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Come and Play

Research Programme

Report

“The impact of music and music-making on children’s development”

Prepared by: Come and Play

May/June 2004

Table of contents

1 BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................3

2 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH...............................................................................3

3 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................4

4 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY............................................................................................4

5 KEY FINDINGS................................................................................................................7

5.1 MUSIC, COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT & LEARNING.........................................................95.1.1 Music & Cognitive Development....................................................................10a. Neurological differences.........................................................................................10b. ‘Mental Stretching’...................................................................................................11c. The effects of music on spatial reasoning – The Mozart Effect...........................125.1.2 Music, Learning & Academic / Skills Improvement......................................14a. Music and increased academic achievement........................................................14b. The link between musical ability and literacy skill................................................18c. “Levelling the playing fields” for disadvantaged youngsters..............................21d. Effects of music on children with learning difficulties/developmental delays. . .22e. Music for all..............................................................................................................23

5.2 MUSIC, PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL SKILLS............................................245.3 MUSIC, EMOTION, ATTITUDE & BEHAVIOUR..............................................................255.4 COMMENTS ON BEST PRACTICE...............................................................................275.5 CAVEATS................................................................................................................29

6 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................31

7 CONTACTS...................................................................................................................34

8 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................36

Appendix 1.............................................................................................................................. 47

1 Background

Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004

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Given the growing body of evidence linking music making to various aspects

of children’s academic, social and cognitive development, 4Children’s Come

& Play project aims to undertake detailed research to highlight and measure

the impact of music making on a selected group of children and out of school

clubs.

The research project, funded by Youth Music, is national in scope and will

take place across 2004 / 2005.

As part of the first phase of this project, this report serves to provide an

overview of relevant research findings detailing the effects that music has on

the development of children, as well as highlighting commentary on current

trends in thinking within this field of enquiry.

2 Objectives of the research

The key objectives informing this research project have been identified as

follows:

Make the public policy argument for music making activities as a key

element of out-of-school services

Create systems to assess how music-making contributes to the social

development of children

Construct and initiate baseline measurements to measure before and

after impacts of the programme and report results in the form of an in-

depth study to Youth Music and key policy makers and stakeholders

3 Methodology


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3.1 Research undertaken for the purposes of this report took, primarily, the

form of internet research due to the time and financial constraints

associated with the project.

3.2 Contact was also made with a number of researchers, (who have

published research findings relevant to the scope of this project) based at

various academic institutions for their references and input.

3.3 Given the amount of material available, as well as the limits inherent to

internet-based research, the findings should not be regarded as

exhaustive.

4 Management Summary

The following report summarises the quality and scope of existing research

into how music affects children’s development. It also serves to identify

research gaps and provide a rationale for the next steps to be taken for further

research by the Come & Play project.

Research involving music and human development has multiple perspectives.

Beside the large and formal body of work revolving around traditional aspects

of music education, music is increasingly being investigated in its broader

context as an influence on the cognitive, emotional, behavioural and social

aspects of children’s lives, as a support or even entry point into other topics of

learning (maths and literacy) and as an aid to personal development.

While pockets of research overlap, at present these do not necessarily

provide a comprehensive and coherent framework for understanding the

impact that music has on human development or clearly define the

mechanisms involved. Research review projects undertaken by local and

international bodies to build an overview of findings indicate that there is much

ground to be covered.


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Clear, well-supported correlations have been found between music instruction

or musical experience and cognitive/neurological development, academic

improvement, and social/emotional/personal development. However,

researchers are cautious about drawing conclusions about music actually

causing these results. Findings are regarded as inconclusive and in at least

one case have been criticised as being “somewhat desperate efforts to prove

that music has an effect on schoolwork or social adjustment” (Keith

Swanwick, 2001).

An area that seems fairly well-researched and documented is that of learning

through the arts programmes in schools throughout Canada and in some

schools in Australia and the USA. In these projects efforts have been made to

integrate music instruction with the rest of the school curriculum. These

programmes provide clear evidence for the effects of music on children’s

development. They focus on the effects of music on specific cognitive or

academic-achievement-based outcomes, are generally long-term in scope,

and employ diverse methodologies.

Positive correlations were found between learning through music and

academic improvement in maths and literacy, as well as increased

engagement (Improving Math Scores: Lessons of Engagement, Upitis, R.,

Smithrim, K., Patteson, A., MacDonald, J., & Finkle, J., 2003). This last was

considered to be one of the greatest programme effects, with researchers

speculating that differences in academic performance were at least partly due

to increased engagement. The benefits occurred for children of all socio-

economic classes and it was suggested that learning in and through the arts

can help level the playing field for youngsters from disadvantaged

circumstances. According to these studies the relative advantage of

involvement in the arts increases appreciably over time, with some effects not

occurring until three years of programming had taken place.


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Research projects dealing with music and enhancement of cognitive functions

such as spatial reasoning (The Mozart Effect) have generated considerable

press and public interest, as well as debate amongst researchers concerning

the validity and limitations of the findings.

Other areas of focus for research projects include personal development and

social skills, musical activity as a communicative force, and the links between

music and early physiological development.

One perspective is that the effects of music are stronger in the social domain

than in the cognitive domain, as music tuition involves social interaction and

co-operative activity, which depend on good listening skills, and attributes

such as trust, patience, tolerance and kindness (Spychiger, Maria, B., 1998).

However, there appear to be fewer long-term, integrated studies focusing

primarily on the social domain. (Note: to what extent this reflects the bias of

the internet as publishing medium is not known).

The scope for further investigation into this area is thus highlighted, as well as

the need to direct more attention towards findings of this nature.

The general consensus seems to be that arts appear to be important when it

comes to a variety of non-arts outcomes, but that more research is required

into the nature of the correlations found and the mechanisms involved (Upitis,

R., Smithrim, K., 2001; Upitis, R., et. al., 2003; Gardiner, M.F., 2000; Catterall,

J.S., Chapleau, R., Iwanaga, J., 1999; Champions of Change; The Impact of

the Arts on Learning, 1999; Scripp, L., 2003; The Power of Music, Hallam, S.).

Given the evidence of positive relationships between music and cognitive

functioning, Come & Play is going to progress with research using objective

measurements (what kind?) to investigate whether, and to what extent, these

effects are evident in relation to its making-music programmes.


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Concerns exist around defining what will be measured, given the nature of

previous research and the fact that results have been correlational and not

conclusive enough to prove causality. Furthermore, since previous research

has emphasised that results can only be expected over the long-term, there is

also a concern whether short-term programmes may yield measurable

differences.

5 Key Findings

The remainder of this report details the findings from the research and covers

the following areas:

Music, Cognitive Development & Learning

Music, Personal Development and Social Skills

Music, Emotion, Attitude & Behaviour

A worldwide literature review of authoritative articles which address “the value

of music in our lives” highlight the following key points:

Music is powerful at the level of the social group because it

facilitates communication which goes beyond words, induces

shared emotional reactions and supports the development of group

identity.

Music is powerful at the individual level because it can induce

multiple responses – physiological, movement, mood, emotional,

cognitive and behavioural.

