R Ademiluwa
J Ademiluwa KOJ Oranaye O (2012)
Helminth Parasites of Sarotherodon
galilaeus and Tilapia zillii (Pisces Cichlidea
from River Oshun Southwest Nigeria
International Journal of Aquatic Science 3(2)
49-55
Onwuliri COE Mgbemena MO (1987) The parasitic
fauna of some freshwater fish from Jos Plateau
Nigeria Nigerian Journal of Applied fisheries
and Hydrobiology 233-37
Oribhabor BJ Ogbeibu AE Okaka CE (2012) The
Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of the
Threadfin Fish Polydactylus quadrifilis
(Family Polynemidae) in a Niger Delta
Mangrove Creek Nigeria International Journal
of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(4) 240-
243
Paperna I Thurston JP (1968) Report on ectoparasitic
infection of freshwater fish in Africa Bull Of
Int Epiz 68(7-8) 1197-1200
Paperna I (1996) Parasites infections and diseases of
fishes in Africa An update CIFA Technical
paper 31
Price PW Clancy KM (1983) Patterns in number of
helminth parasites species of freshwater fishes
Journal of Parasitology 69 449-454
Ravichandran S Ajithkumar TT (2008) Secondary
microbial infection in Ilisha melastoma due to
isopod fish parasites J Fish Aquat Sci 3(1)
92-96
Thomas CC (1986) General Parasitology Academic
Press Inc Harcourt Brace and Company Asia
PTE Ltd Singapore
Thomas JD (1964) A comparison between the
helminthes burdens of male and female brown
trout Salmotrutta L from natural population in
the River Teify West Wales Parsitology 54
263-272
Ukoli FMA (1988) Fish parasites and Diseases in
Aquaculture in Tropical Africa 15pp
Wanderson PMF Maacutercia DRD Daniel M (2013)
Protozoan and metazoan parasites of Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in
Brazil Revita MVZ Cordoba 17 (1) 2812-
2819
Van Dan Brock WLF (1979)Copepod ectoparasites of
Merlanginus malangus and Platichys flescic
J Fish Biol 141-6
Zdenek Lucky (1977) Methods for the Diagnosis of
Fish Diseases Amerind Publishing Company
PVT Ltd New Delhi Pp 1-135
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
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(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
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142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
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Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 263-267 2013
267
Professor FD Sikoki holds BSc and MSc from University of Michigan in 1977 and 1979 respectively
and a PhD in Fish Reproductive Biology from the University of Jos 1987 with extensive teaching and
research experience with international perspective spanning over three decades He has supervised over
50 post graduate students and has served as a consultant in fisheries development research and
environmental assessment to several national and international agencies
His research interest include reproductive cycling in tropical fishes Sex direction and growth promotion
in fishes Limnological and fish stock assessment ecological and environmental management He is
currently the National Coordinator of an FGN-IAEA research project on Pollution Monitoring and
Director Centre for Marine Pollution Monitoring and Seated safety
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional in national and international journals cutting across General Parasitology and Nematology
Miss Nchege Betty optioned BSc in Animal and Environmental Biology from the University of Port
Harcourt in 2009 In her BSc project she assessed the parasitic fauna of the Nile cat fish Oreochromis
niloticus in the New Calabar river in Port Harcourt She is an astute researcher with interested in fish
binomics
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
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Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
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85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
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yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
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Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
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Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
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Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
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308
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Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
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Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
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in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
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Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
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- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p268-272
268
Full Length Research Paper
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University
of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State
Nigeria
Sidney O Nzeako1
Florence O Nduka1 Obilete A Origie
2
1Department of Animal and Environmental Biology Faculty of Biological Science College of Natural and Applied Science
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State NIGERIA 2Department of Microbiology Technology School of Science Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt Rivers
State NIGERIA
Corresponding author nsoma_4realyahoocom or sidneynzeakouniportedung
Received 17 July 2013 Accepted 28 August 2013
Abstract Venule blood samples were randomly collected from eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care Centre after obtaining ethical clearance These blood samples were put in
EDTA properly designated bottles and taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of Animal and Environmental
Biology for examination The standard thick and thin smears were used to examine the blood specimens Overall prevalence
showed that 725 of the pregnant women were infected with malaria Specific Plasmodium prevalence amongst the infected
showed that 635 were infected with P falciparum 189 for P vivax 155 for Pmalariae and 17 for Povale There
was no statistically significant (Pgt005) increase in the prevalence of Plasmodium species between the primigravidea (586)
and the multigravidae (413) The disparity in parasitemia was attributed to pregnancy induced delayed antibody expression
in the primigravidae The study emphasized the significance of health education in malaria control especially during
pregnancy
Key words Specific Plasmodium prevalence primigravidea multigravidae delayed antibody expression
1 INTRODUCTION
Malaria control is major challenges in Africa where
over 588 million people in the 45 endemic countries
are at risk especially children and pregnant women
(Newman et al 2003 WHO 2008 Agomo et al
2009) Statistics indicate that Nigeria alone accounts
for 45 prevalence in the Africa continent a fact not
far-fetched when the population of the country is
considered (Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) 2000
National Census 2006 Adefioye et al 2007)
Reports by FMH (2000) and Agomo et al (2009)
stated that the prevalence of malaria has shown
significant reduction in other African countries except
Nigeria a position which presents a gloomy future for
malaria eradication in Nigeria amidst the huge efforts
by the government and non-governmental agencies at
combating the menace
11 Malaria in Pregnancy A Public Health
Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa
Okpere et al (2010) stated that pregnancy results in
increased incidence and severity of malaria which has
been implicated for complications in pregnancy In
sub Saharan Africa anaemia spontaneous abortion
prematurity and stillbirths are common symptoms of
the disease In Nigeria the disease is a major public
health challenge as malaria alone accounts for 11
maternal deaths annually (WHO 2010 Amoran et al
2012) However no matter how alarming these
statistics may sound some researchers still express
doubts about their accuracy especially on the true
status of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy in Nigeria
(Eze et al 2010) This discrepancy is not unconnected
with the poor documentation of cases of malaria in
pregnancy in health establishments and the attitude of
pregnant women in the rural areas patronizing
unorthodox health care services (Eze et al 2010)
Experts in epidemiology have identified poor
surveillance and poor intervention coverage by the
government as a contributory factor to the increase in
cases of malaria in Nigeria (Desai et al 2007 Enato
et al 2007 Okpere et al 2010 Olurunfemi 2012)
12 Factors that Predispose Pregnant Women to
increased Malaria Parasitemia
Several studies have established radical physiological
and behavioural changes such as increased volume of
exhaled air release of increased levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds due to increase body temperature
that predispose pregnant women to increase in
mosquito bites (Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
269
Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005
Rogerson and Boeu 2007 and Enato et al 2007 and
2009 WHO 2010) In endemic countries like Nigeria
20 of malaria parasitemia in pregnancy are
asymptomatic with susceptibility to parasitemia
common in primgravidae (Desai et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran 2012) Agomo et al
(2009) stated that amongst the factors identified to
increase the risk of malaria infection include young
maternal age (lt20years) and gravidity
(primigravidae) This problem is further aggravated by
the paucity in Primary health facilities and the
preference of pregnant women for unorthodox health
care providers especially in the rural areas (Nduka et
al 2011 Amoran 2012 Molina and Gonzalez
2012) This study is aimed at determining the malaria
parasitaemia in primigravidae and multigravidae
pregnant women on ante-natal care programme at the
University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre Aluu Rivers State Nigeria
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study Area
The study was carried out at the University of Port
Harcourt Primary Health Centre situated at Aluu in
Ikwere LGA Rivers State Nigeria The area lies
between latitude 5˚ 54 295 N and longitudes 6˚ 53
889 and 7˚E experiences an average rainfall of
2500cm3 and temperature range of between 28˚C-
30˚C annually which supports the rainforest type of
vegetation The area is sub-urban in structure with
about 40 of the populace being predominantly rural
artisanal fishermen and subsistent farmers However
the life style of the indigenes is greatly influenced by
the presence of the University of Port Harcourt and
several industries
22 Collection of Blood Samples to evaluate
Plasmodium spp Parasitemia
Venule blood samples were randomly collected from
eighty pregnant women receiving ante natal care in
the University of Port Harcourt Primary Health Care
Centre after obtaining informed consent and ethical
clearance from the Chief Medical Officer of the
centre These blood samples (20microl of blood) were
collected in properly designated EDTA bottles and
taken to the Parasitology Laboratory Department of
Animal and Environmental Biology University of
Port Harcourt for examination within 24hours
The standard thick and thin smears on a single slide
were used to examine the blood specimens
(Cheesbrough 2005) Data were analysed with Excel
ANOVA
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study the overall prevalence showed that 58
(725) of the sampled pregnant women were
infected with malaria Specific prevalence of
Plasmodium amongst the infected showed that P
falciparum was the dominant species in the sampled
group (Table 1) There was no statistically significant
(Pgt005) difference in the prevalence of specific
Plasmodium species between the primigravidea
(850) and the multigravidae (150) However the
primigravidae expressed more specific parasitemia
than the multigravidae in the sampled group
Suppressed immunity due to pregnancy
The study show cases the level of malaria parasitemia
in a select group of pregnant women attending ante
natal care in a primary health centre in the Niger
Delta In the study there was high prevalence of
malaria parasitemia amongst the examined set (Table
1) which was in line with several studies including
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
Chimere et al 2009 Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010
Olunfemi et al 2012) where results indicated heavy
and multiple species malaria parasitemia in
pregnancy Naturally indigenes of the study area
readily acquire immunity due to repeated exposure to
Plasmodium spp of parasites (Bassey et al 2007
Rogerson et al 2007 Amoran et al 2012) which
declines as pregnancy set-in (Amoran 2012 Molina
and Gonzalez 2012) This decline in immunity could
be attributed to physiological and behavioural changes
that result to increase in the levels of cortisol and
volatile compounds that make pregnant women more
attractive to infected female anopheles mosquito
(Lindsay et al 2000 Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000
Bouyou-Akotet et al 2005 Rogerson and Boeu 2007
and Enato et al 2009 WHO 2010 Molina and
Gonzalez 2012) Another factor that may have
impacted on the disparity in malaria parasitemia is the
patronage of alternative ante natal health care
providers such as herbalists and traditional midwifes
scattered around the rural areas of Nigeria by pregnant
women
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
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142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
270
Table 1 Malaria parasitemia in pregnant women attending ante-natal care in primary health centre Aluu Port Harcourt
Number
examined
Number
infected
()
Plasmodium species
Primigravidae
P
falciparum
()
Pvivax
()
Pmalariae
()
Povale
( )
Overall
Total ()
Primigravidae 80 34 20 (344) 8 (137) 5 (86) 1 (17) 34 (586)
Multigravidae 80 24 17 (293) 3 (517) 4 (68) 0 24
(413)
Overall Total 80 58 37
(633)
11 (189) 9
(155)
1
(17)
58
(725)
4 CONCLUSION
The study thereby states that the disparity in
Plasmodium spp parasitemia between the
multigravidae and primigravidae could be attributed to
acquired immune-efficiency of the multigravidae to
malaria (Martνnez-Espinosa et al 2000 Bouyou-
Akotet et al 2005 Opkere et al 2010) as parity
advances Depressed immunity due to delayed
antibody expression andor lack of awareness on the
necessary preventive measures in pregnancy could
also be responsible for the increased malaria
parasitemia in the primigravidae (Okwa 2003 Okpere
2004 Bassey et al 2007 Agomo et al 2009) This
study buttresses the significance of aggressive
awareness campaigns on health education and family
planning in the rural settings because effective health
education at the grass root level would project the
country faster in actualising her millennium
development goal of health for all by the year 2020
Acknowledge
We appreciate the efforts of the laboratory crew of the
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology
University of Port Harcourt and Dr CJ Ogugbue the
coordinator Microbiology Technology Institute of
Science Laboratory Technology for his support during
the study
REFERENCES
Adefioye OA Adeyeba OA Hassan WO Oyeniran
OA (2007) Prevalence of malaria parasite
infection among pregnant women in Osogbo
southwest Nigeria American-Eurasian J Sci
Res 2 43ndash45
Agomo CO Oyibo WA Anorlu RI Agomo PU
(2009) Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant
Women in Lagos South-West Nigeria Korean
J Parasitol 47(2) 179ndash183
