documents & reports - all documents | the world …€¦ · web viewindia ben 46 mexico city...
TRANSCRIPT
City Energy Efficiency Report: Transport Sector
WuhanAugust 2015
Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project Team
Table of Contents
Glossary 4
Preface 5
Executive Summary 6
1. Introduction 10
2. Background 12
3. Transport Sector Energy Efficiency Evaluation 18
4. Potential Energy Cost Savings 24
5. Energy Efficiency Recommendations 25
Annex 1: Detailed Recommendations from TRACE 28
Annex 2: List of City Abbreviations for Cities in the TRACE Database 81
Glossary
BRT Bus Rapid TransitCNG Compressed Natural GasESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance ProgramETC Electronic Toll CollectionGBP British PoundGHG Greenhouse gasesGJ GigajouleGWh Gigawatt hourHDI Human Development IndexICT Information and Communication TechnologyITS Intelligent Transport SystemsKPI Key Performance IndicatorkWh Kilowatt hourLEZ Low-Emission Zone MJ Mega jouleNMT Non-Motorized Transport (Cycling and Walking)NMV Non-Motorized Vehicle RMB Renminbi (Chinese Currency)SCE Standard Coal EquivalentSD Singapore DollarTRACE Tool for Rapid Assessment of City EnergyUSD US Dollar
Page 4
Preface
The Tool for Rapid Assessment of City Energy (TRACE) is a decision-support tool designed to help cities quickly identify underperforming sectors, evaluate improvement and cost-saving potential, and prioritize sectors and actions for energy efficiency intervention. TRACE1, developed by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), offers a range of potential solutions, along with implementation guidance and case studies. This report specifically focuses on citywide energy performance and diagnoses of potential energy savings in the transport sector in Wuhan, China.This report was prepared the Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project team of The World Bank’s Transport and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) East Asia and Pacific Unit. The team, led by Arturo Ardila-Gomez (Lead Transport Economist), included Li Qu (Young Professional), Gladys Frame (Consultant), and Yang Chen (Urban Transport Specialist). The financial and technical support by ESMAP is gratefully acknowledged. ESMAP—a global knowledge and technical assistance program administered by the World Bank—assists low- and middle-income countries to increase their know-how and institutional capacity to achieve environmentally sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction and economic growth. ESMAP is funded by Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the World Bank Group.
1 More information on TRACE can be found at http://www.climateplanning.org/tools/tool-rapid-assessment-city-energy-trace
Page 5
Executive Summary
As a result of rapid development, cities in China are experiencing ever-increasing levels of energy consumption that is forcing them to consider and plan their development in a sustainable manner. Transport, one of the most energy dependent sectors, accounted for 37 percent of petroleum consumption in China in 2013. This number has increased significantly over the past few years. Energy savings in the transport sector play an important role in sustainable city development in terms of relieving congestion and reducing greenhouse gases (GHG).
Wuhan is a rapidly growing metropolitan area. In 2013, with a population of 10.22 million, it ranked as the sixth-most populous city in China. Amid extensive construction of infrastructure and ongoing development, the city is seeking strategies to achieve optimal energy efficiency. The World Bank team analyzed energy efficiency across the city, including in the transport sector. Key findings include:
• Relatively high citywide primary electricity consumption per capita;• Relatively high citywide energy consumption per capita;• The average length of high capacity transit routes per 1,000 people is low; • High private transport energy consumption; and• Total transport energy use per capita, public transport energy consumption, and public transport mode split ranks in the middle when compared with peer cities.
According to the diagnostic results, it is estimated that potentially 31 percent can be saved in public transport energy costs and 20.2 percent in private vehicles’ energy costs.
SectorEstimated Percentage
of Energy Consumption
Reduction
Energy Cost(USD)
Potential Energy Cost Savings
(USD)
Page 6
Public Transportation 31.0% 253,006,268 78,437,455
Private Vehicles 20.2% 989,163,063 169,925,734
Based on Wuhan’s specific situation, the TRACE tool provided the following recommendations for energy savings in the transport sector:
• Enforcement of vehicle emissions standardsEnforcement of vehicle emissions standards not only improves local air quality, it also leads to lower fuel consumption. Vehicle emissions standards may be implemented through mandatory regular emissions checks. The higher the vehicle emissions standard, the less fuel the vehicle is likely to consume and the higher the reductions in the emission of fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, CO2 and other pollutants. Lower emissions result in better air quality and a lower risk of respiratory diseases associated with air pollution.
• Traffic flow optimizationTraffic can be positively managed to ensure the most efficient operation of the transport system. Management techniques and Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) will seek to minimize distance travelled between origin and destination, minimize the number of vehicle stops, ensure the efficient flow of traffic, and encourage multiple occupancy vehicle travel. The strategy will encourage efficient use of vehicles and minimize journey lengths and vehicle stops thereby reducing fuel use.
• Public transport developmentDevelop or improve the public transport system and take steps to increase its accessibility and use. Public transport achieves lower emissions per capita than private cars and has the potential to provide an equitable transport network. A reduction in the number of private vehicles in circulation can lower emissions and improve air quality.
• Non-motorized transport modesNon-motorized transport modes have zero operational fuel consumption and require low capital costs for implementation. In
Page 7
addition to improving the health of users, their use reduces noise pollution and improves air quality. The benefits include improved air quality, lower operating costs for users and providers, and lower infrastructure requirements. However, it should be noted that in Chinese cities, the term “Non-Motorized Vehicle (NMV)” covers electric bicycles (E-bikes) and their numbers have risen substantially since motorcycles were banned in many urban areas. Vehicle registration data for Wuhan in 2012 shows E-bikes at 0.7million and bicycles at 1.17million. In Wuhan in 2008, E-bikes comprised 13% of the trip modal split with bicycles comprising 7%2.
• Parking restraint measuresRestricting parking can discourage car use and provide an incentive to use more sustainable modes of transport, including public transport. Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel use and the effects of congestion.
• Traffic restraint measuresDiscouraging potential drivers from using their cars can lead to fewer cars in circulation. This can encourage people to use alternative modes, which in turn will increase their viability (increased public transport patronage, for example). Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel use and the need for road space.
• Congestion chargingCongestion charging restrains access by selected vehicle types, usually private cars, into large urban areas during congested times of the day. The aim is usually to discourage work-based commuting trips into a defined urban area. Measures range from complete restriction to discouragement through charging to incentive pricing for low-emission vehicles in low-emission zones. It is a market-based mechanism for influencing driver behavior that looks to capture the “external cost' of vehicle travel during congested periods of the day.
• Travel planningInforming drivers about alternative modes of transport and sharing resources with other drivers leads to fewer cars being used and 2 Wuhan Municipal Engineering Design and Research Institute (WMEDRI), 2009.
Page 8
more trips on public transport. Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel consumption and increases the viability and efficiency of public transport.
• Awareness-raising campaigns Public education and training campaigns can increase the public's awareness and understanding of the benefits of energy efficiency and help change attitudes. Providing information on easy ways to be more energy efficient can help modify citizen behavior and contribute to overall energy savings. The key benefits are more energy efficient behavior by residents leading to reduced energy consumption within the city. For example, encouraging people to leave their car at home and take transit instead, or promoting walking for short trips. Indirect benefits include reduced pressure on energy infrastructure, reduced carbon emissions, and better air quality.
The above recommendations can build upon the ongoing programs carried out by the city, and some of them can also be combined with the linked Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project that is financed by World Bank.