The brain’s multiple processing of music makes it difficult to predict

the particular effect of any piece of music on any individual.

Music has powerful therapeutic effects which can be achieved

through listening or active music making.


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Music can promote relaxation, alleviate anxiety and pain, promote

appropriate behaviour in vulnerable groups and enhance the quality

of life of those who are beyond medical help.

Music can play an important part in enhancing human development

in the early years.

Active involvement in music making in children may increase self-

esteem and promote the development of a range of social and

transferable skills.

The easy availability of music in everyday life is encouraging

individuals to use music to optimise their sense of well-being.

Music can influence our behaviour in ways which are beyond our

conscious awareness. Knowledge of these effects can be used to

manipulate our work and purchasing behaviour.

The easy availability of music means that it tends to be taken for

granted. This can lead to neglect in considering how the

infrastructure supporting music and musicians is resourced,

maintained and developed.

(Susan Hallam, The Power of Music, http://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk)

5.1 Music, Cognitive Development & Learning


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http://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk/

Much evidence has been put forward indicating the positive relationship

between music instruction or musical experience and cognitive development

(Altenmüller & Gruhn, 1997; Costa-Giomi, in press – from Susan Hallam and

Alexandra Lamont, BERA Music Education Review Group).

Some researchers recognise music as one of the basic building blocks for the

brain’s higher cognitive functions (Frances Rauscher, 1994) and studies have

shown neurological differences between those who have been exposed to

music instruction and those who have not.

Furthermore, correlations have been found between music instruction at an

early age and skills improvement in areas such as creativity (K.L. Wolff.

Essential Advocacy Resources for Music), spatial reasoning (F. Rauscher,

1994; L. Scripp, 2003), and academic improvement specifically in the areas of

maths and literacy (J.S. Catterall et al., 1999a; L. Scripp, 2003, R. Upitis et.al.

2003).

The idea has been put forward that music develops flexibility in thinking

because it draws on so many different attributes. According to Dr Howard

Gardner1 (best known for his theory of multiple intelligences) “Musical training

is an effective way, not only to enhance the conceptual-holistic-creative

thinking process, but also to assist in the melding and merging of the mind’s

capabilities” (Gardner, 1884, as quoted in James R. Ponter, Feb 1999).

The idea of ‘mental stretching’ was also proposed to explain the interactions

between music and learning. The idea being that our brains can take 1 Dr Howard Gardner, Professor in Cognition and Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education; Adjunct Professor of Psychology, Harvard University; Adjunct Professor of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine; and Chair of the Steering Committee of Project Zero – an educational research group established in 1967 at Harvard Graduate School of Education.


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advantage of analogous thinking in two areas such as music and maths, and

that learning how to process in one area may improve one’s ability to process

in the other, related area.

5.1.1 Music & Cognitive Development

a. Neurological differences

According to Dr Susan Young (Exeter University), there is currently a growing

interest in the idea that musical experience in the very early years (0-3)

encourages valuable synaptic networks.

Research data indicates that those who study music, particularly beginning at

an early age, show neurological differences when compared to those who

have not had much training. Adult musicians have stronger and faster brain

responses to musical tasks (Faita and Besson,1994 as quoted by Donald A.

Hodges, Institute for Music Research) and certain parts of their brains, related

to music processing, are larger or more responsive (Elbert et al., 1995; Flohr,

Persellin, & Miller, 1996; Pantev et al., 1998; Pascual-Leone et al., 1995;

Petsche, 1992; Petsche et al., 1985; 1988, 1993; Schlaug et al., 1994, 1995;

Williamson and Kaufman, 1988).

Research strongly suggests that early musical experiences imprint

themselves on the brain as do all learning experiences that have the potential

for changing brain organization. Whether or not these changes have

implications for other domains of learning continues to be investigated.

(Donald A. Hodges, Institute For Music Research, University of Texas at San

Antonio)

Practicing musicians demonstrate 25 percent more brain activity than non-

musicians when listening to musical sounds”. (Essential Advocacy Resources

for Music, Exposure to Music Is Instrumental to the Brain)


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“The part of the brain responsible for planning, foresight, and coordination is

substantially larger for instrumental musicians than for the general public.”

(Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Music on the Mind)

“Researchers at the University of California and the Niigata Brain Research

Institute in Japan have found an area of the brain that is activated only when

reading musical scores.” (Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Musical

Brain – Special Brain Area Found for Reading Music Scores)

b. ‘Mental Stretching’

Researchers such as Dr Martin F. Gardiner, (Brown University, USA, Centre

for the Study of Human Development) have collected data to measure the

impact music lessons can have on the ways children learn. He introduces the

concept of ‘mental stretching’ to help explain how, why, and when interactions

between music training and learning can take place. The theory proposes

cross-fertilization of specific mental skills or capabilities from one area of

learning (e.g. arts) to another (e.g. maths) if the required mental skills to be

developed are sufficiently closely related. (Dr Martin F. Gardiner, Jan 1999)

For example: types of mental processing – such as organization, production

of melodies and learning pitch – needed for making music also help students

to learn maths. “Once you learn how to organise and use a scale in your

thinking, that may make it easier for your brain to organize and use a number

line,’ he said. …‘Your mind is now different than it was before…It’s stretched

out in some particular area and now has a new capability which can be

applied, it seems, in other areas.” (Dr Martin F. Gardiner, as quoted by

Eleanor Chute, 1998)

c. The effects of music on spatial reasoning – The Mozart Effect.


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Studies done by Rauscher, F.H. and Shaw, G.L., indicated that music and

music instruction play a positive role in enhancing spatial reasoning – the

brain’s ability to perceive the visual world accurately, to form mental images of

physical objects, and to recognize variations of objects. In specific, results

showed that listening to Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448

enhanced spatial-temporal performance in what has become known as ‘The

Mozart Effect’.

These results generated considerable interest and also gave rise to several

misconceptions. The debate centred on whether there really is a “Mozart

Effect”, and whether listening to Mozart can ‘increase intelligence’ (a claim the

researchers assert they did not make). According to Rauscher, many of these

misconceptions have been reflected in attempts to replicate the research.

Despite proving difficult to replicate in some instances, ‘The Mozart Effect’ has

been confirmed by various other studies, as well as meta-analysis of 26 other

“Mozart Effect” studies (Lois Hetland, 2000). It is reported to be “limited to a

specific type of spatial task that requires mental rotation in the absence of a

physical model”. On the basis of this meta-analysis Hetland agreed that

“music instruction enhances spatial–temporal reasoning for preschool- and

elementary-age children while instruction is occurring and through at least two

years of such instruction”, but also points out that “the educational

implications of raising children’s intelligence or long-term spatial skills through

exposure to classical music were not demonstrated in the analyzed studies”.

(Joanne Haroutounian, 2001)

The importance of this finding lies in the fact that spatial reasoning is regarded

as “essential to success in a variety of academic subjects, notably maths, the

sciences, and engineering” (Frances Rauscher, 1994) and, in fact, Rauscher

also suggested that “mere listening can boost spatial reasoning…” However,

this effect is generally regarded as being temporary in nature and not

necessarily applicable to other aspects of cognitive functioning.