Amoran OE (2012) A comparative analysis of
predictors of teenage pregnancy and its
prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Int Health 11(37) 11-17
Bassey BE Asor JE Useh MF (2007) Profile of
Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending
Antenatal Clinics in Rural Community in
Nigeria The Open Parasitology Journal 11-6
Bouyou-Akotet MK Adegnika AA Agnandji ST
Ngou-Milama E Kombila M Kremsner PG
(2005) Cortisol and susceptibility to malaria
during pregnancy Microbes and Infection
7(11-12) 1217-23
Cheesbrough M (2005) District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries part 2 (Cambridge low
price edition) Cambridge Universal Press
New York pp256-266
Desai M Kuile F Nosten F McGready R Asamoa K
Brabin B Newman R (2007) Epidemeology
and burden of malaria in pregnancy Lancet
infectious diseases 7(2) 93- 104
Enato EF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE (2007) A
survey of knowledge attitude and practice of
malaria management among pregnant women
from 2 health care facilities in Nigeria Acta
Obstetrica et Gynaecological scandinavica
86(1) 33-6
Enato EF Mens PF Okhamafe AO Okpere EE
Pogoson E Shalling HD (2009) Plasmodium
falciparum malaria in pregnancy prevalence of
peripheral parasitemia anaemia and malaria
care seeking behaviour among pregnant women
attending 2 antenatal clinics in Edo state
Nigeria J Obstet Gynaecol 29(4) 301-306
Eze NCE Nzeako SO Amadi EC (2010) Current
status of malaria and Urban Schistisomiasis
infections in Mammy Market Free Zone of the
34 Field Artillary Brigdage in Obinze
Owerri Nig jof Parasitology 31(2) 61-68
Federal Ministry of Health Report (2000) Malaria
situation analysis document Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Health p14
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Nzeako et al
Prevalence of Malaria in Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Care at University of Port Harcourt Primary Health
Care Centre Aluu Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria
271
Lindsay S Ansell J Selman C Cox V Hamilton K
Walraven G (2000) Effect of pregnancy
on exposure to malaria mosquitoes Lancet
355 1972-1975
Martνnez-Espinosa FE Alecrim WD Daniel-Ribeiro
CT (2000) Attraction of mosquitoes to
pregnant women Lancet 356 685
Molina RC Gonzalez EA (2012) Teenage pregnancy
Endor Dev 22 302-31
National Census (2006) National Beaureau of
Statistics
httpwwwnigerianstatgovngConnectionsPo
p2006pdf
Nduka FO Nwosu E Oguariri RM (2011)
Evaluation of the effectiveness and compliance
of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in the
control of malaria in pregnant women in south
east Nigeria Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology 105(8) 599
Newman RD Hailemariam A Jimma D Degifie A
Kebede D Rietveld AE Nahlen BL Barnwell
JW Steketee RW Parise ME (2003) Burden of
malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and
unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a
nonepidemic year J Infect Dis 187 1765ndash
1772
Okpere EE (2004) Malaria in pregnancy In Okpere
E (Ed) Clinical Obstetrics Uniben Press 56-
63
Okpere EE Enabudoso EJ Osemwenkha AP (2010)
Malaria in Pregnancy Niger Med J 51
109-13
Okwa OO (2003) The status of malaria among
pregnant women a study in Lagos
Nigeria Afr J Reprod Health 7 77ndash83
Olorunfemi AE Ariba AA Iyaniwura CA (2012)
Determinants of intermittent preventive
treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp)
utilization in a rural town in Western Nigeria
Reproductive Health 9(12)
Rogerson SJ Hviid L Duffy P Leke R Taylor D
(2007) Malaria in pregnancy pathogenesis and
immunity Lancet infectious diseases 7(2)
105- 117
Rogerson SJ Boeu FP (2007) New approaches to
malaria in pregnancy Parasitology 134
1883ndash1893
World Health Organization (2008) World Malaria
Report Switzerland World Health
Organization pp 99ndash101
World Health Organization (2010) World Health
Organization Global Malaria Programme
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 268-272 2013
272
Obilemetu Origie Alakasoni holds a BSc Tech in Microbiology (2012) from the School of Science
Laboratory Technology University of Port Harcourt She is interested in the epidemiology of malaria
in infants and pregnant women in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Dr Sidney Obidimma Nzeako graduated from the University of Nigeria Nsukka BSc (Hons) Biology
Education 2003 In 2007 he obtained MSc Environmental Parasitology and PhD Nematology (2012)
from the University of Port Harcourt Dr Nzeako has a broad research interest in Environmental
Parasitology and Nematology He has conducted several researches in biological control of parasitic
nematodes in economically important animals and crops in Nigeria and has published several articles in
professional journals at national and international levels cutting across General Parasitology and
Nematology
Professor Florence O Nduka is a Professor of Parasitology in the Department of Animal and
Environmental Biology of the University of Port-Harcourt She obtained her PhD from the University
of Nigeria Nsukka in 1986 Her research interests focuses on epidemiology of major parasitic diseases
including Malaria and Schistosomiasis She has published many refereed articles in reputable journals
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
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Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
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Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
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Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
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Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
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development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
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DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
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Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
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DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
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Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
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Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p273-284
273
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L)
with Multivariate Analysis
Aliyeh Emami1 Ali Reza Eivazi
2
1Scientific Members of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
2Associate Professor of Agricultural Research Center of West Azerbaijan Province Urmieh Iran
Corresponding Author Dr Ali Reza Eivazi PO Box 365 Post Cod 57169-64455 Cell +98914145157 Fax
+984412622221 Email alirezaeivaziyahoocom
Received 28 July 2013 Accepted 30 August 2013
Abstract In order to evaluate genetic variations of tomato genotypes an experiment carried out in Kahriz station during two
seasons in 2010-11 Experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications Combined analysis of
variance showed that for agronomic and quality related traits were significant differences Selb-Jino TO2 Early-Urbana
Carmina Cal-J-N and Falat-Shof with more than 105 kgm2 had the highest fruit yield With increasing fruit number per plant
decreased fruit weight Carmina had 170cm plant height and indeterminate growth TO4 Chase Selb-Jino and Carmina with
more than 52 had the most total soluble solid Cluster analysis classified genotypes in two groups Flower inflorescence had
the most significant regression coefficient (063) with fruit yield Two first components explained 97 of total variations in
principal components analysis Correlation coefficients of fruit yield with fruit number at per plant (r=049) number of flower
per inflorescence (r=048) were positive significant differences With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number (r=-
078) increased fruit weight (r=080) and pH (r=071) Therefore genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075)
From the point of fruit shape Carmina Nina Selb-Jno and BSS282 were quite uniform TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color
and Carmia Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino were the lowest values Fruit firmness of cultivars was in
four groups Blossom-end rot in BSS282 Tima and TO4 were less than others
Key words Genetic diversity tomato Multivariate analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) is a dicot
herbaceous and has different vegetative period as well
as influenced by environmental conditions (Naika et
al 2005 Kahlo 1991 Akinfasoye et al 2011) It is
known as an important source of vitamins and
minerals due to adequate vitamins A and C calcium
and iron Tomatos fruit is consumed in providing
salads and cookies In addition it is used to can paste
ketchup sauce puree and fruit juice (Maitidevi and
Kathmandu 2008) The approaches to make
significant improvement in tomato productions
require information regarding nature and magnitude of
genetic variation and their interrelationships in the
available germplasm which are important pre-
requisites for systematic breeding programs Several
researchers have emphasized the utility of the
estimates of genetic components such as coefficient of
variation heritability and expected genetic advance in
the prediction of response quantitative and qualitative
traits to selection Golani et al (2007) in evaluating
tomato genotypes with path analysis confirmed that
fruit weight had highest positive direct effect followed
by number of carpel per fruit Wessel-Beaver (1992)
pointed out that heritability and genetic correlations in
tomato was high for fruit set yield and fruit weight
Although many of resistant genes are still
undiscovered but in evaluations of wild types
identified drought salinity stresses and insect
tolerance damage of genes (Passam et al 2007
Hanson et al 2000) Presently there are demands for
improved cultivars for growing under greenhouse and
field conditions for different consumes In Iran
planting area and production of tomato were about
150 thousand hectare and 57 million ton respectively
in year of 2011 (FAO 2012) West Azerbaijan
province with 5 thousand hectare under planted area
of tomato and production of 163 thousand ton was one
of the important areas
Evaluation of tomato germplasm collected from
different parts of Kenya showed wide variation in
morphological agronomical and biochemical
characterizations (Stevens 1986) These variations
were due to genetic and environmental differences
Also fruit weight was negative significant correlated
with fruit number at per plant In contrast it had
positive correlation with length and width fruit The
objective of this study was to evaluate genetic
variations of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of twenty-five tomato genotypes
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
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(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
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Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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sprays 97th Annual International conference of
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Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
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Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
274
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Trial was conducted in Kahriz station of agricultural
research center of west Azerbaijan province in Iran
The station was located in latitude 45deg 10prime east
longitude 37deg 5 north and 1325m altitude (Figure 1)
and Meteorological parameters of experimental
location are shown in table 1 Soil texture was sandy
loam soil with pH 78 and electrical conductivity
09dsm (Table 2)
Fig 1 Map of Iran and experimental location
Table 1 Meteorological parameters of agricultural research of Kahriz station
Table 2 Soil characteristics of experimental location of Kahriz station
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
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(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
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Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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sprays 97th Annual International conference of
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Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
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Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
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Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
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Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
275
Twenty-five tomato genotypes including TO4 TO2
Chase Carmina King-Stone Super-Stone Nina
Falat-CH Falat Falat-Y Falat-Shof Shof Primo-
Falat Super-Srin-B Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early
Early-Urbana-VF Early-Urbana-Y Early-Urbana
Pri-Max Cal-J Cal-J-N Selb-Jino BSS282 and Tima
used in this experiment during two seasons in 2010-
11
Seeds obtained from seed and plant improvement
institute and planted in single rows When seedling
had 4 to 5 true leaves transferred into the field
Based on soil analysis one-third of recommended
nitrogen fertilizer and total amount of potassium
phosphor and iron and magnesium soleplate zinc
cupper added to soil before planting at late April
Then soil ploughed and disked Rows created with
120cm distance Two-thirds of remaining nitrogen
added before flowering and fruit set stages The
design arranged as randomized complete blocks with
three replications Each plot had 3 rows with 5m
length Insects and fungi controlled with Zineb and
Diazinon 02 and 01 respectively
During growth period three types of quantitative
traits including plant height flower per inflorescence
fruit per plant fruit weight carpel per fruit and days
to first fruit maturity determined from randomly
selected six plants at each plot according to Tanksley
(2004) Fruit yield measured from each total plots
such as mentioned by Al-Aysh et al (2012) Total
soluble solid fruit pH recorded at related qualitative
traits of category methods of according to Majidi et al
(2011) and Ajayi and Olasehinde (2009) respectively
Descriptive traits including fruit uniformity fruit
color fruit firmness fruit shape blossom end rot
sunscald and fruit crack were determined according to
Stevens (1986) Frary et al (2003) Okmen et al
(2011) Passam et al (2007) IPGRI (2003) and Kallo
(1991) respectively Combined analysis of variance
and multivariate analysis for traits of two years done
with SAS and SPSS soft wars Means compared with
Duncans multiple range tests
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Combined analysis of variance showed that
interaction between year and genotype for traits of
fruit yield number of fruit at per plant fruit weight
total soluble solid and days to first fruit maturity
significant differences (ple005) (Table 3) Significant
interactions of traits demonstrated that genotypes had
different responses at two years under field
conditions It can be used in breeding programs for
selecting superior genotypes
31 Agronomic traits
At first year genotypes of Selb-Jino and Falat-Shof
had the highest fruit yield with 112 and 118kgm2
respectively In addition TO2 Early-Urbana Carmina
and Cal-J-N with more than 105kgm2 fruit yield
were the highest values at the second year In
opposite Early-Urbana-VF Falat-Y at 2010 season
and Pri-Max and Cal-J genotypes at 2011 season with