Page 9
1. Introduction
Methodology
The team utilized the TRACE tool to evaluate potential energy savings and provide energy efficiency recommendations to the urban transport sector in Wuhan. The TRACE tool was designed to help prioritize energy savings across six sectors—transport, municipal buildings, water and wastewater, street lighting, solid waste, and power and heat. It consists of three principal modules:
1) Energy benchmarking: Compares Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) across peer cities such as percentage modal split for Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) which covers cycling and walking; 2) Sector prioritization: Identifies sectors that offer greatest energy cost savings potential; and3) Intervention selection: Provides “tried and tested” energy efficiency solutions.
For this study, only the transport sector was investigated using the TRACE tool to facilitate the linked World Bank loan project to identify energy efficiency in Wuhan. During the course of the preparation of the Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project, the project team visited Wuhan and conducted interviews with officials from a broad range of city agencies to collect energy use information for the city as well as for the transport sector.3 The data was then fed into the TRACE tool to conduct the current energy use benchmarking with other cities in the TRACE database. The initial energy saving potential was then estimated according to the benchmark results as well as the level of the city’s control over transport sector authorities. Finally, recommendations were provided based on the energy saving evaluation and the city database. The initial energy saving potential, and assets and infrastructure, with detailed information on each of the strategies.
3 Interviewed officials in agencies, including Wuhan Transport Bureau, Wuhan Transport Strategy Planning Institute, Wuhan Traffic Management Bureau, bus company, and taxi company.
Page 10
The TRACE tool has been deployed in twenty-seven cities in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America.4 It helped the cities prepare local energy efficiency measures in a low-cost and fast manner. Specifically, the measures have been implemented in Eastern Europe to reduce GHG emissions and energy related costs as part of the Europe 2020 strategy—the European Union’s jobs and growth strategy, the objective of which is to reduce GHG emissions by 20 percent by 2020.
Limitations of the TRACE tool
While TRACE is a simple and easy tool to evaluate a city’s energy efficiency, there are limitations with respect to the depth of its analysis. It estimates potential energy savings based on benchmarking against other cities in the TRACE database, but the evaluation of city specific energy savings would require more detailed data, which are difficult to obtain, especially in the transport sector. However, TRACE provides the best practices for energy saving recommendations based on the city ’s evaluation with cost and implementation requirement information, but it does not provide city specific details on the costs required to undertake the recommended strategies.
2. The Wuhan Case Study
Wuhan, located in central China, is home to 10.22 million residents, covers 8494.41 square kilometers, and had an annual Gross Domestic Product of RMB905.13 billion (USD145.99 billion) in 2013.5 Although Wuhan is one of China’s fastest-growing cities, it lags behind the coastal cities. The disposable income per capita in Wuhan is RMB20,681 per year6
compared to RMB32,472 in eastern coastal cities.7 Thus, the Government of China launched the “Rise of Central China” program to boost economic growth in central China. Wuhan, along with eight smaller cities within a 100 km radius (1+8 city cluster), was selected as one of the first pilot demonstrations of regional planning in China. The goal was to achieve a more balanced and sustainable development pattern in these cities.
4 View full list of the cities where TRACE has been deployed: http://www.esmap.org/node/4368.5 Wuhan Statistical Yearbook, 2014.6 Calculation based on Hubei Province Statistical Yearbook, 2013.7 China Statistical Yearbook, 2014.
Page 11
Improving transport is one of the fundamentals to the development of a central China strategy. Following China’s pattern of rapid motorization, Wuhan, too, is experiencing a rapid growth in the number of motor vehicles. With about 130 vehicles per 1,000 population,8 the city suffered the negative impact of increasing congestion despite a relatively low vehicle ownership rate compared to other cities such as London (300) and cities in the Netherlands (500)9. The quality of the environment is compromised by air pollution from the growing private vehicle fleet and old public transport vehicles
3. Background
Wuhan is one of the largest cities in China. It ranked the sixth-most populous Chinese city in 2013, according to the China Urban Development Statistical Yearbook as presented in Table 1. As with other Chinese cities, Wuhan is experiencing rapid urbanization with an urbanized population rate of 67.6 percent in 2013 that has increased by about 4 percent since 2007.
Table 1: Top Ten Populous Cities in China10
Rank City Population (million)
1 Shanghai 23.80
2 Chongqing 20.70
3 Beijing 20.69
4 Guangzhou 12.86
5 Shenzhen 10.55
6 Wuhan 9.58
7 Tianjin 8.78
8 Chengdu 6.26
9 Dongguan 6.02
8 Calculation based on Wuhan Statistical Yearbook, 2014.9 Frame, Gladys et al, The Kingdom of the Bicycle: What Wuhan can learn from Amsterdam, to be presented at the World Conference on Transport Research - WCTR 2016 Shanghai. 10-15 July 201610 China Urban Development Statistical Yearbook 2013 data is for 2012. The population is the total of urban district population and urban district temporary population.
Page 12
10 Nanjing 5.83
Figure 1: Urbanization Rate of Wuhan 2007-201311
As an inland city, Wuhan has a typical continental climate with four distinct seasons. Wuhan is famous for its hot summers. The highest temperature can reach to above 40 degrees Celsius for continuous days in July and August. Thus, it is listed as one of the four “oven” cities in China. The Yangtze and Han Rivers divide Wuhan into three major parts: Hankou, Wuhan, and Hanyang. Due to these major rivers, as well as plenty of freshwater lakes, the weather is humid throughout the year, which makes it feel even hotter in summer and colder in winter.
Rapid development and economic growth have put pressure on land, energy, and environment. Wuhan’s total energy consumption reached 487.2 million tons Standard Coal Equivalent (SCE) in 2013.12 11 Wuhan Statistical Yearbook 2014.12 Wuhan Statistical Yearbook 2014.
Page 13
Although hydroelectric is being developed in the area, the major energy source in Wuhan is still fossil energy, which generates more GHG emissions (see Figure 2.) than clean energy sources.
Figure 2: Energy consumption by source in Wuhan, 2013
In 2013, the total electricity consumption in the city amounted to 43,723 GWh, which almost doubled compared to the amount in 2006 (see Figure 3).
Page 14
Figure 3: Total electricity consumption of Wuhan 2006-201313
The largest share of electricity consumption goes to secondary industry (57 percent), followed by tertiary industry (23 percent), residential (19 percent), and primary industry (1 percent).14 Among the total industry electricity consumption, three percent—1,162 GWh—is shared by transportation, storage, postal and telecommunication services.
13 Wuhan Statistical Yearbook, 2014.14 Defined by “China National Industries Classification”. Primary industry includes: i) farming, ii) forestry, iii) animal husbandry, iv) fishery, and v) water conservancy; secondary industry includes: i) mining and quarrying, ii) manufacturing, iii) electricity, gas, and tap water production and supply, and iv) construction; tertiary industry includes: i) transportation, storage, postal and telecommunication services, ii) information transfer, computer, and software services, iii) commerce, hotel, and catering services, iv) banking, real estate, commerce and business services, and v) public enterprise and management organization.
Page 15
Figure 4: Electricity consumption by sector in Wuhan, 2013
Citywide energy consumption benchmarking
With primary electricity consumption at 5,318 kWh per capita,15 Wuhan ranks 3rd among the cities in the TRACE database with a similar continental climate, following Toronto and Beijing, as shown in Figure 5.16 When it comes to primary energy consumption, Wuhan also ranks 3rd
among the cities with similar climate with the value of 108 Gigajoules per capita, following Toronto and Belgrade, as presented in Figure 6. Due to the specific weather features and its inland location, Wuhan requires more electricity and energy during the hot season between June and August, as well as the cold season between December and February. Thus, the city’s electricity and energy consumption ranks relatively high compare to other cities in the TRACE database.