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Follow-up studies by Rauscher and Shaw confirmed that that listening to

Mozart has a positive effect on spatial-temporal tasks involving mental

imagery and temporal ordering. Rauscher emphasises that they do not claim

that Mozart enhances intelligence (a popular misconception).

Evidence from other studies that appear to support Rauscher’s findings is set

out below:

“…with upper-primary school-aged children in a school setting. Scores on a

Paper Folding Task (PFT) for a class which listened to Mozart during testing

were significantly higher than the PFT scores of a control class…a similar

result was obtained for another class which listened to Bach during testing.

The musical educational experience of the children…did not significantly

contribute to the variance in PFT scores. We believe that this study is the first

to find a Mozart Effect for school children in a natural setting…” (Vesna K.

Ivanov and John G. Geake, 2003)

“Learning to play a musical instrument has been shown to produce small

temporary effects on spatial reasoning but not on other aspects of cognitive

functioning”. (The Power of Music, Applications)

“Keyboard instruction does predict higher test scores in young children’s

spatial-temporal cognitive tasks.” (Larry Scripp, 2003)

“[In] a pilot study in which ten three-year-old children were given music

training – either singing or keyboard lessons, the scores of every child

improved significantly on the Object Assembly Task, a section of the

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – revised, that measure

spatial reasoning.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)

“[In] a follow-up experiment…we found that the spatial reasoning performance

of 19 preschool children who received eight months of music lessons far


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exceeded that of a demographically comparable group of 15 preschool

children who did not receive music lessons.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)

In a further follow-up study undertaken in 1997, Rauscher and Shaw

comparing the effects of musical and non-musical training on intellectual

development. “78 three and four-year olds from working class families [were]

divided into four groups. One group had six months of private piano lessons;

another got computer lessons, a third, singing lessons and the fourth, no

training. Unlike the kids who learned piano, Rauscher notes, those given

singing lessons were taught little about musical concepts. By the end of the

study, the piano students scored 34 percent higher than the others on a test

of spatial-temporal reasoning – putting a puzzle together to gauge their ability

to process information in sequence and space.” (Judy Foreman).

What Drs. Rauscher and Shaw have emphasized has been the causal

relationships between early music training and development of the neural

circuitry that governs spatial intelligence. Their studies indicate that music

training generates the neural connections used for abstract reasoning,

including those necessary for understanding mathematical concepts.

(Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Music Making Beats Computers at

Enhancing Early Childhood Development).

5.1.2 Music, Learning & Academic / Skills Improvement

a. Music and increased academic achievement

Evidence from various studies has shown strong correlations between music

instruction and ‘learning through the arts’ and academic improvement:

“Students involved in the arts may exhibit higher academic achievement than

their peers who are not involved in the arts.” (Catterall, 1998; Catterall,

Chapleau, & Iwanaga, 1999a, 1999b; Deasy, 2002; Fowler, 1996; Hamblen,

1993; Hetland, 2000; Luftig, 1995; Moore & Caldwell, 1993; Murfee, 1995;


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Parks & Rose, 1997; Welch & Greene, 1995 as reported by Upitis, Rena et.

al, 2003).

It is suggested that “involvement in music can develop transferable skills

which may raise academic achievement”. (Harland et al., 1998; Weber et al.,

1993; Zulauf, 1993 – as reported by Susan Hallam and Alexandra Lamont,

BERA Music Education Review Group).

Furthermore, meta-analysis studies based on large bodies of research over

the last decade demonstrate positive relationships between music learning

and learning in other academic subject areas. (Larry Scripp, 2003)

This appears to be particularly relevant to music and mathematics, with

students who have consistently high levels of involvement in instrumental

music over the middle and high school years showing “significantly higher

levels of mathematics proficiency by grade 12. This holds both generally and

also for low SES students as a subgroup (SES refers to socio-economic

status – a measure of family education level, income, and type of job[s] held

by parent[s]).” (James Catterall et. al., 1999).

These findings are further supported by meta-analyses of six experimental

studies on the relationships between music and mathematics achievement

where it was indicated that “music study appears to cause increases in

mathematics achievement”. (Vaughn, 2000, quoted in Rena Upitis, Katharine

Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003). Similarly, it

was found that “students concentrating in instrumental music do substantially

better in mathematics than those with no involvement in music.” (James

Catterall et al., 1999)

Other researchers analysing data from Learning Through The Arts (LTTA)

programmes in Canadian schools found that “the Grade 6 students (10 – 12

year olds) scored significantly higher on tests of computation and estimation

than students in the two types of control schools.” It was also found that taking


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music lessons outside of school was found to be a “significant contributor to

achievement on the computation and estimation test”. (Rena Upitis, Katharine

Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003), with those

students who took music lessons outside of school scoring “significantly better

on all language and mathematics measures than their peers, regardless of

household income level and education.” (Dr Rena Upitis and Dr Katharine

Smithrim, 2001).

Similar results were found in a 3 year study involving students in Austrian and

Swiss schools. “Those who had 5 music classes per week instead of the

usual 1 or 2 (at the expense of classes in mathematics and language) were as

good in maths and better in languages than their peers with regular schedules

at the end of the 3 year study” (Armstrong, A. & Casement, C. (1997). The

child and the Machine. Toronto: Key Porter, and Weber, E.W., Spychiger, M.,

& Patry, J. (1993). Music makes the School. Schlussbericht zu “Bessere

Bildung mit mehr Musik”. Padagogisches Institut der Universitat,

Freiburg/C.H. – as reported by R. Upitis (2002)

It therefore appears that not only does involvement in the arts not come at the

expense of achievement in mathematics and language (Rena Upitis,

Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003), but

even when students are pulled out of ordinary lessons to participate in music

lessons they achieved higher scores in proficiency tests than their non-pullout

peers. (Michael D. Wallick, Essential Advocacy Resources for Music)

It was also found that students of the arts outperform their non-arts peers on

the SAT® (formerly called Scholastic Aptitude Tests, used by colleges and

universities in the USA as a standard way of assessing students that come

from different schools using different grading systems, who wish to progress

to higher education). “In 2001, SAT takers with coursework/experience in

music performance scored 57 points higher on the verbal portion of the test

and 41 points higher on the maths portion than students with no

coursework/experience in the arts…Longer arts study proved to parlay into


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even higher test scores.” (The College Board. Profile of SAT and

Achievement Test Takers, 2001, 1996)

While it is clear from this evidence that learning through music, or receiving

music instruction, is positively related to better performance in other subjects,

and in particular maths and language, this does not necessarily mean that

music was the cause of the improvements observed as much of the research

is “correlational in nature…” (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson,

Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)

An important element found in learning through the arts programmes was that

the use of music in learning programmes results in increased engagement

on the part of the student. Some researchers speculate that this increased

engagement with the subject matter may actually be behind the increases in

achievement found amongst children involved in those programmes (as

compared to children in control schools). This may be particularly relevant to

improved achievement in computation, as this is “the kind of task than can be

improved by paying closer attention to the material at hand”. (Rena Upitis,

Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, & Janice Finckle, May

2003)

It is also important to note that the positive effects in maths achievement

associated with ‘learning through the arts’ are reported to be gradual rather

than sudden. It was observed that effects grow significantly over time (James

S. Catterall et. al., 1999), and in some cases effects did not occur until three

years of programming had taken place (Upitis R, et.al. 2003)

Researchers therefore warn that oversimplifying expectations for learning

transfer from the arts to academics “may limit the impact of arts-based

programmes. Research suggests that inter-disciplinary learning transfer

effects are more complex and less linear than the usual “cause-and-effect”

models of education that the general public expects from the popular media.”

(Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning)


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b. The link between musical ability and literacy skill

A study showing an association between rhythmic ability and reading

prompted the examination of the relationship between musical ability and

literacy skills. A further pilot intervention study showed that “training in

musical skills is a valuable additional strategy for assisting children with

reading difficulties”. (Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., Levine, L. J., Wright, E.L.,

Dennis, W.R. & Newcomb, R.L. (1997) as reported in The Power of Music). It

has thus been suggested that a structured programme of musical activities

can be used to help children develop a multi-sensory awareness and

response to sounds.

Based on research showing that the ability to respond physically to a musical

beat is closely linked to children’s skills in reading, writing and concentration,

a motor-skills class given at an elementary school in Ventura, California

teaches first through fifth-grade classes how to keep a steady on-two beat

with music. Using various activities such as dance, clapping, marching or

jumping rope in weekly classes, children are given the opportunity to improve

these skills.

The teacher, Joanne Bowie, bases her instruction on workshops taken from

Phyllis S. Weikart, a retired physical education professor from the University

of Michigan and nationally recognized expert in motor-skills development for

children.

Weikart maintains that children should begin to develop an innate sense of

timing when they are infants and that through activities such as patting or

stroking babies to the tune of a lullaby, caregivers are helping children make

connections between what they hear and what they do. She further maintains

that this ‘hearing-feeling connection’ is what allows children to listen to

something that is being said or watch something that is being done and follow

the directions. She says: “What you are linking is action, thought and


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language.” She also maintains that having a sense of inner timing allows

children to speak or read in whole sentences instead of just one word at a

time.

The principal of the school, Beverly McCaslin says that the class helps kids

concentrate and hold their attention span longer. She says “We have seen

kids who have difficulty reading and writing improve because they are able to

organize their thoughts better.” (Maia Davis, Los Angeles Times, 1994) With

regards to the above-mentioned example, scepticism has been levelled at

what is referred to as ‘beat competency’, with the idea being that is has not

been adequately substantiated.

“A massive two-year study in Switzerland run with 1200 children in more than

50 classes scientifically showed how playing music improved children’s

reading and verbal skills through improving concentration, memory and self

expression. Younger children who had three more music classes per week

and three fewer main curriculum classes made rapid developments in speech

and learned to read with greater ease.” (Weber, E.W., Spychiger, M., and

Patry, J-L., 1993, as reported in Music. Play for Life)

“A 1965 study by H. Pelletier found that teaching students to play string

instruments in third grade increased their reading achievement…The two

groups were equated on I.Q., sex, reading achievement, and spelling

achievement. The experimental group received 25 weeks for instrumental

(string) instruction during the school day…At the conclusion of the study he

found that the experimental groups’ reading gain was 1.9 months higher than

the control group. He further noted that when the low readers in each group

were compared, it was found that the experimental group students were 3.5

months ahead of the same students in the control group.” (Music and Reading

Skills, Essential Advocacy Resources for Music)

A study done by Debby Mitchell at the University of Central Florida titled “The

Relationship between Rhythmic Competency and Academic Performance in


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First Grade Children” explored how sensory and motor development may

influence later cognitive, perception and language skills.

Findings showed that there was a significant difference in the academic

achievement levels of students classified according to rhythmic competency.

Students who were achieving at academic expectation scored high on all

rhythmic tasks, while many of those who scored lower on the rhythmic test

achieved below academic expectation.

The study concludes that the large percentage of children who are achieving

below academic expectation are lacking in foundation skills that should have

been developed prior to entering school. (The College Board, Profile of SAT

and Achievement Test Takers, 1998, 1996).

A meta-analysis of 30 studies on the relationship between music instruction

and performance in reading, done by Butzlaff (2000), which included 24

correlational studies and six experimental designs, found consistent

correlations between reading and music instruction, but did not find a reliable

causal link between these two activities. (as reported in Rena Upitis, et.al.

2003)

Studies exploring the effects of increasing the amount of classroom music

within the curriculum have found that children receiving extra music lessons

kept up with their peers in language and reading skills despite having fewer

lessons although there were differences between different ability groups. (The

Power of Music, Applications).

For those students who have the greatest difficulties with early literacy,

music’s enhancement to reading is thus regarded as an investment worth

making, even if it takes some time away from tutoring (Scripp,L. 2003).

c. “Levelling the playing fields” for disadvantaged youngsters


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In research enlisting the National Educational Longitudinal Survey (USA), a

panel study which has followed more than 25,000 students in American

secondary schools for 10 years, it was found that the probability that children

were engaged in arts activities were “almost twice as high for students from

economically advantaged families” and “the probability of low arts involvement

is about twice as high if one comes from an economically disadvantaged

family”. (James S. Catterall, et. al., 1999).

It was found in this same study that “all high SES students do better than the

average student” when it comes to achievement in maths (James S. Catterall,

et al., 1999) and “…low SES students with high involvement in music do

better than the average student at attaining high levels of mathematics

proficiency.” (James S. Catterall, et al., 1999)

Given the benefits shown from being engaged in music or arts activities,

specifically when it comes to maths achievement learning in and through the

arts can help ‘level the playing field’ for youngsters from disadvantaged

circumstances. (Champions of Change, The impact of the arts on learning,

Music Forum Article)

Other sources affirm the value that learning through the arts offers to children

from lower socio-economic backgrounds:

“music programmes in schools may enable the disadvantaged to learn on a

more equal footing with children from more affluent backgrounds. Because it

is nonverbal, music…does not force disadvantaged children to struggle with

language or cultural differences”. (Frances Rauscher, 1994)

“For all students, but particularly for those in the low SES (Socio-Economic

Status) group, academic performance, attitudes and behaviour were positively

correlated with long-term involvement in the arts.” (Rena Upitis, Katharine

Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)


21

“..insofar as there was a programme effect, the benefits of the Learning

Through The Arts programme occurred for children of all socioeconomic

classes” (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald,

Janice Finkle, 2003)

“In our pilot study with preschool children, those from disadvantaged

backgrounds displays (sic) a particularly dramatic improvement in spatial

reasoning ability following music training.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)

d. Effects of music on children with learning difficulties/developmental

delays

Music used as a therapeutic intervention is known to have a number of

positive effects. Amongst others, it is reported that music therapy can help

children with learning difficulties to focus their attention, increase their

concentration span and, over time, improve vocalisations, looking behaviour,

imitation, and initiation of ideas. (The Power of Music, Applications)

In improvised musical play, music and lyrics have been used to facilitate

social play between developmentally delayed and non-developmentally

delayed children in mainstream settings. “The intervention improved the

length of play episodes beyond those normally reported in the literature.” (The

Power of Music, Applications)

Furthermore, there is a substantial body of research showing that music can

be effective with children with learning difficulties when it is offered as a

reward for particular behaviours, for instance, to develop attention, reading or

numeracy skills or reduce the incidence of aggression or maladaptive

behaviour. (The Power of Music, Applications)

“Music therapy seems to have an effect on personal relationship, emphasising

the positive benefits of active listening and performing, and this in turn sets

the context for developmental change. A further investigation of the data


22

revealed the importance of hand-eye coordination for developmental change.