less than 8kgm2 fruit yield had the lowest values
(Table 4) Fruit yield is the genotypic trait which
varies from line to line and clone to clone The result
of Hussain et al (2001) was in confirmation with our
statement of fruit yield differences for different
cultivars
Selb-Jino with 354 and 262 fruit per plant had the
maximum amounts at 2010 and 2011 years
respectively With increasing fruit number at per plant
decreased fruit weight Also Selb-Jino had lower fruit
weight Falat-Y and Pri-Max with 34 and 33 had the
minimum fruit at per plant respectively (Table 4)
Researchers reported that genotype and environment
interaction was not important for fruit weight
(Wessel-Beaver 1992)
Super-Stone with 106g fruit weight at 2010 year
and King-Stone Primo-Early and Falat-Shof with
more than 108g fruit weight at 2011 year allocated the
highest values In contrast Selb-Jino had the lowest
value with 16 and 14g fruit weight at two years
respectively
Table 3 Combined mean square traits of tomato genotypes under field conditions for years 2010 and 2011
SOV df
Mean squares
Fruit
yield Fruitplant
Fruit
weight
Carpel
fruit
Soluble
solid
pHfru
it Plant height
flowers
per
infloresc
ence
days to
first
fruit
maturity
Year 1 14620 001ns 67636 089ns 1486 215 1445313 1034 3649ns
Rep(Year) 4 805 6942 3278 061 011 001 42276 050 2985
Cultivar 24 8423 1640797 209414 336 042 004 238505 475 8994
Cultivarх Year 24 12802 70187 18374 040ns 026 001ns 6462ns 035ns 2352
Error 96 3048 6832 10343 041 015 001 10826 052 1041
Coefficient of variation
() 970 1380 1167 1646 825 250 1303 1923 265
ns and were not significant significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
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Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
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Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
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Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
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Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
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Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
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Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
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283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
276
King-Stone with 53 carpel had the highest
amount Also Super-Srin-B Early-Urbana-Y TO4
and Nina had more carpel in per fruit In opposite
Selb-Jino and Cal-J-N with 24 carpel in per fruit
allocated the lowest values (Table 5) Existence of
high heritability for carpelfruit implies that there is
less influence of environment and consequently
selection can be effective for this trait (Asati et al
2008)
Table 4 Mean comparison of interaction between years and tomato genotypes
Carmina with 170cm length had the highest plant
height and Falat-CH Primo-Falat Shof and TO2 were
lower plant height (68cm) Carmina due to
indeterminate growth and high plant height is
suggested for greenhouse cultivation Lerner (2009)
also reported that indeterminate tomatoes increase in
height throughout the growing season because the
terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar
growth rather than set flowers The flowers and thus
fruits on these plants are produced continually through
the season along the side shoots of the plant
Indeterminate tomatoes are the choice to spread out
the harvest over a long period of time Short height
cultivars due to take low spacing under field
conditions therefore with increasing plant density
arise fruit yield Also these cultivars have determinate
growth similar maturities and selected for
mechanized cultivation
Selb-Jino with 78 flowers at per inflorescence was
significant differences with other genotypes The
effect of environmental parameters on this trait is low
and affected by genetic control (Zdravkovic et al
1998)
Cal-J-N Nina Super-Srin-B Pri-Max with more
than 127 days and Selb-Jino with less than 112 days to
first fruit maturity were lateness and earliness
genotypes respectively Lerner (2009) categorized
tomato cultivars in to early mid and late seasons in
regards to time of ripening In our experiment
genotypes with 127 and 112 days to ripening were
lateness and midness maturities respectively
Cluster analysis classified 25 genotypes in two
groups (Figure 2) Discriminate analysis also
confirmed results of cluster analysis (Table 6) At first
group Cal-J-N Falat-Y BSS-282 TO4 Shof Falat-
Primo Early-Urbana and Nina and at the second
group Super-Stone TO2 King-Stone Tima Chase
Peto-Early-CH Primo-Early Cal-J Falat-CH Early-
Urbana-VF Falat-Shof Primax Falat Early-Urbana-
Y Super-Srin-B Selb-Jino and Carmina were located
Genotypes in the second group had more than total
mean fruit yield (Table 7) Also superior genotypes at
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
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Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
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Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
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Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
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DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
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Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
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Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
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Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
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Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
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Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
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Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
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- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
277
first group included TO4 Nina Primo-Early Cal-J-N
Falat-Shof had more than total mean fruit yield It
seems that superior genotypes of each group with
genetically distant cross for increasing hetrosis in
breeding programs
Table 5 Mean comparison traits of tomato genotypes
Table 6 Discernment analysis for identification point of interrupting cluster analysis of tomato genotypes
Table 7 Mean and deviation of it from total mean for each group at cluster analysis
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
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298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
278
Fig 2 Cluster analysis of 25 tomato genotypes based on different traits
To determine the most effective traits on tomato
fruit yield and better explain relationships of its
stepwise regression used Number of flower in
inflorescence had the most regression coefficient with
fruit yield (063) and remained in the final model
(Table 8)
Table 8 Regression coefficients of related trait with fruit yield in tomato genotypes
Principal components analysis explained 97 of
total variations by the first two components (Table 9)
At first component that more than 86 of total
variations can be explained fruit yield at per plant
with 094 eigen vector had the maximum value (Table
10) Therefore it is named yield components
Genotypes within component that had high variations
for yield components and could be selected for
increasing fruit yield were Early-Urbana-VF TO4
Selb-Jino and Falat (Table 11) At second component
that more than 1096 of total variations can be
explained plant height with 099 eigen vector had the
maximum value Therefore second component is
component of morphological traits Carmina had the
most value at this component Its indeterminate
genotype and had high plant height which
recommended for cultivation under greenhouse
conditions
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
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Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
279
Table 9 Latent roots variance percentage and cumulative variance of two first components of tomato genotypes
Table 10 Latent vectors of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
Table 11 Values of two principal components for traits of tomato genotypes
32 Related quality traits
At first year of experiment genotypes of TO4 Chase
and Selb-Jino with 58 56 and 55 and at the
second year Carmina and Selb-Jino with 56 and 52
had the most total soluble solid in fruit Early-Urbana-
Y and Tima were the lowest values with 39
Soluble solid is one of the most important quality
traits in processing tomato 50 to 65 of soluble
solid contents are sugars glucose and fructose and
their amount and proportion influences the
organoleptic quality of tomatoes (Adedeji et al
2006) Remaining soluble solid are mainly citric and
malic acids lipids and other components in low
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Physicochemical properties of four tomato
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Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
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Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
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agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
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lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
280
concentrations Variations of soluble solid in wild
varieties were more than cultivated (Kallo 1991)
Purkayastha and Mahanta (2010) reported that soluble
solid varied in genotypes from 41 to 59 High total
soluble solid is desirable to higher yield of processed
products Genotypes were also different in terms of
fruit pH Cal-J-N and Selb-Jino with 42 and 38 were
the highest and lowest pH respectively Other
genotypes had between them Selb-Jino due to has
low pH and pathogen activity in processed products it
may be used to preparation of pickles One of the aims
of selection cultivars in tomato were adequate soluble
solid pH and suitable flavor of fruits for processing
Botulism disease delayed in tomato products at lower
pH than 45 (Agong et al 2001) In ripen fruits acid
content was high enough to prevent botulism diseases
Agong et al (2001) introduced pH and soluble solid
as the main criteria for assessing related quality traits
in tomato
33 Descriptive traits
In selecting superior tomato genotypes
morphological market-demand and tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses were important From the point of
fruit shape genotypes characterized in six groups
including round long round shaped heart
cylindrical oval and vary-form Shapes of long round
and vary-form had the highest and lowest frequencies
(Table 12) Researchers reported that wild and semi
wild forms of tomatoes bear fruits that are almost
invariably round whereas cultivated tomatoes come
in a wide variety of shapes round oblate pear-
shaped torpedo-shaped and bell pepper-shaped
(Tanksley 2004)
From the view of uniformity fruits placed in to
quite uniform uniform relatively uniform and non-
uniform More genotypes were in relatively uniform
(Table 12) For increasing market-demand and
reduction of harvesting costs large fruits with high
color intensity tart and synchronized mature is
preferred to indeterminate growth and non-uniforms
(Bennett et al 2000)
Fruit color of genotypes distinct in light red
medium red dark red very dark red groups (Table
12) TO4 and TO2 had the most fruit color and Carmia
Falat-CH Super-Srin-B Shof Falat-Y and Seb-Jino
were the lowest values With increasing fruit red color
will be market-demand and paste and sauce be pretty
color Fruit color in tomato is being formed from
lycopene and carotene pigments In red tomatoes
predominant lycopene pigment and inversely in
orange fruit tomatoes carotene has in high value (Hart
and Scott 1995) Wild species may have more
lycopene as commercial cultivars (Dorais et al 2001)
Besides being influenced by genotype some fruit
constituents also influenced by environmental
conditions For example lycopene contents were
strongly affected by light intensity and temperature
(Davies and Hobson 1981)
Fruit firmness of cultivars was in four groups of
soft relatively stiff stiff and very stiff More of
cultivars located in relatively stiff group (Table 12)
Ability of transport and storage capability is important
in tomato Varieties with soft tissue have less
maintenance rapid decayed and damaged in
mechanized harvest therefore must be immediately
consumed (Kallo 1991) Blossom-end rot in
genotypes of BSS282 Tima and TO4 decay rate due
to drought stress and lack of calcium absorption were
less than other genotypes
Table 12 Descriptive traits of tomato genotypes
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
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resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
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Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
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Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
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factors International journal of Agronomy and
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of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
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(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
281
Sunscald was seen in first harvesting Genotypes
grouped in three less low and medium sunscald
Super-srin-B Early-Urbana-Y Nina Falat-Y Tima
TO2 and Falat-Shof had medium sunscald (35 fruit at
per plot) and Falat-CH TO4 Primo-Early Peto-Early-
CH Early Urbana-VF Cal-J Cal-J-N Shof and
BSS282 had less than 10 fruit Genotypes with more
foliage prevented directly radiation and then fruits
didnrsquot damage for sunscald (Lerner 2009) Low
percentage of fruit cracking observed in more
genotypes and in Selb-Jino Cal-J TO2 Carmina and
Early-Urbana had more amounts Fruit crack like
blossom-end rot increased in drought stress and
subsequently decreased market-demand and shelf-life
(Kallo 1991)
34 Correlation coefficient of traits
Fruit yield with fruit at per plant (r=049 plt005) and
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=048 plt005)
were positive and with days to first fruit maturity (r=-
046 plt005) was negative significant differences
(Table 13) Fruit yield in tomato obtained from
multiplied plant density number of fruit at per
inflorescence and fruit weight (Zdravkovic et al
1998) Increasing one of components reduce other
portions Number of fruit at per plant correlated with
number of flower at per inflorescence (r=095
plt001) Golani et al (2007) showed that fruit yield
with number of fruit at per plant correlated positively
but contrary related with fruit weight Blay et al
(1999) introduced number of fruit at per plant the
most important part in fruit yield By increasing
number of fruit at per plant decreased fruit weight (r=-
085 plt001) and carpel in per fruit (r=-046 plt005)
With delaying fruit maturity decreased fruit number
(r=-078 plt001) and increased fruit weight (r=080
plt001) and fruit pH (r=071 plt001) Therefore
genotypes with more fruits had low pH (r=-075
plt001) Soluble solid with fruit weight (r=-055
plt001) and fruit number at per plant (r=050 plt001)
were negatively and positively significant differences
Thus with increasing number of fruits at per plant
increased fruit soluble solid and in heavy and large
tomatoes decreased total soluble solid Researchers
reported negative correlation between fruit weight and