15 Calculation based on Wuhan Statistical Yearbook, 2014.16 Refer to Annex 2 for “List of City Abbreviations for Cities in the TRACE Database.”
Page 16
Figure 5: Primary electricity consumption per capita (continental climate)
Figure 6: Primary energy consumption per capita (continental climate)
Page 17
4. Transport Sector Energy Efficiency Evaluation
In Wuhan, the total number of motor vehicles has increased rapidly over the past few years. By end of 2013, this total amounted to 1.53 million. The share of private vehicles reached 1.21 million, which accounted for 79 percent of the total.
In 2012, total petroleum consumption in China reached 4.67 million tons. The transport sector accounted for 37 percent of this consumption.17 The share of petroleum consumption by the transport sector has been increasing over the past two decades, from 15 percent in 1990 to 37 percent in 2012, as presented in Figure 7, due to rapid motorization nationwide.
Figure 7: Petroleum consumption in total and by transport sector in China
17 China Statistical Yearbook, 2014.
Page 18
Urban passenger transport in Wuhan is mainly composed of road transport, supported by water transport on the rivers. Public transport modes include bus, metro, taxi, and ferry.
Figure 8: Total number of vehicles and number of private vehicles18
18 Number of private vehicles in 2010 is missing due to lack of statistical data by vehicle type. Data source: Wuhan Transport Annual Report, 2014, by Wuhan Transport Development Strategy Research Institute.
Page 19
The Wuhan Public Transport Company operates a fleet of approximately 7,000 buses on 342 routes with a total route length of 6,314 km. Of these 7,000 buses, 4,500 are powered by diesel, 2,250 are powered by Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), and the other 250 are powered by electricity and new clean energy. All the buses are scrapped after eight years of use to keep the fleet relatively new. In 2013, there are three metro lines operating in the city with a total length of 96.7 km. In 2013, the total number of passengers who travelled by public transit per day was 5.92 million, of which 5.1 million (86 percent) travelled by buses and 0.8 million (14 percent) by metro.19,20
As one of the pilot cities in the National Transit Metropolis Initiative, Wuhan’s transit system is currently undergoing an unprecedented pace of development. It is expected that six additional metro lines and eight Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) lines will open by year 2020.
19 Wuhan Transport Annual Report, 2014, by Wuhan Transport Development Strategy Research Institute.20 By end of 2013, only two metro lines were opened in Wuhan with a total length of 62.6 km.
Page 20
There are 15,637 taxis in Wuhan that carried 420 million passengers in 2013. The major power sources for transport are gasoline, diesel, and compressed natural gas (CNG). By the end of 2014, 98 percent of the taxis in Wuhan were CNG vehicles.
According to the resident travel survey in 2013, 23 percent of the trips were taken by buses; 7 percent by metro; 6.5 percent by taxi; 20 percent by private cars; 18.5 percent by bicycle, including E-bikes; and 25 percent by walking,21 as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Trip mode split in Wuhan
Transportation Sector Benchmarking
According to the analysis by the TRACE tool, 5,304.63 Mega joules/capita transportation energy use places Wuhan in the lower middle of the TRACE database with comparable cities with similar Human Development Indicator (HDI) as shown in Figure 10. This calculation is based on total vehicle ownership, total population in Wuhan Statistical Yearbook 2014,
21 Project Appraisal Document of Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project.
Page 21
average travel distance, average fuel consumption per 100 km, and rate of vehicles on road provided by local agencies.
Figure 10: Total transportation energy use per capita
Although Wuhan opened its first metro line in 2004, metro system development has only been boosted in the past few years. Currently, with three metro lines of a total length of 96.7 km at the end of 2014, there are 11.7 meters of high-capacity transit per 1,000 people. This ranks Wuhan in the lower end among the cities in the TRACE database with similar HDI, a bit lower than Gaziantep and Mexico City, but higher than Yerevan, Jakarta, Quezon City, Tehran, and Bogota. According to the current metro system plan, nine metro lines will be opened by end of 2020 and the total length will reach to about 400 km.
Figure 11: Meters of high-capacity transit per 1,000 people
Page 22
With a 30 percent public transport mode split, Wuhan ranks in the lower middle among the cities in the TRACE database. This ranking is expected to improve over the next few years as more metro lines and BRT are built. According to the target value proposed by the National Transit Metropolis Initiative, the public transport mode split in the pilot cities (Wuhan is in the first batch of the pilot cities) should reach at least 50 percent in five years, by 2020.
Figure 12: Public transportation mode split
Page 23
It is estimated that among the total transport energy consumption in Wuhan, 16.6 percent was by public transport and 64.9 percent by private cars.22 The public transport energy consumption in Wuhan is about 0.51 MJ/passenger km, ranking at the lower middle among comparable cities, a little higher than Rio de Janeiro and lower than Guangzhou.
Figure 13: Public transport energy consumption
Private transport energy consumption in Wuhan, however, placed the city at the higher middle among cities in the TRACE database with the value of 2.14 MJ/passenger km, the same level as Johannesburg and Bogota. Compared to 0.51 MJ/passenger km energy consumption by public transport, private transport consumes about four times more energy than public transport. Thus public transport promotion should be one of the key strategies to achieve energy savings.
Figure 14: Private transport energy consumption22 Calculated based on total number of vehicles, total energy consumption by transport sector in Wuhan Statistical Yearbook, 2014, average travel distance, passenger km provided by local agencies.
Page 24
5. Potential Energy Cost Savings
Based on the initial results provided by the TRACE energy-benchmarking module, the potential energy reduction value is calculated as the mean of the values of all chosen peer cities with better energy performance. Thus, for Wuhan, potentially 31 percent energy use can be saved for the public transport sector, and 20.2 percent energy use can be saved for the private transport sector. The energy expenditure for public transport and private vehicles is estimated based on the total amount of fuel consumption and the average cost of the fuel.
As public transportation in Wuhan is operated by the public sector, the city authority has total control over the public transport sector to implement proposed energy saving strategies. Private vehicles are strongly regulated and managed by city authorities. The city also creates and enforces regulations. Thus the city authority control index over private vehicles is set as 85 percent as recommended by TRACE.
Page 25
Potential energy cost savings are calculated based on the above assumptions. The results are presented in Table 2. It shows that about USD78 million can be saved by public transportation and USD170 million can be saved by private vehicles in terms of energy cost. As an initial estimation of energy cost savings based on energy performance benchmarking these savings could be potentially achieved by implementing appropriate energy saving strategies as stated in the next section.
Table 2: Estimated energy cost savings for public transport and private vehicles in Wuhan
Sector
Estimated Percentage of Energy
Consumption Reduction
Energy Cost(USD)
City Authority Control
Potential Energy Cost
Savings(USD)
Public Transportation 31.0% 253,006,268 1.00 78,437,455
Private Vehicles 20.2% 989,163,063 0.85 169,925,734
6. Energy Efficiency Recommendations
Based on the initial energy saving evaluation, TRACE contains a playbook of energy efficiency recommendations applicable for each of the sectors. According to the specific situation in Wuhan, viable recommendations towards energy savings in the transport sector are selected as below in Table 3.
Table 4 presents the first cost and potential energy savings for each of the recommendations. The detailed recommendation description, implementation, monitoring, case studies, and guidance references are provided in Annex 1.