The active element of musical playing, which demands the skill of hand-eye

coordination, appears to play a significant role in the developmental changes

as they occur in the therapeutic musical relationship.” (Aldridge, D., Gustroff,

G., & Neugebauer, L. (1995), as quoted in The Power of Music)

e. Music for all

Where music instruction has traditionally been seen as specialised learning

relevant to a fortunate, talented few, it has been demonstrated that the

benefits of music instruction are not confined to those with musical performing

“talent”.

“Notational skills in music – and not musical performance ability – correlated

positively with academic achievement in maths and reading. That is, among

kindergartners, first graders, second graders, and pre-literate children, those

who can work with symbols in music were more likely to do better on the

Stanford tests of Academic Achievement….Thus the most obvious learning

connection between music and other subject areas does not rely on musical

performing talent independent of academic skill, but rather the opposite. The

ability to process musical symbols and representations,…is a leading

predictor of music’s association with learning in other subject areas.” (Scripp,

L. 2003)

While simply listening to music appears to produce only temporary effects in

humans, evidence for the impact of arts training on broader learning when

training of skill is included has been provided in the work of Rauscher and

Shaw (e.g. Rauscher et al., 1993; Rauscher et al., 1997).

According to Dr Martin F. Gardiner, “strong attention should be paid to making

certain that students develop not only appreciation but also skill in the arts”

(Dr M. F. Gardiner, 2000). As such, music instruction that is aimed at giving


23

children notational skills or music reading ability would be regarded as useful

and beneficial.

5.2 Music, Personal Development and Social Skills

In the review of research on the benefits that music has for humankind titled

“The Power of Music”, Susan Hallam (UK) notes that “children receiving

additional or regular classroom music lessons have shown increased social

cohesion within class, greater self-reliance, better social adjustment and more

positive attitudes. These effects are particularly marked in low ability,

disaffected pupils. Children of low economic status receiving individual piano

lessons have also exhibited increases in self-esteem compared with controls.

There is also some evidence that involvement in music can increase social

inclusion”. (The Power of Music, Applications)

These effects are supported by other researchers who report “there is growing

evidence for the positive influence of music on social-emotional development

and behaviour in schools”. (Scripp, L. 2003)

Reported benefits of the arts include “increased student creativity, lower drop-

out rates, and increased social skills.” (Catterall, 1998, Luftig, 1995, quoted by

Upitis, R. et.al., 2003)

Research with instrumental music teachers supports these findings. “They

believe that the benefits of learning to play an instrument include the

development of social skills, gaining a love and enjoyment of music,

developing team-work, developing a sense of achievement, confidence and

self-discipline, and developing physical co-ordination.” (The Power of Music,

Applications)

“Comments from students, parents, teachers, and administrators indicate that

they value the social benefits, such as the growth of self-esteem, which they


24

attribute to Learning Through The Arts”. (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim,

Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)

At-risk children participating in an arts programme that includes music “show

significant increases in self-concept, as measured by the Piers-Harris

Children’s Self-Concept Scale”. (Essential Advocacy Resources for Music,

Project ARISE: Meeting the needs of disadvantaged students through the

arts)

In addition to positive correlations between music and academic achievement

“changes in personal behaviours also occurred and include improvement in a)

Self Motivation, b) Self Esteem, c) Responsibility, and d) Initiative…” (Martin

F. Gardiner, PH.D. 2000)

5.3 Music, Emotion, Attitude & Behaviour

While music has the power to influence moods, emotions and physiological

responses, individual characteristics of the listener and prior experiences with

music are important mediators of the effects. According to Susan Hallam (The

Power of Music), “the brain’s multiple processing of music makes it difficult to

predict the particular effect of any piece of music on any individual.”

She comments further that “generally, music which is slow and quiet tends to

encourage relaxation and reduce anxiety while stimulating music tends to

increase our arousal levels. Personal reports that music helps us to relax are

supported by evidence showing that muscular tension can be reduced by

listening to quiet, sedative music.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music

on individuals: overall trends)

“Scientific observations of the behaviour of young children when lively music

is playing indicate that they become more active suggesting that this is a

‘natural’ response.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music on individuals:

overall trends)


25

However, it appears that evidence with regard to the effects of particular types

of music on the mood and emotions of particular groups of people is mixed.

“Exploration of gender, age or social class differences have revealed no clear

patterns…Nevertheless, there is some evidence that music can affect our

moods, emotions and physiological responses whether we like the music or

not. In one study, favourite music of whatever type lowered feelings of tension

while physiological responses were greater during exciting music regardless

of whether the listeners liked it.

Similar effects have been found with young children undertaking a writing

task. While they enjoyed writing with exciting background music playing, their

task performance was better when the music was quiet and classical.” (The

Power of Music, The effects of music on individuals: overall trends)

However, Susan Hallam also points out that music that we have not

personally chosen to listen to, can have a powerful effect on our emotions and

subsequent behaviour. Depending on its level of intrusiveness it may be

merely irritating or create great distress. (The Power of Music, The effects of

music on individuals: overall trends)

“Individuals can have very strong emotional experiences to music. Music can

also play an important role in helping us overcome powerful emotions.

Adolescents who report a high frequency of personal problems report a higher

frequency of listening to music.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music on

individuals: overall trends)

Music is also of great importance to adolescents. In a study of the importance

of music to adolescents in England, responses indicated that “listening to

music was preferred to other indoor activities but not to outdoor activities” and

that adolescents between 13 and 14 years of age listened to music for an

average of 2.45 hours per day. (North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. and O’Neill,

S.A. (2000)


26

Furthermore, findings also suggest that music has a positive effect on children

with emotional and behavioural difficulties with evidence that playing

background music in their classes may improve their concentration and the

standard of their school work. The effects were particularly marked for

children whose problems related to constant stimulus-seeking and over-

activity. An Improvement in co-operation and a reduction in aggression were

also observed. (Hallam, S. & Price, J., 1998, The Power of Music)

A research project investigating the possibility that specific properties of

certain Mozart orchestral compositions in combination, improve the co-

ordination skills of pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties, suggests

that Mozartian qualities may affect the physiological parameters of blood

pressure, body temperature and pulse rate, slowing down body metabolism

and reducing enzyme and hormone production. In the study, “an improvement

in co-ordination was observed, accompanied by a corresponding drop in the

the aforementioned physiological parameters and an observed improvement

in behaviour.” (Savan, A. (1999), as quoted in The Power of Music)

5.4 Comments on Best Practice

At present, programmes using music and other art forms in educational

settings are still in the process of identifying what constitutes ‘best practice’.