total soluble solid (Golani et al 2007) Canonical
correlation coefficients between quantitative and
qualitative traits were not significant differences
(Table 14) Fruit yield and fruit soluble solids had the
most coefficients in bellow equation It seems that
between fruit yield from quantitative traits and fruit
soluble solids from related qualitative traits had
negative relationship that observed in simple
correlation coefficients
Y= 1508(fruit yield) + 0766(fruit weight) +
0552(fruit per plant) - 1804(fruit soluble solids)
Table 13 Simple correlation coefficient traits of tomato genotypes
and were significant at plt005 and plt001 respectively
Table 14 Canonical correlation coefficient analysis for traits of tomato genotypes
4 CONCLUSION
Results showed that for selecting a genotype not only
fruit yield but also fruit quality fruit size shape and
color must be considered before choosing Market-
demand and shelf-life appeared stronger criteria for
genotype selection This could be better for most
tomatoes produced for both local and distance market
Genotypes of Falat-Shof TO2 Primo-Early Peto-
Early-CH Carmina Cal-J-N Early-Urbana TO4
Falat King-Stone BSS282 and Super-Stone had more
than 105kgm2 fruit yield Stiff and firm oval and
cylindrical fruit shape is recommended for salad
preparation and frying Earliness genotypes had more
fruit at per plant and subsequently increased fruit yield
and total soluble solid and reduced pH With reducing
of fruit pH arise shelf-life of proceed products Selb-
Jino and TO2 due to have low pH and small fruits
recommended in preparing pickle TO4 Carmina and
Selb-Jino had more total soluble solid and
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
REFERENCES
Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
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Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
282
recommended for paste sauce and ketchup
Genotypes of Falat-Shof Super-Stone King-Stone
and Tina had great fruits and market-demand Super-
Stone King-Stone and Tima had stiff fruit firmness
and suitable for transport and shelf-life Carmina due
to have indeterminate growth period and high plant
height suggested for planting under green house
conditions
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Adedeji O Taiwo KA Akanbi CT Ajani R (2006)
Physicochemical properties of four tomato
cultivars grown in Nigeria Journal of Food
Production Preceding 30 79-86
Agong SG Schittenhelm S Friedt W (2001)
Genotypic variation of Kenyan tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) germplasm
Journal of Food and Technology l 13-17
Ajayi AA Olasehinde IG (2009) Studies on the pH
and protein content of tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill) fruits deteriorated by
Aspergillus niger Scientific Research and
Essay 4 185-187
Akinfasoye J Dotun A Ogunniyan J Ajayi EO
(2011) Phenotypic relationship among
agronomic characters of commercial tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) Hybrids
American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 4
17-22
Al-Aysh F Kutma H Serhan M Al-Zoubai A
Abdelsalam Al-Naseer M (2012) Genetic
analysis and correlation studies of yield and
fruit quality traits in tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L) New York Science Journal 5
142-145
Asati B Rai SN Singh AK (2008) Genetic
parameters study for yield and quality traits in
tomato Asian Journal of Horticulture 3 222-
225
Bennet MA Francis DM Grassbaugh EM (2000)
Processing tomato fruit firmness color
uniformity and peeling response to Ethephon
sprays 97th Annual International conference of
the American Society for Horticultural Science
23-26 July Florida USA
Blay ET Danquah EY Offel SK Kadadji A (1998)
Morphological and agronomic characterization
of some tomato (Lycopersicon esculenttom
Mill) in Ghana Ghana International Journal of
Agricultural Science 32 169-175
Davies JN Hobson GE (1981) The constituents of
tomato fruit the influence of environment
nutrition and genotype Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 15 205-280
Dorais M Gosselin A Papadopoulos AP (2001)
Greenhouse tomato fruit quality Horticulture
Reviews 26 239-306
FAO (2010) Year Book Production Rome Italy P
129
Frary A Doganlar S Frampton A Fulton T Uhlig J
Yates H Tanksley S (2003) Fine mapping of
quantitative trait loci for improved fruit
characteristics from Lycopersicon chmielewskii
chromosome 1 Genome 46 235-243
Golani IJ Mehta DR Purohit VL Pandya HM
Kanzariya MV (2007) Genetic variability
correlation and path coefficient studies in
tomato Indian Journal of Agricultural
Research 41 146-149
Hanson P Chen JT Kuo CG Morris R Opena RT
(2000) Suggested cultural practices for tomato
International Cooperators Guide
wwwavrdcorgtw
Hart DJ Scott KG (1995) Development and
evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis
of carotenoids in foods and the measurement of
the carotenoid content of vegetable and fruits
commonly consumed in the UK Food
Chemistry 54 101-111
Hussain SI Khokhar KM Laghari MH Mahmud MM
(2001) Yield potential of some exotic and one
local tomato cultivars grown for summer
production Pakistan Journal of Biological
Science 4 1215-1216
IPGRI (2003) Descriptors for tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum L) A Global Report 113 45
Kallo G (1991) Genetic improvement of tomato
Springer - Verlag Berlin Heidiberg
Lerner BR (2009) Tomatoes
wwwagcompurdueeduAgComPubsmenu
Maitidevi M Kathmmandu M (2008) Product chain
study tomato Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives Project Management Unit
Biratnagar Nepal 480pp
Majidi H Minaei S Almasi M Mostofi Y (2011)
Total soluble solids titratable acidity and
repining index of tomato in various storage
conditions Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences 5 1723-1726
Naika S De-Jeude JL De-Goffau M Hilmi M Van-
Dam B (2005) Cultivation of tomato
Production Processing and Marketing
Agromisa Foundationand CTA Wageningen
92 pp
Okmen B Sigva H Gurbuz N Ulger M (2011)
Quantitative trait loci analysis for antioxidant
and agronomically important traits in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L) Turkish Journal
of Agriculture and Forestry 35 501-514
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
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resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
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85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
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Genetics 97 1370-1379
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Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
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Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
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Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
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Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
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308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
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Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
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in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
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Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 273-284 2013
283
Passam H Karapanos CLC Bebeli PJ Savvas D
(2007) A review of recent research on tomato
nutrition breeding and post-harvest technology
with reference to fruit quality The European
Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1
1-21
Purkayastha MD Mahanta CL (2010)
Physicochemical properties of five different
tomato cultivars of Meghalaya and their
suitability in food processing African Journal
of Food Science 5 657-667
Stevens MA (1986) Inheritance of tomato fruit
quality components Plant Breeding Review 4
273-311
Tanksley SD (2004) The genetic developmental and
molecular bases of fruit size and shape variation
in tomato The Plant Cell 16 181-189
Wessel-Beaver L (1992) Genetic variability of fruit
set fruit weight and yield in a tomato
population grown in two high-temperature
environments Journal of American Society
Horticultural Science 117 867-870
Zdravkovic J Markovic Z Kraljevic-Balalic M
Zdravkovic M Sretenovic-Rajicic T (1998)
Gene effects on number of fruits per flower
branch in tomato Acta Horticulture 487 361-
366
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Emami and Eivazi
Evaluation of Genetic Variations of Tomato Genotypes (Solanum lycopersicum L) with Multivariate Analysis
284
Associate Professor Dr Ali Reza Eivazi obtained his first degree from University of Urmieh (West
Azerbaijan Province of Iran in bachelor) in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1991 He later pursued
master degree in plant breeding (Master of Science in Shiraz university Fars province of Iran) in
1997 I am received doctorate degree in plant breeding from university of Science and Research
campus of Tehran Iran in 2002 Currently I am researcher in agricultural research center of west
Azerbaijan province Urmieh Iran and I have numerous articles which published in international and
internal journals
Mrs Aliyeh Emami graduated in Agronomy and plant breeding in 1986 at bachelor degree and in
2005 obtained Master of Science in Agronomy from Urmieh University West Azerbaijan province of
Iran At presently She works from 20 years ago on vegetable crops in agricultural research center of
west Azerbaijan province in Iran
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p285-290
285
Full Length Research Paper
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve
Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
Muhammad Sarwar
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear Institute of Agriculture Tandojam-70060 Sindh Pakistan
E-mail drmsarwar64yahoocom
Received 25 July 2013 Accepted 2 September 2013
Abstract For selection of aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L) lines fifteen (15) genotypes (Graminales Poaceae) were evaluated
for insect pests detection and agronomic characteristic through field test The rice stem borer incidence was recorded according
to deadhearts whiteheads and grain yield parameters from the natural pest infestation In general the results on abundance and
diversity of pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth revealed the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) as most dominant insect pest On the basis of percent damage none at all rice genotypes were totally
free from stem borer damage and results showed significant differences (Plt 005) for the selected traits These results
demonstrated that evaluation of rice genotypes conducted for stem borer tolerance showed resistance reactions by the genomes
viz Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 These four genotypes possessed better antixenosis against adult
egg laying and antibiosis for larval survival of stem borer as compared to the susceptible genome These genotypes can be used
in resistance development breeding program and should be admired in stem borer endemic areas But the genotypes Basmati-
20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 were highly susceptible to borerrsquos incidence with a corresponding
reduction of paddy yield The present study implies that the tolerant elite lines are able to minimize yellow stem borerrsquos
damage and could be readily used in breeding program to release aromatic rice varieties with significantly improved paddy
yield
Key words Paddy Cultivation Rice Stem Borer Pest Control Scirpophaga Sustainable Agriculture
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of insects have been reported to ravage the
rice fields of Pakistan but the most important pests
are rice stem borer species belong to genus
Scirpophaga of family Pyralidae under the Order
Lepidoptera that are serious constraints of regular
occurrence in affecting rice crop The rice stem borers
cause injury to the crop at every phase of crop
development their larvae bore into stem feed on the
inner tissue and usually one larva occurs per tiller
The damage symptoms due to stem borer larvae on
affected plants differ with the development period at
which plant infestation is initiated The feedings of
larvae cause deadheart symptoms at the vegetative
stage and the rice plants may be capable of
recompense the damage during the stage of maximum
tillering During the reproductive stage the feedings
of larvae particularly in panicle initiation and earhead
emergence cause whitehead symptoms and with
heavy infestation resulting profound loss in yield The
last instar borer larvae create an outlet hole and pupate
in a silken cocoon inside the larval tunnel at the base
of rice plant (Sarwar 2012 a 2012 b) Damage at the
elongation stage usually does not produce such
symptoms but affects plant elongation capability
resulting in the loss of stem in the rising flood water
(Islam 1990) The damage is caused by caterpillars
only which bore into the leaf sheath and destroy the
growing tips by feeding the internal contents This in
turn disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant thereby causing drying of central shoot during
vegetative stage When the infestation occurs at the
flowering stage the earheads become chaffy (Jadhao
and Khurad 2012)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) a monophagous
pest of paddy is considered as most important
nuisance of rain fed low land and flood prone rice
eco-systems (Deka and Barthakur 2010) It is one of
the major pests in all rice producing areas of the
world Globally yellow rice stem borer alone causes
yield losses of 10 million tones and accounts for 50
of all insecticides used in the rice field (Huesing and
English 2004) Rice plants are vulnerable to the
yellow stem borer during the booting phase when
infestations cause the greatest yield loss Stem borer
feeding route depends on plant phenology larvae are
more likely to feed on the panicle than on vegetative
structures on booting heading and flowering tillers
Because larvae feed on the panicle resistance during
the booting phase may be effective if it reduces the
likelihood of panicle feeding or if strong antibiotic
resistance can be found in the panicle (Yolanda and
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
286
Romena 2006) Unlike other rice stem borers S
incertulas is well adopted to the aquatic deep-water
rice environment (Islam and Catling 1991)
At the present time farmers frequently use
chemical pesticides for the control of this pest
(Kudagamage and Nugaliyadde 1995) This reliance
on use of chemical pesticides leads to numerous
undesirable consequences Host plant resistance is
identified as the most effective way of stem borer
management in various regions Quite a lot of high
yielding rice cultivars having manifold resistances to
the insect pests have been developed and utilized in
the rice growing systems The varietals resistance is
the mainly inexpensive least problematical and
ecological friendly advantageous approach for the
control of insect pest damage Host plant resistance
has been emphasized as a major tactic in integrated
pest management for the motive of its monetary and
environment friendly benefits (Sarwar 2012 c) It is
critical to widen resistant varieties possessing
deviating genetic background to sustain a durable
resistance in the field and for that motivation the
assessment of rice varieties for resistance to stem
borer should continuously be done Therefore it is
important to identify new sources of high and broad
spectrum resistance for rice breeding against stem
borers The present trial is therefore undertaken in