Page 26
Table 3: TRACE list of recommendations and implementation speed
Recommendation Implementation Speed
Enforcement of Vehicle Emission Standards > 2 years
Traffic Flow Optimization > 2 years
Public Transport Development > 2 years
Non-Motorized Transport Modes > 2 years
Parking Restraint Measures > 2 years
Traffic Restraint Measures 1-2 years
Congestion Pricing > 2 years
Travel Planning 1-2 years
Awareness-raising Campaign < 1 year
The recommendations focus on transport development as well as restraint policies to enhance energy savings. Specifically, in Wuhan, public transport development is underway with extensive metro and BRT construction; non-motorized transport modes could be enhanced by the reinvigoration of bicycle networks and improved bike-sharing programs; congestion pricing and parking restraint measures can be combined with the existing Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system, which has been deployed for nonstop toll collection on bridges and tunnels. Other recommendations can be implemented jointly with the linked Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project through Intelligent Transport System (ITS) development and integrated transport information center activities.
Page 27
Table 4: Energy saving recommendations with first cost and energy savings potential
First Cost
> $1,000,000 $100,000-$1,000,000 < $100,000
Ener
gy S
avin
gs P
oten
tial
>200,000 kWh/annum Public Transportation DevelopmentEnforcement of Vehicle
Emissions StandardTraffic Flow Optimization
100,000 - 200,000 kWh/annum
Non-Motorized Transport ModesCongestion Pricing
Traffic Restraint MeasuresAwareness-raising Campaign
Travel Planning
Parking Restraint Measures
Page 28
Annex 1: Detailed Recommendations from TRACE
Improving Energy Efficiency in the Transport Sector in Wuhan, China
1.Enforcement of Vehicle Emissions Standards
Description
Enforcement of vehicle emissions standards not only improves local air quality, but also leads to lower fuel consumption. Vehicle emissions standards may be implemented through mandatory regular emissions checks for vehicles.
The higher the vehicle emissions standard, the less fuel it is likely to consume and the higher the reductions in the emission of fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, CO2 and other pollutants. Lower emissions result in higher air quality and lower the risk of respiratory diseases associated with air pollution.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
> 200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
USD100,000-1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Increased employment opportunities
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Technology-based enforcement
The city authority implements vehicle
standards via mandatory vehicle
registration using number plates, which
are monitored with automatic number-
plate recognition cameras. This
approach works most effectively in
discrete areas of the city with limited
entry and exit points (to minimize capital
costs). Whilst the initial capital costs
29
may be high, operational costs are
lower than manual enforcement, though
it must also be supported by
enforcement/sanction systems.
Expansion of this approach to citywide
application is capital intensive although
more effective than the manual
approach (see manual enforcement
implementation activity below). Vehicles
that have passed the test are entered
into a database linked to the automatic
number-plate recognition cameras.
Manual enforcement
The city authority requires manual
checks of vehicle emission standards,
e.g., by traffic officers or wardens who
collect non-compliance penalties, or by
cordon officers who restrict entry into an
emission standard area. This is done
either by means of a system that uses
categorized number plates, or by use of
easily recognizable windscreen stickers
displaying the permit or pass from
emissions checks. A consideration for
either approach should be whether the
entire city should be designated for
stringent emissions standards or
whether there are particular areas that
can easily be identified for the purpose.
Note that this approach is less likely to
capture all emissions test evaders, and
is at risk from unscrupulous traffic
30
officers or wardens. This intervention
requires the establishment of a network
of emissions testing centers to award
compliance certificates or permits. See
Stockholm case study for further details.
Emissions centers
The city authority regulates a network of
emissions testing centers, which are
independently assessed and verified to
undertake emissions tests. Sanctions
for abuse or fraud should be severe to
deter corruption. See Mexico City case
study for further details.
Monitoring
Monitoring the progression and effectiveness of recommendations, once implemented, is fundamental to an accurate understanding of their value over the longer term. Where the city authority implements a recommendation a target (or set of targets) should be defined that indicates the level of expected progress over a given timescale. At the same time, a monitoring plan should be designed. The monitoring plan does not need to be complicated or time consuming but should, at a minimum, cover the following aspects: identification of information sources, identification of performance indicators, a means of measurement and validating measuring equipment or processes, record-keeping protocols, a schedule for measurement activity (daily, weekly, monthly etc.), assignment of responsibilities for each aspect of the process, a means of auditing and reviewing performance, and, finally, establishment of reporting and review cycles.
31
Case Studies
Low-Emission Zone, London, UK
Source: Transport for London (2009). “Cleaner air for Greater London—The Low-Emission
Zone is now in operation,” available online at:
http://issuu.com/baumot/docs/lez-information-leaflet
Further information can be found at:
https://tfl.gov.uk/corporate/publications-and-reports/low-emission-zone
The aim of the program is to improve air quality in the city by deterring the most
polluting vehicles from driving in the area. The vehicles affected by the Low-Emission Zone
(LEZ) are older diesel engine lorries, buses, coaches, large vans, minibuses, and other
heavy vehicles that are derived from lorries and vans. The LEZ is enforced using fixed and
mobile cameras, which read vehicles’ registration number plates as they drive within the
zone. This is then checked against a database of registered vehicles, which meet the LEZ
emissions standards and which are exempt from a daily charge. If the vehicle does not
meet required emission standards or does not qualify for an exemption, the daily charge
has to be paid. A critical issue in the successful operation of LEZ schemes is the
implementation of an effective enforcement program. If a vehicle driving within the zone is
identified as not meeting the LEZ emission standards and no daily charge has been paid, a
Penalty Charge Notice is issued to the vehicle's registered keeper. Transport for London,
the London transport authority, works together with a European debt recovery agency and
has established links with many European vehicle-licensing agencies in order to recover
32
penalties against vehicles registered outside Great Britain.
Environmental Zone, Stockholm, Sweden
Source: Transport & Travel Research (2006). “Air Quality Impacts of Low-Emission
Zones,” available online at
http://www.iaqm.co.uk/text/resources/reports/lez_aq_impacts.pdf
Environmental zones were created in central areas of Stockholm, which were
particularly sensitive to emissions and noise. Based on vehicle age, the approach is simple:
all vehicles over 3.5 tons that are older than eight years, including buses, are banned.
(Exceptions are made for vehicles between eight and 12 years old if they are retrofitted with
new engines). Enforcement is achieved through the police via spot checks as well as an
informal arrangement between carriers. Identification of potential violators happens by
means of the vehicle number plate, with older vehicles being required to carry permits to
prove they have been retrofitted with emissions-standard approved technology. The zone
has resulted in older vehicles being replaced earlier than they otherwise would have been,
yielding significant reductions in the levels of key pollutants.
Inspection Program, Mexico City, Mexico
Source: Kojima, M. and Bacon, R. (2001). “Emission Control: Public Policy for the Private
Sector.” Note No. 238, available at
https://www.wdronline.worldbank.org/handle/10986/11365
All motorists have to display a sticker showing that their vehicle has passed an
emissions test every six months or risk a fine. In its earlier stages of deployment this policy
suffered from high levels of evasion—an implementation problem common to similar
programs in developing countries. However, as a result of operating through high-volume,
test-only centers that are operated by the private sector, program performance has greatly
improved. It is estimated that the program has achieved an energy savings potential of
approximately 5 percent. Experiences recommend optimizing the number of centers
relative to the volume of traffic to be tested, thereby reducing the risk of the tests becoming
less rigorous as each center relaxes its inspection protocols in order to attract more
customers to increase market share. Each lane in the road section, which generates
33
$10,000 per year, had a capital cost of approximately USD60,000.