Nevertheless, based on the work that has been done so far, the following are

factors that have been identified as key to the success of in-school arts

education programmes, but may also be applicable to other settings:

Studies found that the nature and consistency of teaching / facilitation was an

important element within successful arts education programmes and

speculation is that differences in outcomes could link to differences in

teachers/facilitators’ level of ability to deliver the programme. Facilitator


27

training and set minimum standards may thus be an important aspect of

ensuring that arts programmes are delivered successfully.

“…as the same classroom teachers work with the same set of artists over the

years, the student work gets better.” (Gail Burnaford, 2003)

Programmes that focus on teaching music skills (such as notational skills and

actual instrument skills) may be of more long-term benefit than those that

focus simply on listening to music. Larry Scripp, from Project Zero, an

educational research group at the Graduate School of Education, Harvard

University, says “it would be a mistake,…to base school programmes solely

on recent research focused on the temporary effects of listening of music (e.g.

the “Mozart effect”), when far more studies tell us that making music and

becoming literate in music – being able to read, interpret, and write music –

make a greater and more sustainable difference in enhancing learning in

other subjects. (Scripp, Larry. 2002)

The length, depth and breadth of music programmes are determining factors

when it comes to bringing about beneficial results. Adopting an inclusive,

longer term approach, where sustainability is the focus rather than short-term

results, and where emphasis is placed on integrating music programmes with

other aspects of education programmes (or curricula), at all age levels, would

seem ideal.

Furthermore, effective teacher / facilitator training and development in the arts

would be essential. In identifying key elements of successful arts education

programmes it is noted that artists are involved as teachers, coordinators, or

as resources for arts specialists and non-arts teachers.

It is also useful to note that one of the key elements of successful in-school

arts education programmes was that the community, business, and local arts


28

organizations are actively involved in helping students learn about the arts,

within and outside the school day.

A successful programme would also require that teaching and learning are

regularly assessed and evaluated to determined best what works in arts

education. (key elements drawn from: Essential Advocacy Resources for

Music, http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf)

Dr Rene Upitis, Professor of Arts Education at Queens University, Canada

suggests that there should be multiple approaches to arts education. She

identified the following four reasons:

Children are different from one another and, consequently, often

learn in profoundly differing ways, even within the arts

Cultural differences and regional differences require flexibility in

approaches to teaching and learning in order to maximize

opportunities for children and the communities in which they live

Teachers bring differing strengths and expertise to the teaching of

the arts

Arts education must include learning about, through, and in the arts,

and these different approaches to the arts require differing types of

resources and expertise

(Dr Rene Upitis, 2000)

5.5 Caveats

The following quotations indicate the importance of adopting a judicious

approach when it comes to the utilisation of music for developmental

purposes, since study results are mixed.

“We should not be simplistic about the positive outcomes of music

education...” (Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)


29

http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

While many studies have shown that music-making has the power to change

significant psychological conditions such as mood, concentration, stamina,

state of motivation, etc, and even the improvement of important factors in

mental abilities, such as those shown in studies relating to the Mozart-effect

(Frances Rauscher), these provide examples of short-term effects of music or

musical activity. From these kinds of results it cannot be assumed that music

can change things in the long-term. She identifies 5 qualifying statements that

need to be applied when considering conclusions on the positive effects that

music has on children’s ability to learn.

a. Short-term and long-term effects of music and musical activity need

to be distinguished from each other.

b. Positive (long-term) effects on the cognitive domain are not

necessarily direct outcomes of music and musical activity. (Rather,

it may be a result of more creative teaching methods or spill-over

effects such as improved social connectivity and communication

between programme participants).

c. The effects in the social domain are stronger / more direct than in

the cognitive domain (“music tuition is, more than other subjects,

based in social, interaction and shared activity, and…it depends on

the ability to listen to each other, including trusting, being patient,

tolerant, and kind. Many of the single sociograms show that children

who at the beginning of the assessment were outsiders became

increasingly integrated throughout the three years.”

d. It depends on the quality of the teacher. (“Good teaching has been

the strongest factor in the conclusiveness of the findings of positive

extra-musical outcomes from (extended) music education.”)

e. The transfers are specific (“Not just any musical activity will be

benefical to other…abilities and capabilities; rather, the musical

activity and the topic of the extra-musical improvement have to be

similar.”) (Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)


30

In a study done by Konrad J. Burdach & Sylvia-Gioia Caesar in 1979, “They

used two different music programmes in two groups and received different

extra-musical outcomes for the two groups. The one focusing on creativity

and social activity had effects on social factors such as aggressivity and

inhibition, but not on concentration or other school subjects. The other

programme, concentrating on music theory, Solfège (a way of assigning

syllables to names of the musical scale, i.e. Do, Re, Mi, Fa, etc) and notation,

had positive impact on achievement in general, but not on social factors.”

(Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)

6 Conclusions & Recommendations

From the research data related to music and children’s development it is clear

that there is robust evidence concerning the links between music and the

cognitive development domain, including, but not limited to, neurological

development, spatial reasoning, academic gains in the areas of maths and

literacy, and the therapeutic use of music with children that have

developmental delays or learning difficulties. Music as a medium for learning

offers clear benefits in these areas, not least in that arts education

programmes result in increased student engagement. However, there is much

to be done in the way of clarifying the mechanisms involved in bringing these

effects about. A cautious approach is justified when it comes to issues of

causality.

Research has also yielded evidence concerning the links between music and

the realm of personal development including emotion, attitude, behaviour, and

social skills. While the power that music has on mood, emotions and

physiological responses is widely acknowledged and accepted, evidence of

the effects are somewhat mixed.

Similarly, while the effects of music on children’s personal and social

development is generally held to be positive with respect to enhancing self-

concept and encouraging pro-social skills, research in this area appeared to


31

be less integrated, with less long-term study data available on the internet.

(To what extent this may reflect the limitations of the internet as publishing

medium, rather than constrictions within the research field, is not known).

The relatively lesser degree of emphasis on findings in this area may also

reflect the inherent difficulties of social science research. Given the complexity

of variables involved and the difficulty in isolating them in order to measure

differences brought about through experimental design, as well as the fact

that measurements are derived from oral or written reports of events and

these may be biased, inaccurate or incomplete, social science is necessarily

more subjective than physical science and offers results that are less definite

and harder to replicate.

Given the benefits that music holds in terms of cognitive development and

academic achievement, and that music programmes may enable the

disadvantaged to learn on a more equal footing with children from more

affluent backgrounds, the importance of in-school or out-of-school music

programmes may lie also in the fact that, in some instances, they may offer

disadvantaged children their only opportunity for music instruction.

However, while the current data provides support for music programmes

contributing significantly to education, it does not necessarily follow that

simply having arts programmes within a total programme will in itself

guarantee benefits. According to Dr Martin Gardiner2 (Brown University, USA)

positive outcomes are as likely to depend on “good design based on what is

already known, good teaching, and continued research, and development of

understanding of the factors involved and related theory” (Dr Martin F.

Gardiner, 2000).

2 Dr Martin F. Gardiner, Researcher at Brown University’s Centre for the Study of Human Development. Faculty member at New England Conservatory, Senior Research Associate of the Conservatory’s research centre for Learning Through Music.


32

Note: Research data on out-of-school music programmes was not

readily available to this research method.