order to evaluate new resistance resources for pestsrsquo
detection and yield characteristic through field test
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Field site and plant material
The material used in the study comprised of fifteen
(15) aromatic rice genotypes grown in agro-ecological
zone of Sindh province of Pakistan These genotypes
were evaluated during planting season of 2008 at
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Nuclear
Institute of Agriculture Tandojam town located in
periphery of Hyderabad The germplasms comprising
Basmati-15-15 Basmati-15-16 Basmati-20-300
Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 Basmati-15-13
Basmati-25-4 Jajai- (P) Jajai-15-1 Jajai-25A
Khushboo Mehak CR-12 CR-33 and CR-34 were
taken from Plant Breeding Division of same Institute
The experimental field was weed or stubble cleared
mechanically then disc ploughed and disc-harrowed
afterward All genotypes were appraised for pestsrsquo
incidence and grain yield attributing character
following randomized complete block design with
three replications For each replicate of a genotype an
area of 3 m2
was specified with a 2 m path
demarcating each replicate The seedlings of all rice
germplasm were raised in nursery seedbed and 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted in the field Spacing
of 30 cm was maintained between the rows and 15 cm
among the plants The crop was raised as per the
recommended package of practices and all cultural
operations were done as and when needed In this
trial only varietals resistance of these genotypes to
rice stem borers was observed and no chemical
control agent was used
22 Identification of varietals resistance
These germplasms were classified into different types
based on the stem borerrsquos incidence recorded
according to deadhearts whiteheads in the crop during
vegetative and reproductive stages respectively and
grain yield parameter at harvesting from the natural
infestation Generally stem borerrsquos incidence was
determined from the presence of deadhearts (larvae
bore leaf sheaths and stems causing dried-up of
central shoots of tillers) or whiteheads (larvae cut the
growing parts resulting in a white or dry empty
panicle) or both in each replicate of a genotype The
borerrsquos incidence was recorded at experimental site as
deadhearts 30 and 60 days after transplanting and as
whiteheads near harvest Just before the booting stage
deadhearts observations were taken from 1 m2
randomly selected area of each replicate of a genotype
by counting the total number of tillers and tillers
showing deadheart symptoms Whitehead counts were
taken one weak before the rice harvesting from each
replicate of a genotype For observation recording the
total numbers of productive tillers were counted then
numbers of damaged panicles found The percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads incidence were computed
by using the counting of total tillers and those with
deadhearts and whiteheads infestations Grain quality
and yield attribute data were obtained after harvesting
the rice crop at the experimental field After
harvesting the seeds of each rice genotype were used
to evaluate agronomic characteristic
23 Analysis of data
The data recorded on paddy yield percentage
deadhearts and whiteheads were subjected to
statistical analysis for characterization using Statistix
81 software All the means were then compared using
analysis of variance at 5 significant level
3 RESULTS
31 Pestrsquos diversity and damage mode in rice
production system
In general the results on abundance and diversity of
pestrsquos species at different stages of crop growth
revealed the yellow stem borer S incertulas as most
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
287
dominant insect belonging to the Lepidopteron family
Pyralidae Higher proportion of pest larvae dispersed
from vegetative rice plant than booting plants This is
linked to the alteration of phenological of rice crop in
relation to different stages of growth Definitely odor
and growth of plants acted as specific line to the
larvae for crop During the vegetative stage the
numbers of tillers enhanced and the greatest numbers
were achieved ahead of the booting stage Further at
booting stage the rice tillers had larger stem diameter
and for that reason made certain relatively better
quantity of food resources and tendered larger
survival value to the population of larvae Typically
within a single tiller one larva was found near to
apical growing area of the plant in comparison to the
other segment of the plant tissue This is due to more
rigidity and less palatability of the plant tissue
comparatively at the apical growing area of the plant
At booting heading and flowering growths of tillers
stem borer feeding route also depended on plant
phenology The larvae were more likely to nourish on
the panicle compared to vegetative portions
32 Identification of varietals resistance
In this experiment the reactions of the rice
germplasms to stem borer infestation are presented in
Table 1 In general the result of experiment showed
that most of the germplasms were found to give minor
to moderate type of resistance against stem borers
Only four genotypes had slight deadhearts and
whiteheads infestations and four had heavy incidence
With respect to deadhearts spreading values four
genotypes Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A CR-33 and
Basmati-15-13 having a score of 395 447 457 and
484 respectively were exceedingly tolerant But
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 captured more mean values of deadhearts
(1030 918 811 and 778 respectively) proving
susceptible and significant variations were observed
among the genotypes
Regarding whiteheads Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 had the minimum mean
values for this trait (597 681 758 and 777
respectively) Meanwhile the germplasms viz
Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400 Basmati-15-3 and
CR-12 had abundant infestation of stem borer (1472
1331 1290 and 1289 whiteheads respectively)
and were categorized as susceptible to the pest
Regarding paddy yield Basmati-15-15 Jajai-25A
CR-33 and Basmati-15-13 had the minimum mean
values for this attribute (15117 14250 14000 and
13900 gm per 3 m2 respectively) with a good grain
quality On the basis of paddy yield only four
varieties viz Basmati-20-300 Basmati-20-400
Basmati-15-3 and CR-12 could recorded significantly
less produce (7517 8333 8617 and 8667 gm per 3
m2 respectively) which were more infested and
produced fewer grains This study showed that there is
a great diversity of volatiles in aromatic rice cultivars
and with further research this may lead to a better
understanding of the combination of compounds that
give a cultivar an unique tolerant
Table 1 Screening of aromatic rice genotypes against rice stem borers and grain quality traits
S No Rice genotypes Stem Borers infestation () Yield plot
(3 m2) (gm) Deadhearts Whiteheads
1 Basmati-15-15 395 f 597 g 15117 a
2 Basmati-15-16 609 cdef 955 def 10167 d
3 Basmati-20-300 1030 a 1472 a 7517 f
4 Basmati-20-400 918 ab 1331 ab 8333 ef
5 Basmati-15-3 811 abc 1290 abc 8617 e
6 Basmati-15-13 484 ef 758 efg 13900 b
7 Basmati-25-4 641 cdef 996 cde 9967 d
8 Jajai- (P) 703 bcde 1090 bcd 8700 e
9 Jajai-15-1 698 bcde 1093 bcd 9917 d
10 Jajai-25A 447 ef 681 fg 14250 ab
11 Khushboo 512 def 948 def 11333 c
12 Mehak 531 def 870 defg 13433 b
13 CR-12 778 abcd 1289 abc 8667 e
14 CR-33 457 ef 777 efg 14000 b
15 CR-34 552 cdef 901 defg 12233 c
S E 1313 1515 44089 Means in the column followed by similar letter (s) superscript are not significantly different according to Least Significantly Difference Test (Pgt 005)
4 DISCUSSIONS
The screening of fifteen (15) aromatic rice
germplasms led to the identification of some
genotypes with natural resistance to the stem borer
Resistance to stem borer in Basmati-15-15 Jajai-
25A Basmati-15-13 and CR-33 appeared to be due to
the presence of a strong repellent or a lack of feeding
stimulus in the plants and either due to the presence
of toxic materials or nutritional deficiencies in the
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
288
plant for the insect In nature to reduce insect pestrsquos
damage plants may make use a variety of resistance
types Generally the plant resistance to insects is
distinguished as antibiosis (reductions of insect
survival growth rate or reproduction subsequent to
ingestion of host tissue) tolerance (despite insect
infestation capacity of a crop to produce high quality
yield) and antixenosis (quality of plant to repel or
disturb insects to reduce their colonization or
oviposition) (Alam and Cohen 1998) All the three
categories of resistance are observed against bores in
rice germplasm Similar to this study other
investigators (Abro et al 2003 Khan et al 2010
Sarwar et al 2010 Sarwar 2011 and Sarwar 2012
d) also recorded differential behavior of rice cultivars
to borerrsquos infestation in Pakistan The results revealed
that larval damage varied significantly with varieties
of rice and that among traditional basmati growing
areas stem borers are a great threat and in certain
cases crop is left un-harvested in the field due to the
cost of harvesting being higher than the attainable
yield
Evaluation of some selected rice germplasms was
conducted in this trail in the natural infestation of
lepidopteron insects The estimates obtained based
upon parameters of stem borer incidence (deadhearts
or whiteheads and yield) showed resistance reactions
in some genotypes these promising plant materials
ought to be popularized in stem borer prevalent
regions and can be used in varietals breeding program
Moreover in field conditions these results
demonstrated the expression of the resistance genome
of rice that can provide season-long protection from
the infestation of lepidopteron insect pests Rice plant
is susceptible to the yellow stem borer S incertulas
throughout the booting stage when infestations
caused the greatest yield loss from the natural
infestation Since larvae fed more on the panicle so
resistance in rice may be more effective throughout
the booting period if strong antibiotic resistance can
be found in the panicle to reduce the likelihood of
panicle feeding The identical observations were given
by earlier investigators (Yolanda and Romena 2006
Satpathi et al 2012) on feeding patterns of S
incertulas on rice during the booting stage
Numerous physical and chemical
characteristics of rice were evaluated to determine
which character would be the best to assess multiple
rice varieties for resistance breeding to the borers A
significant positive correlation was observed between
different corrected damage ratings and leaf width and
chlorophyll content in rice leaves whereas no
significant correlations between resistance and plant
height and leaf length were found (Xu et al 2010)
Results of the study showed that mechanism of
tolerance were affected by the plant height and
amount of chlorophyll on antixenosis mechanism
stem diameter and number of tillers on antibiosis
mechanism (Hosseini et al 2011)
Previous reports have proposed that the mechanism
of tolerance for the insect depends upon many factors
occurring that time and environmental conditions are
also more important and effective Resistance to stem
borers appears to be under polygenic control (Khush
1984) Many morphological anatomical
physiological and biochemical factors have been
reported to be associated with resistance each
controlled by different sets of genes (Chaudhary et al
1984) Some varieties have added resistance caused
by the presence of minor genes however in future it
is possible to determine which resistance genes are
still effective against the local borer populations To
verify whether one or many genes exist in the tolerant
genotypes they ought to intercross in reciprocal
directions to study inheritance of resistance Further
research is required to conclusively determine the
allelic relationships of resistance genes in the tolerant
genotypes
5 CONCLUSION
Presently through rigorous testing of some rice
germplasms for resistance to stem borers few
resistant genotypes are identified Because the data
confirming the occurrence of the new rice genotypes
resistant to borers are somewhat small so the
inclusion of resistance to the better rice varieties is
crucial Resistance noted among these genotypes
could be owing to previously recognized resistant
genes or else attributable to new genes Hence more
experiments ought to be conducted with markers for
previously recognized resistant genes to perceive
whether the resistance noticed in rice germplasms is
as a result of existing resistant genes or new genes to
keep away from genetic homogeny of borer resistance
in rice Their identification and characterizing may
support for upcoming transfer of genes into a wide
range of commercial rice cultivars The results of
genetic stocks must facilitate in understanding pest
resistance categories of rice to set a solid foundation
for breeding new resistance varieties
REFERENCES
Abro GH Lakho GM Syed TS (2003) Relative
resistance of some rice cultivars to yellow
Scirpophaga incertulus and Pink Sesamia
inferens stem borers Pakistan J Zool 35 (2)
85-90
Alam SN Cohen MB (1998) Detection and analysis
of QTLs for resistance to the brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens in a doubled-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
Genetics 97 1370-1379
Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
Insect Sci Appl 5 447-463
Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
308
Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
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- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 285-290 2013
289
haploid rice population Theoretical Applied
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Chaudhary RC Khush GS Heinrichs EA (1984)
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia
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Deka S Barthakur S (2010) Overview on current
status of biotechnological interventions on
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Crambidae) resistance in rice
Biotechnol Adv 28 (1) 70-81
Hosseini SZ Jelodar NB Bagheri N Alinia F (2011)
Traits Affecting the Resistance of Rice
Genotypes to Rice Stem Borer International
Journal of Biology 3 (1) 130-135
Huesing J English L (2004) The impact of Bt Crops
on the developing world Ag Bio Forum 7 (1-
2) 84-95
Islam Z (1990) Influence of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) on deepwater rice
Bulletin of Entomological Research 80 301-
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Islam Z Catling HD (1991) Biology and behaviour of
rice yellow stem borer in deep water rice J
Plant Prot In the Tropics 8 85-96
Jadhao MF Khurad AM (2012) Biology of
Scirpophaga incertulus (W) A Major Pest of
Rice in Eastern Vidarbha Maharashtra
International Indexed amp Refferred Research
Journal 1 (1) 14-16
Khan SM Murtaza G Mir H (2010) Screening of Six
Rice Varieties against Yellow Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulus WALKER Sarhad J
Agric 26 (4) 591-594
Khush GS (1984) Breeding rice for resistance to
insects Protection Ecol 7 147-165
Kudagamage C Nugaliyadde L (1995) Present status
and future directions of insect pest management
in rice In Amarasiri SL Nagarajah S Perera
MBK editors Rice Congress 1990
Proceedings of the Rice Symposium Kandy
(Sri Lanka) DOASL pp 39-54
Sarwar M (2011) Effects of Zinc fertilizer application
on the incidence of rice stem borers
(Scirpophaga species) (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
in rice (Oryza sativa L) crop Journal of
Cereals and Oilseeds 2 (5) 61-65