Tools and Guidance
USAID (2004). “Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance Programs: International Experience and Best Practices.” This document consolidates the details of implementing a vehicle inspection and maintenance program, and provides an overview of lessons from a range of best practice international experiences. Available online at http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADB317.pdf .
34
2.Traffic Flow Optimization
Description
Traffic can be positively managed by reducing the number of stops to ensure the most efficient operation of the transport system. Management techniques will seek to minimize distance travelled between origin and destination, ensure the efficient flow of traffic, and encourage multiple occupancy vehicle travel.
Encourage the efficient use of vehicles and minimize journey lengths, reducing fuel use.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
> 200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
USD100,000-1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Enhanced public health and safety
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Flow optimization and reduction of the number of stops
The city authority changes driving
patterns either by technical optimization
of traffic signaling, or by the provision of
information. Real-time information can
be provided by means of Variable
Message Signing (VMS) or
telecommunication where drivers are
provided with route-switching options,
clear directional signing to destinations,
and directions to nearest available car
parks. This minimizes journey length
and reduces congestion. Messaging
systems have also been used to
counter crime by providing information
on, e.g., kidnappings and terrorist
attacks. See Portland and Milton
Keynes case studies for further details.
35
Regulatory
The city authority establishes high-
occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes,
producing an incentive for car sharing.
The pairing of users can be left to civic
initiatives, or driven by city authorities
either separately or in combination with
its other initiatives (in the latter case,
initiatives can be communicated to
users using the same platform).
Achieving a minimum number of users
is crucial as insufficient use results in
reduced available road space and
increased congestion. The
implementation of an effective
enforcement and penalties system is
equally important as the lane will
otherwise attract an unacceptably high
level of non-HOVs, which also reduces
effectiveness. See Madrid case study
for further details.
Monitoring
Some suggested measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
Perform traffic surveys of number of vehicles in circulation by using traffic counters; and
Determine mode share of people travelling in the area or city.
36
Case Studies
Arterial “Green Wave” Traffic Flow Optimization, Portland, USA
Source: C40 Cities (2010). “Portland, USA: Optimizing Traffic Signal Timing Significantly
Reduces the Consumption of Fuel,” available online at
http://www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/transport/portland_traffic.jsp .
The city authority optimized traffic signal timing at 135 intersections on 16 of some
of Portland's most congested thoroughfares. “Optimization” of traffic signals consists of re-
timing the signals to improve their synchronization across a road traffic network. The cost of
an intersection synchronization varied between USD1,000 and USD3,000. The resulting
reductions in the frequency with which vehicles accelerate and decelerate, as well as the
reductions in the time vehicles spend with idling engines, yielded annual fuel savings of
1,750,000 gallons of gas. This is the equivalent of removing 30,000 passenger vehicles
from the road for an entire year. The city went a step further by measuring and eliminating
CO2 through the purchase of carbon credits.
Variable Message Signs, Milton Keynes, UK
Source: Department for Transport (2010). “Case Study: Milton Keynes Integrated Traffic
Management,” available online at http://www.dft.gov.uk/itstoolkit/CaseStudies/milton-keynes-
integrated-traffic-management.htm .
In order to achieve a more efficient usage of car parks and encourage shoppers into
the central retail area of Milton Keynes, as well as reduce congestion caused by cars
looking for parking, the city administration invested in Variable Message Signs that display
the location and availability of parking spaces to road users. Installation costs were lowered
by making use of the existing ducted network in Milton Keynes used by the police for
CCTV. This created the added benefit of providing a large capacity network for future
growth in data transmissions. The reduction in congestion and delays resulting from the
system are estimated to save motorists and bus passengers in the central area more than
GBP3 million over a 10-year period.
37
High-Occupancy Vehicle Lane, Madrid, Spain
Source: Monzon, A. (1999). “Managing long term congestion in HOV lanes. Effect of 2+ vs.
3+ limit on the Madrid N-VI corridor.” Paper presented at the European Transport
Conference, Cambridge, January 1, 1999, available online at
http://abstracts.aetransport.org/paper/index/id/914/confid/5
High environmental standards, low housing density, and high motorization rates influenced
the decision to implement an HOV-lane scheme on the median of the N-VI motorway into
Madrid. Finally, in 1995, median reversible HOV lanes were opened. The cutoff limit for the
lane is 2+ passengers and the facility is separated from the mix-flow lanes by a concrete
barrier along its entire length. A successful design aspect is the reversible basis on which
the system operates to match peak flows, serving the inbound trips during the morning
peak and the outbound trips during the evening peak. Rather than increase ridesharing, the
lanes have attracted a growth in public transport mode share (40 percent in the period
0700-1000 in the year following implementation), resulting in increased frequencies of
services.
Tools and Guidance
Colorado Department of Transportation (2005). “CDOT Guidelines on Variable Message
Signs (VMS).” A guidance document for the design of Variable Message Sign (VMS)
messages. Available online at http://www.cotrip.org/its/whitepapers/VMSGUIDE-rev-
2005.pdf
Alabama Department of Transportation (2007). “Traffic Signal Design Guide & Timing
Manual.” A guidance document with detailed guidelines and recommendations for the
designing and timing of traffic signals in the State of Alabama. Available online at
http://www.dot.state.al.us/maweb/frm/ALDOT%20Traffic%20signal%20Design%20&
%20Timing%20Manual.pdf
38
3.Public Transport Development
Description
Develop or improve the public transport system and take measures to increase its accessibility and use. Public transport achieves lower emissions per capita than private cars, and has the potential to provide an equitable transport network. A reduction in the number of private vehicles in circulation can lower emissions and improve air quality.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
> 200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
> USD1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Bus priority
The city authority establishes dedicated
bus priority measures. This enables
buses to bypass traffic queues
enhancing their reliability and journey
times. There are a range of measures,
including bus lanes and priority at
junctions that could be implemented.
See the Bogota case study for further
details.
Signaling
The city authority invests in the
necessary infrastructure for bus-priority
signaling. Such systems are linked to
buses via transponders that use GIS
information, and favor the circulation of
approaching buses either by extending
green lights for buses or by shortening
the cycle for cars.
39
Information
The city authority provides good quality
passenger-waiting facilities as well as
good information services. The
provision of real-time bus countdown
information allows users to understand
and manage wait times. These services
enhance the attractiveness of public
transport.
Operations
The city authority invests in the
necessary infrastructure for electronic
ticketing. This allows for use of multiple
buses within a given amount of time
with one ticket, reducing the cost of
travel, putting buses within reach of the
poorest, while attracting a wider patron
base when in combination with other
modes such as heavy rail or metro.
Planning regulations and guidelines
The city authority links development
densities to public transport availability
and funding. The city authority reviews
the city’s zoning ordinances and
considers making the following
changes: Increase the permitted floor
area ratio/plot ratio on sites located
near public transport hubs. In areas
where it is appropriate, re-zone single-
use land to allow multiple uses on the
same site. Allowing higher densities of
development along well-served public
transport corridors creates a patron
40
base for public transport and can be
used in combination with other planning
measures, such as capping parking
provision to residential and office
buildings, thus discouraging car use.
Developers are required to show how a
new development links to the existing or
planned public transport network in
order to gain planning permission. See
the Curitiba case study for further
details.