7 Contacts

Dr Susan O’Neill Project Director: Young People and Music Participation Project


33

(funded by the Economic and Social Research Council)[Research Associate: Professor John Sloboda – [email protected]]Keele UniversityDepartment of PsychologyKeeleStaffordshireST5 5BG(t) 01782-583669(f) 01782-583387s.a.o’[email protected] via email: copied to John Sloboda. Susan O’Neill provided a reference but no interest indicated regarding tender. No direct reply from John Sloboda.

Dr Alexandra LamontCourse Director: MSc in Music PsychologyLecturer in Psychology of MusicDepartment of PsychologyKeele UniversityKeele, Staffordshire ST5 5BGTel: (+44) 1782 583323Fax: (+44) 1782 [email protected] via email: Interested in seeing tender. Not involved in research on this topic herself, but has project students who have done.

Jim ClarkUniversity of Northumbria0191 215 6420Secretary: 0191 215 6420Contacted via telephone. Involved in an ongoing study with children under 5 years that has a 4 year scope. No results published as yet.

Dr Susan YoungSchool of Education and Lifelong LearningUniversity of ExeterHeavitree RoadExeter EX1 2LU01392 264965Contacted via email: Responded positively and indicated interest in the tender. She is currently writing a chapter of a book on ‘musical communication’. Her focus: music in early years.

Adrian NorthDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of LeicesterUniversity Road


34

mailto:[email protected]

LeicesterLE1 7RH (t) 0116 252 2170(f) 0116 252 2067 [+44(0) 116 252 2170]General no’s.(t) 0116 252 2522(f) 0116 252 2200Contacted via telephone. Indicated interest in seeing the brief, although he is not involved with work involving children’s development. Referred writer to David Hargreaves and Alex Lamont.

Professor David H Hargreaves Centre for International Research in Music Education (CIRME)University of Surrey RoehamptonSouthlands CollegeRoehampton LaneLondonSW15 5LSTel: +44 (0)20 8392 3755Fax: +44 (0)20 8392 3786Email [email protected]://www.roehampton.ac.uk/cirme/Contacted via email: Responded positively and indicated an interest in the brief. He provided references.

Dr Jane W. DavidsonUniversity of SheffieldDepartment of Music38 Taptonville RoadSheffieldS10 5BR(t) +44 (0) 114 222 0470(f) +44 (0) 114 222 [email protected] via email: no reply

Dr Susan HallamLifelong Education and International DevelopmentInstitute of EducationUniversity of London20 Bedford WayLondonWC1H 0ALRm: 716Tel: +44 (0)20 7612 6371Fax: +44 (0)20 7612 6632Email: [email protected] contacted as yet.


35


http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/cirme/


Compiled: ‘The Power of Music’ website: www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk/directory.htm

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Appendix 1

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5. Arts Integration Results In Higher Elementary Test ScoresNational Association of Elementary School Principleswww.naesp.org/comm/p0398c.htmhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

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20. How Many Smarts Do you Have?‘A daring theory says intelligence isn't one thing but many', Karen Pennarhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

21. How Mozart Really Makes You SmarterJoanne HaroutounianPiano & Keyboard, Jan/Feb 2001http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

22. How Music Tunes Our Mental StringsJudy Foreman, Globehttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

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25. Intrinsic, Intellectual, and Economic Benefits of the ArtsUpitis. R (2002)Presented at the Conference for the Love of the Arts and at the Faculty of Education, University of Manitoba, Feb 14, 2002Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canadahttp://educ.queensu.ca/~arts/conference_presentations.html

26. Introducing multiple representations of music into the elementary school curriculumLarry ScrippJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http:www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

27. Introduction: The premise of learning through musicLarry ScrippJournal for Learning Through Music, Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

28. Involvement in the Arts and Human Development: General Involvement and Intensive Involvement in Music and Theatre ArtsJames S. Catterall, Richard Chapleau, John IwanagaUCLA Graduate School of Education & Information Studieswww.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/publications

29. Keeping a Musical Beat Is Linked to Academic SkillsFeature, Los Angeles Times, 1994, Maia Davis, http://www.tcams.org/davis.htm


49

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30. Keys to Success In The Arts and Student Achievementhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

31. Learning through music portfolios in elementary schools (2000)L Davidson, S Crouch, A NortonJournal for Learning Through Music, Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/JLTM1-pdf/5learning.pdf

32. Learning Through The Arts: Artists, Researchers, and Teachers Collaborating for ChangeRita L. Irwin and Kit GrauerUniversity of British Columbia, Faculty of Education, Department of Curriculum Studieshttp://www.curricstudies.educ.ubc.ca/projects/ltta.html

33. Making Music, Listening, And LearningListening Training and Music Education', Paul Madaule, Early Childhood Coonections: Journal of Music and Movement-based Learning, Vol.4, No.2, Spring 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

34. Mapping Music Education Research in the UK 1BERA Music Education Review GroupCollection of presentations at the BERA National Event Number Five 'Mapping Music Education Research in the UK' held at University of Surrey Roehampton, 18 Sept 1999. BERA Music Education Review Grouphttp://www.bera.ac.uk/publications/pdfs/musicreview.pdf

35. Mapping Music Education Research in the UK 2BERA Music Education Review Grouphttp://www.bera.ac.uk/publications/pdfs/musicreview.pdf

36. Math Skills Grow Over Time With Instrumental Music ParticipationChampions for Change' published by the President's Council on the Arts and Humanitieswww.pcah.govhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

37. Math: The Invisible Hand Behind the MusicNCTM News Bulleting, July/August 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

38. Mental Stretching in Action: Research and program development at the Conservatory Lab Charter SchoolLarry ScrippJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http:www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

39. Music & Reading Skillshttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

40. Music Advocacy's Top Ten for EveryoneEssential Advocacy Resources for Music: American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

41. Music and Art Lessons Do More than Complement Three R's not quotedEleanor Chute, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 13, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf


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42. Music and the BrainThe Music in Our Minds', Norman M. Weinberger. Educational Leadership, Vol.56, No.3 Nov 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

43. Music Has Biological Roots in HumansThe Music in Our Minds', Norman M. Weinberger. Educational Leadership, Vol.56, No.3 Nov 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

44. Music in SocietyThe Power of Musichttp://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk

45. Music in the Education of Young AdolescentsRobert H. Woodypublished in Middle School Journal, Vol.29, No.5, May 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

46. Music Lessons help students more than computer trainingNeurological Research, Feb 28, 1997American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

47. Music Making Beats Computers at Enhancing Early Childhood Developmenthttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

48. Music on the Mindhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

49. Music students enjoy greater college successReferences: 'The Comparative Academic Abilities of Students in Education and in Other Areas of a Multi-focus University', Peter H. Wood, ERIC Document No ED327480; 'The Case for Music in the Schools', Phi Delta Kappan, Feb 1994, American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

50. Music Training And Mental ImageryAlemean, M.R. Nieuwenstein, K.B.E. Bocker, E.H.F. de Haan, published in Neurophsychologica, vol.38 (2000), pp. 1664-1668http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

51. Music Training helps under-achieversNature, May 23, 1996American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