Sarwar M (2012 a) Study on the non aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) varietals resistance to rice
stem borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) and yield
factors International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (5) 159-163
Sarwar M (2012 b) Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L) Journal of Cereals and
Oilseeds 3 (1) 10-14
Sarwar M (2012 c) Management of aromatic rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotypes using varietal
resistance against the prevalence of rice stems
borers International journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production 3 (8) 295-299
Sarwar M (2012 d) Effects of potassium fertilization
on population build up of rice stem borers
(Lepidopteron pests) and rice (Oryza sativa L)
yield Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds 3 (1) 6-
9
Sarwar M Ahmad N Nasrullah Tofique M (2010)
Tolerance of different rice genotypes (Oryza
sativa L) against the infestation of rice stem
borers under natural field conditions The
Nucleus 47 (3) 253-259
Satpathi CR Kaushik C Shikari D Acharjee P
(2012) Consequences of Feeding by Yellow
Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walk) On
Rice Cultivar Swarna mashuri (MTU 7029)
World Applied Sciences Journal 17 (4) 532-
539
Xu J Wang QX Wu JC (2010) Resistance of
Cultivated Rice Varieties to Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Lepidoptera Pyralidae) Journal of
Economic Entomology 103 (4) 1166-1171
Yolanda HC Romena A (2006) Feeding Patterns of
Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera
Crambidae) on Wild and Cultivated Rice during
the Booting Stage Environmental Entomology
35 (4) 1094-1102
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
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Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Sarwar
Valuation of Some Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L) Genetic Materials to Achieve Tolerant Resources for Rice Stem
Borers (Lepidoptera Pyralidae)
290
Dr Muhammad Sarwar has more than 23 years research experience in the field of integrated insect
pests management including opening a new avenue for culturing and applications of bio-control
agents like Predatory mites Coccinelid beetle and Chrysopid for pests control needs The Investigator
has been an active member of a IAEA project on IPM of Fruit Fly in Pakistanrsquos environment together
with use of radiations as tactic of fruit fly control and production of their parasitoids He has
completed one year fellowship at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing and awarded
Post Doctorate certificate from China Postdoctoral Council 2008 after fellowship There the
Investigator attained a vast experience of culturing predatory mites for their releasing in field and
protected environment for insect and mite pests management For outstanding and significant
contributions on the work of innovative methodology with a particular focus on insect pests control
strategy awarded Gold Medal-2010 from Zoological Society of Pakistan Research Productivity
Award-2011 by Pakistan Council for Science and Technology and selected as approved Ph D Supervisor on Higher
Education Commission of Pakistanrsquos panel Participated in FAO IAEA training courses on Surveillance of Tephrited Fruit
Flies in Support of Planning and Implementing Area Wide Integrated Pest Management program-2010 Thailand Control of
Aedes mosquitoes using SIT and other suppression techniques Seibersdorf Austria-2011 Basic Surveillance and Control for
Dengue Vectors in Pakistan and Elsewhere and 2nd
Regional Dengue Workshop-2012 Pakistan financed by IAEA under
Technical Cooperation Current responsibilities include research on topics relating to Mosquitoes surveillance identification
biology and experimentation towards integrated mosquitoes control to prevent mosquito-borne diseases and IPM of Fruit
flies Recently attended the 13th
International Dengue Course held on 12-23 August 2013 at lsquoPedro Kourirsquo Tropical Medicine
Institute Cuban Society of Microbiology amp Parasitology Ministry of Public Health of the Republic of Cuba Havana Cuba
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p291-299
291
Full Length Research Paper
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River
Bangladesh
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman Sanjida Hoque Moly A H M Saadat
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka 1342 Bangladesh
Corresponding Author tanvir497gmailcom
Received 29 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract Environmental flow is necessary for securing ecological health status of a river Around the Dhaka city of
Bangladesh the Turag an ecologically critical area is an important river Environmental flow assessment of the Turag can help
to sustain ecosystem and navigation in it The aims of the research are to estimate environmental flow of the Turag and to
assess current flow condition Mean daily discharge data recorded by Bangladesh Water Development Board had been
collected and analyzed for two periods (1989-2004) and (2005-2009) Mean Annual Flow (MAF) Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
and Range of Variability Approach (RVA) methods were used and IHA software had been exercised in calculating
environmental flow According to RVA FDC and MAF methods estimated environmental flow was found to be 19272 cms
2065 cms and 18077 cms respectively with the mean of 19272 cms It is observed that in more recent time the
environmental flow is not maintained during the low flow season in the river and overall flow rate is reduced Mean maximum
and minimum annual flows are reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from the period (1989-2004) to (2005-2009)
Considering environmental flows estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and 36 of total flow of the period 2005-
2009 flowed below the required environmental flow In FDC method about 35 flow is flowed below the required
environmental flow during the low flow season in the same period These findings may help the policy makers to manage
water resources in the catchment area of the Turag
Key words Flow Duration Curve Hydrologic Alteration Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration Mean Annual Flow Range of
Variability Approach
1 INTRODUCTION
Variability of river flow influences water quality
energy cycles biotic interactions and habitat of rivers
(Naiman et al 2002) More recent time the river
scientists refer to the flow regime in freshwater
systems as a master variable due to its strong
influence on the environmental factors eg water
chemistry physical habitat biological composition
and interactions (WB 2008) Minimum flow in rivers
and streams is necessary to provide a certain level of
protection for the aquatic environment (Jowett 1997)
Although human manipulation of river flow provides
many societal benefits it also degrades and eliminates
valuable ecosystem services and threatens freshwater
biodiversity (Bunn and Arthington 2002 Magilligan
and Nislow 2005) There is now widespread
understanding that the environment is a legitimate
user of the river The environmental flow or the
provision of water within rivers to conserve
freshwater biodiversity while meeting the water
demand of human society is needed for most riverine
systems (Brown and King 2003) To evaluate the
ecological effect indicators are needed to evaluate the
overall ecological health of the river and the degree of
hydrologic alteration caused by a particular operating
policy (Gao et al 2009)
It is possible to describe flow regime in terms of
environmental flow components Environmental flows
are a regime of flow in a river or stream that describes
the temporal and spatial variation in quantity and
quality of water required for freshwater as well as
estuarine systems to perform their natural ecological
functions including sediment transport and support the
cultural and livelihood activities that depend on these
ecosystems (Tare 2011) The health and integrity of
river systems ultimately depend on these components
which may vary seasonally (Mathews and Richter
2007) Moreover environmental flow is necessary for
securing ecological health status of a river River
health is often equated with bdquobiological integrity‟
which has been defined as ldquothe capability of
supporting and maintaining a balanced integrated
adaptive community of organisms having a
composition and diversity comparable to that of the
natural habitats of the regionrdquo (Frey 1977)
Improved quantitative evaluations of human-
induced hydrologic changes are needed to advance
research on the biotic implications of hydrologic
alteration and to support ecosystem management and
restoration plans (Richter et al 1996) The concept
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
292
of environmental flow is relatively new in
Bangladesh Organizations responsible for water
management are becoming increasingly aware of their
responsibilities for environmental protection creating
an increasing interest in methods of assessing flow
requirements for different instream uses (Jowett
1997) Now a day most of the rivers around the main
cities of Bangladesh are polluted because of receiving
huge amount of partially treated and untreated sewage
effluent sewage polluted surface run-off and
untreated industrial effluent from nearby residential
and industrial areas The Government of Bangladesh
(GoB) is solely responsible to maintain environmental
flow in the rivers By imposing importance on the
environmental flow the GoB makes one of the seven
strategies to assess environmental flow requirement
after prioritizing twelve major issuesproblems as the
main sources of coastal and marine pollution (DoE
2007) The capital city Dhaka is surrounded by the
rivers named Balu Buriganga Dhaleshwari
Shitalakhya Tongi khal and Turag (Fig 1) The flow
of the Turag River is the main source of water into the
Buriganga particularly during the dry period (Kamal
1996 Alam 2003) and the Buriganga is the main
navigation route to the southern part of Bangladesh
The Turag River has been declared as ecologically
critical area (ECA) by the Department of Environment
on September 2009 (DoE and LGED 2010)
Present study aims to estimate environmental flow
of the Turag River which can be used for future
reference in management purposes and to assess the
flowing condition of the river through the comparison
between past and more recent time
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
21 Study area and data collection
The Turag River is the upper tributary of the
Buriganga The Turag originates from the Bangshi
River (Fig 1) The Turag flows through Gazipur
district and joins the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka
district The Tongi Khal links the Turag with the
Balu River (Choudhury and Choudhury 2004) The
entire regime of the Turag is almost a semi-funnel
shaped basin and its catchment is located on the
central and southern part of the Madhupur tract and
flows from north to south within the basin and its
length is about 40 miles and 15 miles in wide to the
maximum The average width and depth of the river
are about 218m and 135m respectively It has a total
area of 386 square miles (Uddin 2005) From 1989 to
2009 mean daily discharge (cms) data had been
collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) Among these years the supplied data had
been missing for 1994 1995 and 2007
Fig 1 The Turag River and other rivers at the surroundings of the Dhaka city
22 Analysis of flow characteristics
The historical river data had been analyzed under two
periods named P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009)
The river characteristics and estimated environmental
flow of P1 were compared with P2 Results are
organized as parametric statistics in which data are
characterized by mean or standard deviation The flow
in the Turag varies from season to season For the
convenience in analysis of the flow data annual flow
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
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- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
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-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
293
had been characterized in three separate seasons
named low flow season (February to May) high flow
season (July to October) and intermediate flow season
(November to January and June)
23 Estimation of environmental flow
An instream flow policy requires clear and
measurable goals ideally defining the goal (e g
retention of a resource or instream use) the extent to
which this is to be achieved (ie level of protection)
and criteria for evaluating the achievement (Beecher
1990) In practice either the proportion of the flow
wetted perimeter or physical habitat that is retained by
a minimum flow is used as a measure of the level of
protection (Jowett 1997) There are 207 methods
from 44 countries that had been used to assess
environmental flow (Tharme 2003) The different
methods of environmental flow assessment used all
over the world can be grouped into four main
categories hydrological hydraulic rating habitat
simulation and holistic methods (Tharme 2003 and
King et al 2000) Again quantitative instream flow
methods are generally divided into three major
categories historic flow regime hydraulic and habitat
(Jowett 1997) Among these methods hydrological
(or historic flow regime) is the easiest to use and the
required data is only the historic flow records of the
stream concern (Mullick et al 2010) For the research
work Mean Annual Flow (MAF) method (Tennant
1976) Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method and
Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al
1997) were used to estimate the environmental flow
which are under the hydrological method In MAF
method environmental flow requirement is set at
different percentage of the mean annual flow that
varies from 10 to 200 The percentage is set
considering the desired habitat quality (Table 1) The
FDC is a very useful tool for assessing the overall
historical variation in flow (Lamb et al 2009) The
RVA method provides a flow target that resembles the
natural flow regime with the primary objective of
protecting natural ecosystem (Mullick et al 2010)
The IHA software (version 71) had been exercised to
acquire required calculation of FDC and RVA to
estimate environmental flow of the Turag River
Table 1 Percentage of MAF for various Habitat Qualities (Tennant 1976)
Habitat Quality Percent of Mean Annual Flow (MAF)
Low Flow Season High Flow Season
Flushing or maximum 200 200
Optimum 60-100 60-100
Outstanding 40 60
Excellent 30 50
Good 20 40
Fair 10 30
Poor 10 10
Severe degradation lt10 lt10
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
31 General characteristics of the Turag
In the dry season (November to February) the water
flow is the lowest in the Turag By considering mean
monthly annual flows September is the highest
flowing (639 cms for P1 and 5427 cms for P2)
month January is the lowest flowing (2051 cms)
month for P2 and May is the lowest flowing (4102
cms) month for P1 Some other general characteristics
are shown in Table 2
Table 2 General characteristics of the Turag Characteristics P1 P2
Mean annual flow (cms) 47719 31271
Maximum annual flow (cms) 73788 43188
Minimum annual flow (cms) 23233 21243
Annual C V 043 064
Flow predictability 063 061
Constancypredictability 091 065
of floods in 60d period 068 057
The estimated high and extreme low flow
thresholds for the Turag are 611 and 1939 cms
respectively Comparing with each other P2
significantly reduces high flow and shows larger
portion of flow flows below the extreme low flow