Subsidies
The city authority subsidizes travel on
public transport. In certain areas, this
can provide an incentive for people to
use public transport.
Monitoring
Some suggested monitoring measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
• Perform surveys of public transport passenger numbers; and
• Determine mode share of people travelling in area or city.
Case Studies
BRT system, Bogota, Colombia
Source: ESMAP (2009). “Good Practices in City Energy Efficiency: Bogota, Colombia—
Bus Rapid Transit for Urban Transport Energy,” available online at
41
https://www.esmap.org/sites/esmap.org/files/CS_Bogota_020310_0.pdf
With the completion of its first two phases, the TransMilenio BRT system serves
about 1.5 million passengers every day and has reduced citywide fuel consumption by 47
percent. Key success factors have been citywide comprehensive planning of infrastructure,
use of state-of-the-art technologies, implementation of a variety of design features to
accommodate high volumes of passengers, and the use of a simple single-price fare
system. It does not require subsidies for operation—these are fully covered by fares. The
project’s capital cost totaled USD240 million. The system is managed by a company that
was set up by the mayor, but runs independently from the city administration. While the
company is in charge of all planning, maintenance, and construction of infrastructure as
well as organization of bus service schedules, buses and drivers are contracted through
private firms, resulting in a complex but innovative management structure.
Land Use and Public Transport Planning, Curitiba, Brazil
Source: World Bank (2010). “Curitiba, Brazil—Cost Is No Barrier to Ecological and
Economic Urban Planning, Development, and Management.” In ECO2 Cities: Ecological
Cities as Economic Cities, pages 169-182. Available online at
http://www.esmap.org/esmap/sites/esmap.org/files/CS_Curitiba.pdf .
The case of Curitiba, Brazil, shows that cost is no barrier to ecological and
economic urban planning, development, and management. Curitiba has developed a
sustainable urban environment through integrated urban planning. To avoid unplanned
sprawl, Curitiba directed urban growth linearly along strategic axes, along which the city
encouraged high-density commercial and residential development linked to the city’s
integrated master plan and land-use zoning. Curitiba adopted an affordable but innovative
bus system rather than expensive railways that require significant time to implement.
Curitiba’s efficient and well-designed bus system serves most of the urban area, and public
transportation (bus) ridership has reached 45 percent. The city now has less traffic
congestion, which has reduced fuel consumption and enhanced air quality. The green area
has been increased, mainly in parks that have been created to improve flood prevention
and through regulations that have enabled the transfer of development rights to preserve
42
green areas and cultural heritage zones.
Linking development densities to public transport availability, Curitiba, Brazil
Source: Rabinovitch, J. (1992). “Curitiba: Towards Sustainable Urban Development,
Environment and Urbanization,” Vol. 4 (2) pp. 62-73. Available at
http://eau.sagepub.com/content/4/2/62.abstract .
Curitiba's master plan integrated transportation with land-use planning. Zoning laws
are used to direct linear growth by attracting residential and commercial density along a
mass transportation lane. High-density residential and commercial development is
permitted within walking distance of stops, with much lower densities elsewhere in the city.
The city’s central area is partly closed to vehicular traffic, and pedestrian streets have been
created. In addition, a strict street hierarchy safeguards the right of way for the current BRT,
which has significantly contributed to the success of the transportation network.
Integrated urban planning and efficient resource use, Singapore
Source: “Good Practices in City Energy Efficiency: Eco2 Cities: Land and Resource
Management in Singapore,” available online at http://www.esmap.org/esmap/node/1230 .
Singapore is an island city-state at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. With a
land area of 700 square kilometers and a population of 4.8 million, Singapore has become
developed because of innovative urban planning integrated with the efficient use of land
and natural resources. Singapore’s small size poses a challenge when it comes to the
availability of land and natural resources. To optimize land use, Singapore promotes high-
density development not only for businesses and commercial entities, but also for
residential structures. High density lends itself to higher economic productivity per unit of
land and facilitates the identification of green spaces and natural areas for preservation.
Furthermore, high-density development has translated into greater use of public
transportation as major business, commercial, and residential areas are well connected to
an integrated public transportation network. In 2004, public transportation as a share of all
transportation modes during morning peak hours reached 63 percent. The significant use of
public transportation helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. High public transportation
ridership also means Singapore has been able to recover all public transportation operating
43
costs from fares, a feat only also achieved by Hong Kong, China, among modern, highly
developed cities.
Integrated regional urban planning, Auckland, New Zealand
Source: “Good Practices in City Energy Efficiency: Eco2 Cities: Integrated Regional Urban
Planning in Auckland,” available online at http://www.esmap.org/esmap/node/1227 .
The interconnectedness of national and local Auckland issues (such as housing and
education) with growth and innovation, and the major required investments (particularly in
land transport) have created complex and difficult issues among multiple authorities.
Despite Auckland’s importance to the New Zealand economy and the areas of common
interest, such as transportation and energy provision, the national government did not
initially play a close role in directing regional and local government planning. Concern
emerged that, without agreement on an overarching regional strategy and framework,
decision making in the region could become ad hoc and adversarial if each stakeholder
tried to have a say from a narrow perspective and without viewing the region as a whole. As
a result, there was a clear need for coordinated strategic planning across the Auckland
region to ensure that Auckland would be able to remain competitive in today’s globalized
world. The response involved a process undertaken in 2001 to prepare a regional growth
strategy that aimed to provide a vision of what Auckland could be like in 50 years.
Tools and Guidance
Public Transport Authority Western Australia (2009). “Bus Priority Measures Principles and
Design.” A guidance document for planning bus priority methods and approaches. Available
online at http://www.pta.wa.gov.au/PublicationsandPolicies/DesignandPlanningGuidelines/tabid/
109/Default.aspx .
Transport for London (2006). “Accessible Bus Stop Design Guidance.” A guidance
document for designing bus stops that helps make boarding easier for passengers.
Available online at http://content.tfl.gov.uk/accessibile-bus-stop-design-guidance.pdf
44
4.Non-Motorized Transport Modes
Description
Non-motorized transport modes have zero operational fuel consumption and require low capital costs for implementation. In addition to improving the health of users, their use reduces noise pollution and improves air quality.
Benefits include improved air quality, lower operating costs for users and providers, and lower infrastructure requirements.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
> USD1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Pedestrianization The city authority pedestrianizes
networks of streets or larger city areas.
Either permanent or temporary, the
closure of streets to motor vehicles, or
traffic-calmed zones with speed
reducing facilities increases public
awareness of non-motorized modes
and removes noisy and polluting
vehicles, as well as creates
opportunities for street markets and
other initiatives. The city authority
researches the feasibility and probable
take-up from origin and destination
surveys, existing mode splits, and
subsequently designs networks to suit
45
commuting patterns and
local/neighborhood travel. See Oxford
case study for further details.
Dedicated networks
The city authority includes dedicated
cycle/walking route networks in its
transportation or city land-use plans.
Replacement or reservation of rights-of-
way in newly built areas creates the
necessary conditions for adopting non-
motorized modes that may otherwise be
less favored if roads cater only to cars.
The key to success is the linkage of
cycle and pedestrian networks at the
local level, and the quality of the
environment provided, which requires
good drainage and adequate lighting
and shade. See Bogota case study for
further details.
Microcredits
The city authority makes available micro
credits, which can be used to increase
the ownership of bicycles. Increased
bicycle ownership can have significant
financial benefits to low-income workers
who may no longer be dependent upon
expensive, inefficient, and infrequent
public transport. See Lima case study
for further details.