52. Music, Learning & Behaviour: A Case for Mental StretchingMarin F. Gardiner, PH.DJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

53. Musicality from Birth to FiveDonald A. Hodges, Institute for Music Research, University of Texas at San Antonio

International Foundation for Music Researchhttp://www.music-research.org/publications/V01N1_musicality.html

54. Notes of Nurture - Kids Who Make Music Also Build Brain Power, Research Shows


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John Reinan, Staff writer, The Charlotte Observer, Jan 5, 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

55. One Size Does Not Fit All: The Need for Multiple Approaches to Arts Education in Canada

56. Dr Rena UpitisPresented at the Arts and Education 2000 Pre-Conference Summit, Toronto, November 10 - 12, 2000Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6http://educ.queensu.ca/~arts/[email protected]

57. Performing Musicians as Artist-TeachersEric BoothJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

58. Piano and Computer Training Boost Student Math AchievementDr Gordon Shaw, Neurological Research, March 15, 1999 (presented at American Music Conference; "UC Irvine study Shows Second-Graders in Study Scored Higher than Others on Fractions and Proportional Math")http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

59. Piano Boosts Student Math SkillsNeurological Research, March 1999American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

60. Private Music Lessons Are Linked To Higher Math Test ScoresJoyce M. Cheek and Lyle R. Smith, Adolescence, Vol. 34, No. 136, Winter 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

61. Pull-out String Lessons Do Not Harm Academic Achievement According to Ohio StudyA Comparison Study of the Ohio Proficiency Test Results between Fourth-grade String Pullout Students and Those of Matched AbilityMichael D. Wallick, Journal of Research in Music Education, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

62. Read With A Beat: Developing Literacy Through Music and Song Gayla R. Kolb, published in 'The Reading Teacher' vol. 50 no.1, Sept 1996, pp.76-77http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

63. Research & Assessment on the Arts and Learning: Education Policy Implications of Recent Research on the Arts and Academic and Social DevelopmentJames S. CatterallJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

64. Research Findings on the Benefits of a Music EducationMusic. Play for LifeAustralian Music Associationhttp://www.mca.org.au/mpfl/research1.htm

65. Research that matters (Work that matters: Research & Policy in Music Education)Upitis. R (2001)Presented at Sixth Colloquium for Teachers of General Music Methods, Mountain Lake, Virginia, May 18, 2001Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada


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66. Research, Music and Policy DebatesJoan Schmidt, Director National School Boards Association, Montana School Boards Association Bulletin, April 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

67. Rhythm students learn fractions easierDr Frances RauscherNeurological Research, March 15, 1999American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

68. Rhythmic Ability as a Foundation for Learning and EvolutionTiming, Concentration, and Motor Skills (TCAMS) Professional Resource Centrehttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

69. Second Grade Students Combining Computers and Music Score As Well As Fourth Grade Students on Math Examwww.MINDInst.orghttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

70. Singing Familiar Songs uses Spatial IntelligencePerception Special Interest Research Group Newsletter vol.13 No.1http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

71. Strategies for Low-Performing Schools and At-Risk YouthVH1 President John Sykes and VH1 Save the Music Executive Director Bob Morrison, to the National Governors Association , Feb 25, 2001http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

72. Strategies for School Change through Music and the ArtsLyle Davidson, Caryn Claar, & Masami StampfJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

Substance abuse lowest in music studentsHouston Chornicle, Jan 11, 1998American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

73. Teacher Education and Professional Development Through CollaborationGail BurnafordJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

74. Teaching Musicians the Art of Possibility: Observations on a Master Class by Ben ZanderPatrick KeppelJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

75. Ten-Year Study shows music improves test scoresDr James Catterall, UCLA, 1997American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

76. Texas All-State Musicians Score 196 Points Above National Average on The 2000 SAT


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www.tmea.org/025_Advocacy/allstate.htmlhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

77. The A+ Schools program: Establishing and Integrating the Arts as Four Languages of LearningVincent MarronJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

78. The Arts' Impact on LearningRichard J. Deasy and Harriet Mayor FulbrightEducation Week, Vol.20, no.19, Jan 24, 2001, pp34,38http://www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug+19deasy.h20http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

79. The Brain-Music Connection'Brain: Music of the Hemispheres', Discover, March 1994; 'Music of the Hemispheres', James Shreeve, Discover, October 1996; 'Sweet Taste in Music May Be Human Trait, Harvard Study Finds', Richard A. Knox, Boston Globe, Sept 1996http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

80. The Effects of an Enriched Elementary Arts Education Program on Teacher Development, Artist Practices, and Student AchievementDr. Rena Upitis, Dr. Katharine Smithrim, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, CanadaPresented at American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Seattle, Washington, April 10 - 14, 2001http://educ.queensu.ca/~arts/[email protected]

81. The Impact of the Arts on Learning: Champions of ChangeThe Arts Education Partnership, a publication of The Arts Education Partnership & The President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities in the USA.Music Council of Australiahttp://www.mca.org.au/m15231.htm

82. The Mozart Effect and primary school childrenVesna K. Ivanov & John G. Geake, University of Melbourne; Oxford Brookes UniversityPsychology of Music, Vol 31 Iss 04, 10/2003SAGE Publications (for Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research)www.sagepub.co.uk & www. Sempre.org.uk

83. The Mozart Effect: Does Involvement in the arts really translate into academic success or is the claim spurious?Music. Play for Lifehttp://www.amc.org.au/mpfl/research1.htmhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

84. The Musical Mind: Training in music, researchers find, has a positive effect on cognitive development' Susan Blackhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

85. The Power of MusicSusan Hallamhttp://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk


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86. The Teaching Artist and the Artistry of TeachingEric BoothJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

87. The Wrong Keyboard?Popular Science, June 1997http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

88. Verbal Memory Improved by Music TrainingAgnes S. Chan, Yim-Chi Ho, and Mei-Chun Chuang, 'Music Training Improves Verbal Memory', from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Printed in Nature, Vol. 396, Nov 12, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

89. Want Sharp Students? Music Notes Might Be the KeyCarrie Sturrock, Charlotte Observer, August 30, 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

90. What do we want our schools to do?Eric Oddleifson, Phi Delta Kappan, Feb 1994(Chairman of the Center for Arts in the Basic Curriculum, Washington, DC)http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

91. What Happens When Two Elementary Schools meet a Symphony Orchestra?Larry ScrippJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

92. What Makes Music Great for Education?Based on presentation by Robert Kapilow & the Borromeo QuartetJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html

93. Why Arts Education Is BasicThe Changing Workplace Is Changing Our View of Education', Business Week, October 28, 1996http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

94. Why Do Schools Flunk Biology?LynNell Hancock, Newsweekhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

95. Wisconsin District Requires Piano Lessons for K-5 StudentsKaren L. Abercrombie, Education Week, Oct. 14, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf

96. World's leading academic countries value music educationAmerican Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org

97. Year-Old Babies Remember Music Heard In WombTim Radford, 'Babies have ear for music in womb', Guardian Unlimited/The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,519873,00.htmlhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf


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http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,519873,00.html












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