threshold (Fig 2) For P1 about 41 of total flow
flows over high flow threshold that reduces to about
16 for P2 Again the portion of extreme low flow
threshold increases from about 2 to 36 for P1 and
P2 respectively
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
294
Fig 2 Scenarios of mean daily discharge of the Turag for (a) P1 (1989-2004) and (b) P2 (2005-2009)
32 Environmental flow components (EFCs) of the
Turag
The IHA software calculates 34 parameters under 5
groups of Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) as
shown in Table 3 Low flow season (February to May)
is the main concern to estimate environmental flow of
the river Considering EFCs monthly low flows of the
Turag show clear reduction of flow from P1 to P2
(Table 3) According to Julian date of peak flow for
P2 extreme low peak of the Turag occurs during the
pre-monsoon period (at May) however for P1
extreme low peak takes place during the monsoon
period (at September) of Bangladesh Again at
September during the monsoon period small flood
occurs for both P1 and P2 33 Estimation of
environmental flow
331 RVA analysis
In IHA software the RVA targets are computed
setting at +- 1 standard deviation In setting such
target it is implicitly assumed that values within these
limits from the mean are not expected to have
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
295
significant impact on stream ecology (Mullick et al
2010) The RVA targets with mean monthly flow for
two periods (P1 and P2) are presented in Fig 3 It is
clearly seen that at P2 period the Turag flows below
the lower range of RVA which last from December to
May that exceeds the months of the low flow season
(February to May) In this method the Turag should
have at least 2065 cms of flow to meet environmental
flow requirement which is the lowest value of the
lower range of RVA
Table 3 Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) containing types and parameters of the Turag Type 1 Monthly low flows P1 P2 Type 3High flow pulse P1 P2
January Low Flow (cms) 4016 3075 High flow peak (cms) 6733 6843
February Low Flow (cms) 4008 4449 High flow duration (days) 1251 6667
March Low Flow (cms) 4002 4736 High flow timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
2289 2276
April Low Flow (cms) 3994 5023 High flow frequency (per year) 1571 2
May Low Flow (cms) 3801 3736 High flow rise rate (cmsyear) 1555 2208
June Low Flow (cms) 3988 4124 High flow fall rate (cmsyear) -2076 -6367
July Low Flow (cms) 4775 4492 Type 4Small Flood P1 P2
August Low Flow (cms) 5199 4664 Small Flood peak (cms) 9189 9805
September Low Flow (cms) 505 4221 Small Flood duration (days) 9217 84
October Low Flow (cms) 409 3128 Small Flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
248 267
November Low Flow (cms) 4252 291 Small Flood frequency (per year) 04286 025
December Low Flow (cms) 4225 3062 Small Flood riserate (cmsyear) 1635 5296
Type 2Extreme low flows P1 P2 Small Flood fallrate (cmsyear) -214 -4349
Extreme low peak (cms) 1532 8428 Type 5Large flood P1 P2
Extreme low duration (days) 1217 1593 Large flood peak peak (cms) 1097 --
Extreme low timing
(Julian date of peak flow)
2729 1305 Large flood duration (days) 450 --
Extreme low frequency (per year) 03571 075 Large flood timing (Julian date of
peak flow)
250 --
Large flood frequency (per year) 007143 0
Large flood rise rate (cmsyear) 9057 --
Large flood fall rate (cmsyear) -1228 --
Fig 3 RVA targets and mean monthly flow (MMF) for two periods (P1 and P2) of the Turag River
332 Flow duration curve (FDC) method
A flow duration curve (FDC) represents the
relationship between the magnitude and duration of
stream flows duration in this context refers to the
overall percentage of time that a particular flow is
exceeded In practice FDCs are used mainly in
relation to the setting of environmental flow
objectives In the United Kingdom Q95 flow (the flow
exceeded 95 of the time according to the FDC) has
been used historically to represent the low flow in a
river (Lamb et al 2009) This means that abstraction
is permitted for the flow which is greater than the Q95
In case of Bangladesh Mullick et al (2010) and
Hossain and Hosasin (2011) used 90 (or 90th
percentile) to represent the low flow in the Tista and
the Dudhkumar respectively two northwestern rivers
of the country Again for Bangladesh the mentioned
authors set 50 (or 50th percentile) for high flow
season to determine environmental flow requirement
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
296
Fig 4 Flow duration curve (FDC) for P1 (1989-2004) and P2 (2005-2009) of the Turag
The FDC for the Turag is shown in Fig 4 and the
environmental flow requirement is in Table 4 During
the low flow season the Turag is needed 18077 cms
of water which is maintained by all months of
intermediate and high flow seasons at P1 The
minimum requirement based of FDC method is
retained by P2 during both intermediate and high flow
seasons except low flow season About 35 flows are
flowed below the required environmental flow during
the low flow season of P2
Table 4 Environmental flow requirement of the Turag based on flow duration curve
Flow season Percentile value Flow (cms)
P1 P2
Low flow 90th 18077 6233
Intermediate flow 50th 40589 19138
High flow 50th 56685 46782
333 Mean annual flow (MAF) method
This method is generally known as Tennant method
The mean annual flow of the Turag is 47719 cms
(Table 2) which is calculated with defined percentage
as described in Table 1 and the results are shown in
Table 5 Although 9544 cms is supposed to meet
environmental flow requirement of the Turag
according to MAF method the result is not close
enough to environmental flow requirement obtained
from other two methods as described earlier During
the low flow season 19088 cms flow requires to
maintain outstanding habitat quality which is closer to
environmental flow requirement for the Turag found
by RVA and FDC methods
Table 5 Flow requirement of the Turag in MAF method according to habitat quality
Habitat Quality Low Flow Season (cms) High Flow Season (cms)
Flushing or maximum 95438 95438
Optimum 28631-47719 28631-47719
Outstanding 19088 28631
Excellent 14316 23860
Good 9544 19088
Fair 4772 14316
Poor 4772 4772
Severe degradation lt 4772 lt 4772
34 Change of flow in the Turag
Hydrologic alteration (HA) can be used to determine
change of flow in the river which is calculated by the
IHA software according to the following equation ndash
A positive HA value means that the frequency of
values in the category has increased from pre- to post-
condition (with a maximum value of infinity) while a
negative value means that the frequency of values has
decreased (with a minimum value of -1) (TNC 2009)
From Table 6 it is evident that significant increase in
alteration occurs at P2 for low RVA In case of high
and middle RVAs increase in alternation occurs only
at July and September months respectively and at
other months the RVAs decrease Mean annual flow
maximum and minimum annual flow are reduced
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
297
about 35 42 and 9 respectively from P1 to P2
(Table 2) Considering environmental flow estimated
by RVA method only about 3 of total flow flows
below this value for P1 period and about 40 flows
for P2 period
Table 6 Hydrologic alteration from P1 to P2 of the Turag
Months Hydrologic Alteration
High RVA
Category
Middle RVA
Category
Low RVA
Category
January -1 -065 425
February -1 -065 425
March -1 -065 425
April -1 -065 425
May -1 -061 425
June -1 -022 25
July 25 -065 1333
August -1 -030 25
September -1 005 25
October -1 -022 25
November -1 -022 1333
December -1 -061 25
From FDC in Fig 4 the change of flow can also
be verified For P2 the annual FDC clearly alters
significantly especially after 375 of exceedance
probability After 85 of exceedance probability
annual FDC of P2 sharply reduces comparing with P1
Again at P2 period significant amount of flow
reduces during low flow (about 66) and
intermediate flow (about 53) seasons and during
high flow season the reduction rate is about 17
(Table 4) In MAF method the river flow also
significantly reduces from P1 to P2 periods Less than
2 of total flow flows below the estimated
environmental flow (19088 cms) for P1 and about
36 flows below for P2 period
4 CONCLUSION
The estimated environmental flow requirement of the
Turag according to RVA FDC and MAF methods are
2065 cms 18077 cms and 19088 cms respectively
By taking average of these values the Turag should
have at least 19272 cms all the year around to meet
environmental requirement or instream demand
Mean maximum and minimum annual flows are
reduced about 35 42 and 9 respectively from
P1 to P2 periods Considering environmental flows
estimated by RVA and MAF methods about 40 and
36 of total flow of P2 period flow below the
estimated required environmental flow Again in FDC
method about 35 flows are flowed below the
required environmental flow during the low flow
season of P2 Therefore in all scenarios the Turag
suffers from significant hydrologic alteration that
reveals reduction of flow in recent time
REFERENCES
Alam K (2003) Cleanup of the Buriganga River
integrating the environment into decision
making PhD Thesis Murdoch University
Australia
Beecher HA (1990) Standards for instream flows
Rivers 1 97ndash109
Brown C King J (2003) Environmental Flow
Assessment Concepts and Methods Water
Resources and Environment Technical Note
C1 World Bank Washington DC USA
Bunn SE Arthington AH (2002) Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow
regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environmental
Management 30 492-507
Choudhury GA Choudhury A (2004) An assessment
of water resources and flood management of
Dhaka city Water resources management and
development in Dhaka city Geothe-institut
Dhaka Bangladesh
DoE (2007) Bangladesh National programme of
action for protection of the coastal and marine
environment from land-based activities
Department of Environment Dhaka
Bangladesh httpwwwdoe-
bdorgnpa_draftpdf
DoE LGED (2010) Limited environment amp social
impact assessment and environmental amp social
management framework Bangladesh Dhaka
environment and water project Volume 1
Department of Environment and Local
Government Engineering Department
Bangladesh
Frey DG (1977) Biological integrity of water ndash a
historical approach The Integrity of Water
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Rahman et al
Environmental Flow Requirement and Comparative Study of the Turag River Bangladesh
298
US Environmental Protection Agency
Washington DC USA
Gao Y Vogel RM Kroll CN Poff NL Olden JD
(2009) Development of representative
indicators of hydrologic alteration Journal of
Hydrology 374 136ndash147
Hossain MM Hosasin MJ (2011) Instream flow
requirement of Dudhkumar River in
Bangladesh Asian Transactions on
Engineering 1 42ndash49
Jowett IG (1997) Instream flow methods a
comparison of approaches Regulated rivers
Research amp Management 13 115ndash127
Kamal MM (1996) Assessment of pollution of the
Buriganga River Bangladesh using a water
quality model MSc thesis Department of
Civil Engineering Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology (BUET) Dhaka
Bangladesh
King JM Tharme RE de Villiers DE (2000)
Environmental flow assessments for rivers
Manual for the Building Block methodology
Freshwater Research Unit University of Cape
Town WRE report no TT 13100
Lamb R Faulkner DS Zaidman MD (2009)
Hydrology Fluvial Design Guide Environment
Agency UK
Magilligan FJ Nislow KH (2005) Changes in
hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology
71 61ndash78
Mathews R Richter B (2007) Application of the
indicators of hydrologic alteration software in
environmental flow-setting Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 43
1400-1413
Mullick RA Babel MS Perret SR (2010) Flow
characteristics and environmental flow
requirements for the Teesta River Bangladesh
Proceedings of International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB10) Japan
Naiman RJ Bunn SE Nilsson C Petts GE Thompson
LC (2002) Legitimizing fluvial ecosystems as
users of water Environmental Management
30455-467
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Powell J Braun DP
(1996) A method for assessing hydrologic
alteration within ecosystems Conservation
Biology 10 1163ndash1174
Richter BD Baumgartner JV Wigington R Braun DP
(1997) How much water does a river need
Freshwater Biology 37 231-249
Tare V (2011) Environmental Flows State-of-the-Art
with special reference to rivers in the Ganga
River Basin Report
Code022_GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec
2011 Development of GRB EMP IIT Kanpur
India
Tennant L (1976) Instream flow regimes for fish
wildlife recreation and related environment
resource Fisheries 1 6-10
Tharme RE (2003) A global perspective on
environmental flow assessment Emerging
trends in the development and application of
environmental flow methodologies for rivers
River Research and Applications 19 397ndash441
TNC (2009) Indicators of hydrologic alteration
(version 71) users manual The Nature
Conservancy USA
Uddin HM (2005) Initial environmental impact
assessment of the Turag-Buriganga naval
transport MSc thesis Department of
Geography and Environment Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh
WB (2008) Integrating environmental flows into
hydropower dam planning design and
operation World Bank USA
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 291-299 2013
299
Mirza ATM Tanvir Rahman is the Lecturer of the Department of Environment Sciences
Jahangirnagar University Savar Dhaka Bangladesh since November 2012 He achieved BSc (Hons)
and MS in Environmental Sciences from Jahangirnagar University in 2006 and 2007 respectively
His interest areas are water and soil sciences and climate change Before joining as a faculty member
of Jahangirnagar University he was engaged in two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) named
Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Certre (BDPC) a national NGO as Programme Officer (Climate
Change) and BRAC the largest NGO of the world as Young Professional
Sanjida Hoque is MS student Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University
Savar Dhaka Bangladesh Sanjida bagged her BSc (Hons) in Environmental Sciences from the same
University in 2011 Her life purpose is to fight against environmental pollution in Bangladesh through
sustainable natural resources management She wants to do further research on flow alteration of rivers
and drawdown pattern in aquifer due to excess pumping in Bangladesh Her hobby is reading story
books and poems
A H M Saadat is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar
University Dhaka Bangladesh He started his carrier as a lecturer in that University in 2003 Mr
Saadat attended his graduation and master‟s program in Physics from Jahangirnagar University He
later obtained his MPhil degree in Ion Beam Material Analysis of Environmental Samples from the
same institute in 2007 Presently he is continuing his doctoral research in a joint program between
Jahangirnagar University and University of Birmingham (UK) on contaminant hydrogeology of
urban aquifer under the funding of Commonwealth Split-Site Scholarship (UK) His area of research
is Environmental Monitoring and Modeling His research interest includes groundwater and
watershed modeling in relation to industrial and agricultural pollution load He has 25 peer reviewed
research articles (local and international) on diverse environmental issues
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013 Available online at httpwwwijsrpubcomijsres
ISSN 2322-4983 copy2013 IJSRPUB
httpdxdoiorg1012983ijsres-2013-p300-305
300
Full Length Research Paper