Rental programs The city authority introduces bicycle
rental programs, which provide bicycles
on demand for a fee. The key factor for
46
success is the setting of tariffs that
encourage use as well as security
procedures that avoid and penalize
theft. Registered-user schemes require
a user’s credit card or bank details, but
are not necessarily open to all. Non-
registered user schemes are more
flexible, but more open to abuse.
Branding of bicycles and facilities can
create revenue for the local authority.
See Paris case study for further details.
Monitoring
Some suggested monitoring measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
• Perform surveys of the number of cycles in circulation by using traffic counters on roads and cycle lanes;
• Determine the mode share of people travelling in the area or city; and
• Determine KPIs such as percentage of non-motorized transport mode, modal shift, kilometers of dedicated cycle/walking infrastructure, take-up of cycle promotion schemes by analyzing registers of subsidies.
47
Case Studies
Pedestrianization with road closures, Oxford, England, UK
Source: European Commission, Directorate General for the Environment (2004).
“Reclaiming City Streets for People: Chaos or Quality of Life?” available online at
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/streets_people.pdf .
The main retail streets have been fully pedestrianized, while other through roads in
the central area are only accessible to buses and pedestrians. The adoption of a step-by-
step, integrated approach to the implementation of the road closure program has been
seen as critical to the success of the significant road-space reallocation element of the
scheme. Opposition to the USD6 million scheme was raised most notably on the grounds
that traffic congestion on two key routes in the city would worsen, as well as from retailers
concerned about delivery access and trade levels. These concerns were attended to via an
extensive consultation process and an effective publicity campaign prior to the
implementation of the scheme. This included leaflets, advertisements on buses, citywide
poster boards, and a series of press releases.
Dedicated cycle network, Bogota, Colombia
Source: C40 Cities (2010). “Bogota, Colombia: Bogota's Ciclorutas is one of the most
comprehensive cycling systems in the world,” available online at
http://www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/transport/bogota_cycling.jsp
Ciclorutas is considered a unique cycling network where design has taken the
topography of the city into consideration in order to create maximum flow and function
(manmade and natural features, hills, waterways, parklands, essential facilities). In a period
of just seven years, following an investment of USD50 million, the use of bicycles on the
network increased by more than 268 percent. Ciclorutas plays an important role for lower-
income groups as more than 23 percent of the trips made by the lowest-income group in
the city are by walking or by bicycle. The development of Ciclorutas has also helped
recover public space along riverbanks and wetlands as for many years the city’s wetlands
were occupied by illegal settlements.
48
Bicycle micro credits, Lima, Peru
Source: ICLEI (2009). “Case Study 46: Assistance to Purchase Bicycles—Lima, Peru” in
“Sustainable Urban Energy Planning: A Handbook for Cities and Towns in Developing
Countries,” available online at http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?
publicationID=2839
In 1990, the Municipality of Lima set up a micro-credit program to help low-income
citizens purchase bicycles. By saving on daily public transportation costs, workers can see
their income effectively rise more than 12 percent once the loan is paid off. In order to
enhance the success of the program, efforts have been made at standardizing the use of
bicycles in the city. Actions to achieve this have so far consisted of the development of a
manual of technical standards for the design and planning of cycle ways.
Bicycle rental, Vélib’, Paris, France
Source: C40 Cities (2011). “Velib - A New Paris Love Affair,” available online at
http://www.c40.org/case_studies/velib-%E2%80%93-a-new-paris-love-affair
Paris launched a 24/7 bicycle hire scheme through Vélib’, a public-private
partnership between the City of Paris and a company led by a major advertising group.
Users must purchase a daily, weekly, or annual subscription and bike rental is free for the
first half hour of every individual trip after which it costs a fixed rate. The escalating price
scale ensures that the bikes are kept in circulation. Notably, the City of Paris generates
revenues from the project without any investment (which cost USD108 million). The public-
private partnership is the reason for this success, with the private company paying
operating costs plus rights to advertising space to the city funded by advertising revenues.
Tools and Guidance
Sustrans (2007). “Technical Guidelines for the Development of Cycle Facilities.” A series of
guidance documents for professionals on the details of bicycle network design. Available
online at http://www.sustrans.org.uk/resources/design-and-construction/technical-guidelines .
Transport for London (2014). “London Cycling Design Standards.” A guidance document for
49
designing to reduce barriers to cycling in order to support road safety targets. Available
online at:https://consultations.tfl.gov.uk/cycling/draft-london-cycling-design-standards/
user_uploads/draft-lcds---all-chapters.pdf
50
5.Parking Restraint Measures
Description
Restricting parking availability discourages car use and provides an incentive to use more sustainable modes of transport, including public transport.
Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel use and the effects of congestion.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
< USD100,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Increased employment opportunities
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Planning measures The city authority introduces planning
measures, which determine car-parking
provision for residential and office
developments. Introducing maximum
parking allowances with low car-to-unit
ratios discourages private-car acquisition
and use. Such measures do not affect
the existing parking provision, however,
and so need to be supported by
additional measures. While areas of
intervention can be defined, larger
coverage is more effective as it has less
potential to overwhelm surrounding
areas. A gradient approach solves this by
making requirements less stringent from
the center to the periphery. These
measures safeguard energy use and
efficiency in design and thereby bear no
immediate cost to the city authority. See
London case study for further details.
51
Parking fees
The city authority set systematic
hierarchical charging scheme for on
street as well as off-street parking.
Implementing a charging regime for car
parking and formalizing parking
arrangements will enable the parking
stock to be controlled and generate a
revenue stream for sustainable transport
measures. This type of approach
requires a supporting system for
enforcement, e.g., traffic wardens who
issue fines to violators, and are politically
sensitive measures. See London and
San Francisco case study for further
details.
Park & Ride facilities
The city authority promotes multimodality
by providing Park & Ride locations at key
interchanges. By linking parking to public
transport use, the necessities of non-
inner city residents are considered. The
success of Park & Ride is linked to
availability of public transport and
unavailability of cheap parking in central
locations. The perceived cost should be
lower than that of driving the entire way.
Measures of this kind often require major
capital investment in infrastructure by the
city authority with respect to Park & Ride
locations on the periphery of the city, bus
52
terminals, and additional buses. See
Oxford case study for further details.
Complementary implementation activity:
Planning measures
Monitoring
Some suggested measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
• Perform surveys of parking stock and usage;
• Perform traffic surveys of number of vehicles in circulation by using traffic counters;
• Determine the average travel speeds on the main transport corridors;
• Determine the mode share of people travelling in the area or city; and
• Perform statistical analysis of rate of growth of car registration data.
Case Studies
Parking standards, The London Plan, London, UK
Source: London (2010). “Chapter 6: Transport” in The London Plan, available at
http://www.london.gov.uk/shaping-london/london-plan/docs/chapter6.pdf pp.160-161.
The London Plan establishes maximum parking guidelines for residential
development. It stipulates that all development in areas of good public transport
accessibility should aim for significantly less than one parking space per unit. The main
challenge continues to be ensuring that these standards are supported by other measures
that reduce car dependency, both within the development and in the surrounding area, e.g.,
improved and increased public transportation accessibility.