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water
Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of Kaduna Nigeria
Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan
1 Toyin Gideon Okedayo
1 Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba
2
1Faculty of Science Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
2Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria
Correspondence Author dejoolaniyangmailcom
Received 19 July 2013 Accepted 12 September 2013
Abstract This paper presents the result of a two-dimensional model for predicting groundwater hydraulic head in Nariya
Village Kaduna Nigeria Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was employed in investigating the subsurface water level at six
different points (500m to 1km apart) and the result obtained was used to fit a two-dimensional polynomial using Mathcad 14
which satisfactorily predicted the groundwater hydraulic head at other locations on the site Surface and Piezometric surface
contour maps were plotted using the polynomial with Maple 14 software and the modeled result showed good agreement with
the interpreted field data with less than 4 error margin
Key words Groundwater hydraulic head interpolation polynomial vertical electrical sounding
1 INTRODUCTION
11 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in the
development and management of water resources
Hence the increasing need for information on
groundwater hydrology and hydraulics of movement
of water in aquifers (Bear 1979) The actual pattern
of the groundwater level changes in the aquifer is of
great interest to hydrologists irrigation engineers and
related practitioners hence the need to formulate
models both theoretical and mathematical to
accurately forecast the groundwater level
Models for groundwater analysis are powerful
techniques for forecasting the effects on a system
created by causative elements Numerical modeling of
a groundwater basin system involves constituting a
groundwater model that is mainly mathematical in
nature involving the inherent characteristics of an
aquifer Groundwater models are used to understand
the behavior of groundwater systems and predict the
response of an aquifer to any external changes such as
extraction recharge etc The model can also be used
to select the best of several alternative management
plans for a groundwater basin In the final analysis
groundwater models can suggest optimum utilization
of resources and maximization of the overall yield of
the system (Rastogi 2007)
Several mathematical models exist in literature for
determining the water level such as the one- and two-
dimensional Boussinesq equations and have been
solved analytically now numerically for different
boundary conditions and geometries Analytical
models and solutions are often very complicated and
difficult to apply for most water management
practitioners especially because the flow region must
have a well-defined regular shape Therefore such
models may not be accurately applicable to real field
problems But now numerical models have removed
such limitations and hindrances to modeling of any
region of interest irrespective of shape or geometry
For examples of such models one may consult the
works of Hantush (1962) Marino (1974) Bear
(1979) Mustafa (1987) Haruna and Gideon (2005)
Nwaogazie (2008) and Olaniyan et al (2011)
On the other hand experimental methods of
determining groundwater level also exist such as
borehole and well drilling methods vertical electrical
resistivity (VES) etc but these methods are often of
great financial costs Examples of these works include
Carruthers and Smith (1992) Hazel et al (1992)
Adeoti et al (2010) Alile et al (2011) Olaniyan and
Olabode (2012) and several others
The objective of this study is to apply a two-
dimensional polynomial model to field measurements
to determine the groundwater and ground surface
elevations across Nariya area within Kaduna State
2 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Vertical Electrical Sounding investigation was carried
out using ABEM terrameter model SAS 300C with its
accessories at six locations using the schlumberger
configuration The maximum array length in the
survey was 200m VES data obtained was interpreted
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
301
first by manual partial curve-matching and then by
using automatic program by Zohdy (1989) to
delineate lithology and infer water table hydraulic
heads The six VES points were assigned coordinates
based on their locations with x-axis measured along
the adjoining River Kaduna and y-axis perpendicular
to the river These coordinates and their corresponding
hydraulic head values (Table 1) were used to fit a two-
dimensional interpolation polynomial which was able
to accurately predict the groundwater hydraulic heads
across the entire study area
Fig 1 Contour plot of hydraulic head
Table 1 Hydraulic Heads and Topographic Elevations of VES Points
Location Coordinates (m) Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Topographic Elevation
above sea level (m) X Y
VES 1 1570 820 57270 5800
VES 2 1900 430 56882 5730
VES 3 2120 920 57207 5825
VES 4 1130 870 57002 5760
VES 5 680 690 57034 5745
VES 6 250 930 57418 5795
21 The Study Area
Nariya is a sub-urban settlement to the west of
Kaduna and is located approximately on latitude 10deg
29rsquoN and longitude 7deg 22rsquoE The study area consists
of parts of Nariya bounded to the south by River
Kaduna The climate of Kaduna is the tropical type
which has distinctive wet and dry seasons Annual
rainfall ranging between 1000 to 1500mm occurs
between early April and early October while
maximum temperatures vary between 38oC in
MarchApril and 24o C in other months but becomes
far less in peak rainy periods (JulyAugust) and in
harmattan months (November-February) The Guinea
Savannah type of vegetation in the area consists of
broad-leaved savannah woodland which may attain
heights of about 10 to 15 meters when fully
developed and may be dense enough to suppress the
growth of grasses (Olaniyan and Olabode 2012) The
relief of the area is characterized by an undulating
plain gentle slope and consists of peneplains with
eroded flat tops often capped by layers of indurated
laterites The southern boundary of the study area
adjacent to the river exhibits swampy conditions
during the rainy season while the upper parts drain
freely The drainage pattern is dendritic while stream
flow fluctuates seasonally
The typical rock types underlying the entire land
area of Kaduna State consist of the Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss complex met sediments and
metavolcanics (mostly schists quartzites
amphibolites and banded iron formations) Pan-
African granitoids and calc-alkaline granites and
volcanics of Jurassic age towards the south-eastern
border of the State (Oluyide 1995) Most of the areas
underlain by the Basement Complex rocks in northern
Nigeria consist of a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rock overlying them The average thickness
of the mantle is about 15m although depths of about
60m may be encountered The unweathered bedrock is
characterized by rapid grain-size variations from
micro to pegmatitic regions but normal sizes are
dominant The water-bearing units (aquifers) in
Basement rocks occur within the weathered residual
overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock
(Uma and Kehinde 1994)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
302
Fig 2 Surface plot of hydraulic head
Table 2 Comparison of Measured Hydraulic Heads with Modelled values
Location Measured Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Modelled Hydraulic Head
above sea level (m)
Absolute Error
VES 1 57270 572658 0042
VES 2 56882 568795 0025
VES 3 57207 572025 0045
VES 4 57002 569977 0043
VES 5 57034 570303 0037
VES 6 57418 574134 0046
TOTAL = 0238
4040039667062380 orErrorAbsoluteMean
22 Mathematical Modeling
The two-dimensional (2D) quadratic interpolation
polynomial used in this study is based on the general
2D interpolation polynomial
nn yayaxyaxayaxaayxf )( 2
54
2
3210 (1)
When a function is dependent on two variables
say coordinates equation (1) could be used to
interpolate such data by determining the values of the
unknown constants ia rsquos (Gerald 1977 Rastogi 2007)
thereby obtaining a system of equation of the form
vectorheadhydraulictheisb
vectortcoefficienunknowntheisa
matrixnntheisuwhere
bau
)2(
The solutions of equation (2) gives the values of
the coefficients of equation (1) For the aquifer model
in the study area the hydraulic heads and the
coordinates of the six VES points were substituted
into equation (1) to obtain the model equation
310388110677210
933524100093190576473
24526 yxyx
yxH
Where H is the aquifer hydraulic head x and y are
the coordinates from a reference point
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The interpreted hydraulic head data presented in
Table 1 was substituted into the hydraulic head
equation (3) to simulate the aquifer hydraulic heads at
other points in the region with the aid of Maple 14
subroutine software The corresponding modeled
values were compared with the interpreted (measured)
values in Table 2 and the absolute errors between the
two values are also indicated The figures in Table 2
shows that the measured hydraulic head values and
the corresponding modelled values are very close
with a mean absolute error of less than 4 between
them Thereafter contour and surface maps for Nariya
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
303
were plotted as shown in Figures 1 to 4 Figures 1 and
2 show the contour and surface maps of the hydraulic
heads respectively From the result it was observed
that the water table decreases toward the Kaduna
River which agrees with the results of field
investigation and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Onwuemesi (1990) Similarly Figures 3
and 4 show the contour and surface plots of the
ground surface elevation This also agreed with field
observations and is consistent with similar findings
obtained by Olaniyan et al (2013)
Fig 3 Topographic Elevation contour map
Fig 4 Topographic Surface Elevation
4 CONCLUSION
A mathematical model involving a two-dimensional
interpolation polynomial has been used as a novel to
simulate hydraulic head and ground surface elevations
at Nariya The result from the 2D quadratic
interpolation polynomial was compared with field
data and both the calculated data and the field
measured data showed excellent correlation This
outcome further gives credence to the fact that
mathematical models are effective in depicting and
predicting natural groundwater conditions to a high
degree of accuracy This model is however applied
to Nariya locality and may be used for other localities
provided that the similar hydrogeological conditions
are prevalent
REFERENCES
Adeoti L Alile OM Uchegbulam O (2010)
Geophysical investigation of saline water
intrusion into freshwater aquifers A case study
of Oniru Lagos State Scientific Research and
Essays 5(3)248-259
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES) 1(10) pp 300-305 2013
304
Alile OM Ojuh DO Iyoha A Egereonu JC (2001)
Geoelectrical investigation and hydrochemical
analysis of groundwater in a waste dump
environment Isolo Lagos African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology 5(10)
795-806
Bear J (1979) Hydraulics of groundwater McGraw-
Hill Inc New York
Gerald CF (1977) Applied numerical analysis
Addison Wesley Publishing Coy pp158-181
Hantush MS (1962) Flow of groundwater in sands of
non-uniform thickness 2 Approximate Theory
Journal of Geophysics Research 67 703-709
Haruna M Gideon OT (2005) Analysis of transient
groundwater channel-aquifer interaction
Standardizer of the Nigerian Academics
2(1)78-83
Hazel JRT Cratchley CR Jones CRC (1992) The
hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern
Nigeria and geophysical techniques used in
their explorationrdquo In Wright EP amp Burgess
WG (Eds) Hydrogeology of Crystalline
Basement Aquifers in Africa Geol Soc
Special publication No 66 London pp 155-
182
Marino MA (1974) Rise and fall of water table
induced by vertical infiltration recharge J
Hydrology 23 289-298
Mustafa S (1987) Water table rise in a semi-confined
aquifer due to surface infiltrarion and canal
recharge J Hydrology 95 269-276
Nwaogazie IL (2008) Finite element modeling of
engineering systems with emphasis in water
resources 2nd
Edition University of Port
Harcourt Press Port Harcourt Nigeria
Olaniyan IO Agunwamba JC Ademiluyi JO (2011)
Groundwater flow modelling of Galma Basin
Nigeria using finite element method J of Env
Sc and Eng 5(3) 247-252
Olaniyan IO Okedayo TG Olorunaiye ES (2013)
Geophysical Appraisal and Trend Surface
Analysis of Groundwater Potential for
Irrigation at Nariya Area Kaduna Nigeria
Science and Technology 3(3) 93-98
Olaniyan IO Olabode OT (2012) Assessment of the
groundwater potential of a typical
lsquofadamarsquo in Kaduna State Nigeria
Researcher 4(4)10-15 Marsland Press New
York US
Oluyide PO (1995) Mineral occurrences in Kaduna
State and their geological environments
Proceedings of NMGS Kaduna Chapter
Workshop in collaboration with Kaduna State
Govt 15 December pp13-27
Onwuemesi AG (1990) Hydrogeophysical and
geotechnical investigations of the Ajali
sandstone in Nsukka and environs with
reference to groundwater resources and gully
erosion problems Water Resources-Journal of
Nig Assoc of Hydrogeologists 2(1) 70-76
Rastogi AK (2007) Numerical Groundwater
Hydrology Penram International Publishing
(India) PvtLtd Mumbai pp 624-633
Uma KO Kehinde MO (1994) Potentials of regolith
aquifers in relation to water supplies to rural
communities A case study from parts of
Northern Nigeria Journal of Mining and
Geology 30(1) 97- 109
Zohdy AAR (1989) A new method for the automatic
interpretation of schlumberger and wenner
sounding curves Geophysics 54 245-253
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-
Olaniyan et al
Two-Dimensional Interpolation Polynomial Method for Modelling Ground Water Hydraulic Head at Nariya Area of
Kaduna Nigeria
305
Dr Isaac Oladejo Olaniyan obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Nigeria
Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of several
professional associations in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as NSE COREN NMGS
and COMEG Research fields surface and groundwater flow and quality studies hydrogeophysics
environment irrigation engineering He is currently a Senior Lecturer at Ondo State University of
Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Dr Toyin Gideon Okedayo obtained a PhD in Applied Mathematics from the Federal University of
Technology Minna specializing in Fluid Mechanics He is a member of several professional
associations in the field of mathematics and mathematical physics Research fields flow statics and
dynamics water quality studies He is currently a Reader and Head of Department of Mathematical
Sciences Ondo State University of Science and Technology Okitipupa Nigeria
Prof Jonah Chukwuemeka Agunwamba is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of
Nigeria Nsukka specializing in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering He is a member of
several professional associations in the fields of engineering such as NSE and COREN Research
fields hydraulic structures mathematical modeling of surface and groundwater flow and quality
studies environment and management He is the immediate past Dean of Faculty of Engineering
University of Nigeria Nsukka
- 02 issue covers IJSRES 1(10)
- 03 issue TOC ijsres 1(10)
- IJSRES-p263-267-13-56
- IJSRES-p268-272-13-58
- IJSRES-p273-284-13-67
- IJSRES-p285-290-13-64
- IJSRES-p291-299-13-68
- IJSRES-p300-305-13-53
-