53
SFpark curbside parking, San Francisco, California, USA
Source: The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2010). “U.S. Parking
Policies: An Overview of Management Strategies,” available online at
https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ITDP_US_Parking_Report.pdf
San Francisco Municipal Transit Agency (SFMTA) installed new electronic, multi-
space meters in 2009 and activated parking spot sensors attached to the pavement in
2010. The aim is to use pricing to help redistribute the demand for parking. At the heart of
SFpark is a data management system that sorts a tremendous amount of data collected
from the networked array of remote sensors in all 6,000 parking spots. These wireless
sensors can detect whether a spot is occupied by a vehicle and report parking occupancy
information in real time to a central computer. The project produced valuable data about the
effect of meter pricing on occupancy. Drivers can check the available parking spots via
SFPark website, as well as smartphone app. The system took effect in April 2011,
compassed 6,000 of San Francisco’s 25,000 metered curbside parking spots in seven pilot
neighborhoods and additional fourteen city-owned garages. A March 2014 study found that
SFPark met its 60-80% occupancy goal and that cruising for parking is down by 50%.
Parking fees, Aspen, Colorado, USA
Source: The Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2010). “Parking Pricing Implementation
Guidelines,” available online at http://www.vtpi.org/parkpricing.pdf .
The city used to suffer from high levels of congested on-street parking. In order to
reduce the effects of the “90-minute shuffle” (where locals and downtown commuters
moved their vehicles every 90 minutes to avoid getting a parking ticket), the city introduced
charges for on-street parking using multi-space meters. Parking fees are highest in the
center and decline with distance from the core. The city had a marketing campaign to let
motorists know about the meters, including distribution of one free prepaid parking meter
card to each resident to help familiarize him or her with the system. Motorists were allowed
one free parking violation, and parking control officers provide an hour of free parking to
drivers confused by the meters.
Park-and-Ride, Oxford, England, UK
54
Source: Oxford City Council (2009). “Park and Ride Transfer,” available online at
http://www.oxford.gov.uk/PageRender/decTS/Park_and_Ride_occw.htm .
Oxford city has five Park-and-Ride sites serving the city’s shoppers, visitors, and
commuters. These sites used to charge for parking to provide income to cover operational
costs, but were not able to generate additional revenue for repairs or improvement. In order
to achieve savings, the management of the Park-and-Ride sites was transferred to
Oxfordshire county, resulting in efficiency savings of GBP250,000 per year for the city
administration. These savings were achieved primarily through economies of scale, and by
sharing the cost of providing the service with taxpayers across the county, and not just
those in the city—both of whom used the facilities.
Tools and Guidance
The Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2010). “Parking Management: Strategies, Evaluation
and Planning.” A comprehensive guidance document for planning and implementation of
parking management strategies. Available online at http://www.vtpi.org/park_man.pdf .
The Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2010). “Parking Pricing Implementation Guidelines.”
A guidance document for implementation of parking pricing with details on overcoming
common obstacles. Available online at http://www.vtpi.org/parkpricing.pdf
Spillar, R. (1997). “Park-and-Ride Planning and Design Guidelines.” A guidance document
for the planning and design of Park-and-Ride facilities. Available online at
https://www.pbworld.com/pdfs/publications/monographs/spillar.pdf
55
6.Traffic Restraint Measures
Description
Discouraging potential drivers from using their cars leads to fewer cars in circulation. This encourages people to use alternative modes, which in turn will increase their viability (increased public transport patronage, for example).
Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel use and the need for road space.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
USD100,000-1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
1-2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Blanket bans
The city authority imposes blanket
bans. Possible types of blanket bans
include vehicle-type bans that exclude
entire vehicle categories from
circulation; or license plate bans, by
which certain number plates are banned
from circulation. A weakness of license
plate bans is that they tend to result in
wealthier residents purchasing second
cars, not only negating the aims of the
ban, but thereby also disadvantaging
those with lower incomes. See
Guangzhou case study for further
details.
Licensing
The city authority rations permits. The
establishment of quotas for private
vehicles allows for only a certain
number of vehicle registrations over a
given period of time. However, as the
56
demand for cars tends to be inelastic,
this often results in very high purchase
prices for the licenses—a mechanism
which favors the wealthy and
marginalizes the lower-income brackets
of society. See Singapore case study
for further details.
Civic initiatives
The city authority sanctions and
encourages “no-driving days” to
educate and lead by example.
Participation in these initiatives is
voluntary, however, and therefore not
enforceable. See Puerto Princesa case
study for further details.
Monitoring
Some suggested monitoring measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
Perform traffic surveys of the number of vehicles in circulation pre- and post-implementation;
Determine the mode share of people travelling in an area or the city; Collate registration data of users to paid schemes or voluntary schemes; and Perform statistical analysis of rate of growth of car registration data.
57
Case Studies
Vehicle bans: Motorcycle ban, Guangzhou, China
Source: The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2008). “Motorcycles Ban
in Guangzhou,” available online at
http://s3.itdp-china.org/docs/Motorcycle+ban+in+Guangzhou+-+Sep-08.pdf
Motorcycles have been completely banned in the City of Guangzhou. The ban was
implemented in phases, beginning with a moratorium on new licenses, extending to various
roads and time periods. Gradual implementation has been crucial to allow time for the
public to adapt, and efficient supply of additional infrastructure/services has supported the
induced modal shift. Many motorbike riders have shifted to bicycles and buses, and cycle
rickshaws have also emerged as a popular substitute. Road accidents have dropped by 40
percent since the ban was implemented from 2004
Rationing, Singapore, Singapore
Source: Sustainable Urban Transport Project (2010).”The Vehicle Quota System in
Singapore,” available online at
http://www.sutp.org/files/contents/sutp-archive/documents/NL-Apr-May-09.pdf
Singapore sets the number of new vehicles allowed for registration. Potential buyers
need to bid for a non-transferable license, which entitles them to own a vehicle for a fixed
number of years. The scheme had to be modified soon after implementation to safeguard
against speculative action. The licenses used to be transferable and within the first two
months of the first round of release 20 percent changed hands in “buy and sell”
transactions with speculators making sizable profits of up to SD5,000. As the rationing
system does not control annual mileage, the success of the rationed registration in limiting
vehicle usage has been dependent on support from other traffic-restraint measures, such
as high road tolls, parking fees, and electronic road pricing.
No-driving days, One Day Rest, Puerto Princesa, Philippines
Source: ICLEI (2001). “Vehicular Reduction Strategy for Air Pollution Prevention and
Climate Change Mitigation; A Case of Puerto Princesa City, Philippines,” available online at
58
http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=1193 .
Introduced as part of a zoning and rerouting, this program stipulates a one-day rest
for tricycle drivers in the central business district. Regulation of illegally operated tricycles is
a major impediment as enforcement irregularities pose questions of inequality between
illegal and legal tricycle taxi drivers. Furthermore, the income potential of those who comply
with the rest day is lost to the illegal operators.
Tools and Guidance
Sierra Club of Canada (2001). “How to Stage a Car Free Day In Your Community.” A
guidance document for preparing and planning a community-driven car free day. Available
online at http://www.worldcarfree.net/wcfd/documents/cfd_howto.pdf .
7.Congestion Charging
59
Description
Congestion charging restrains access by selected vehicle types, usually the private car, into large urban areas during congested times of the day. Usually the aim is to discourage work-based commuting trips into a defined urban area. Measures range from complete restriction to discouragement through charging. It is a market-based mechanism for influencing driver behavior, which looks to capture the “external cost” of vehicle travel during congested periods of the day.
The main benefit is realized by reducing the volume of low-occupancy vehicles entering the defined area. The aim is to induce modal transfer from low- to high-occupancy transport units, such as public transport. Maximum energy efficiency will be realized if there are complementary interventions on the public transport systems such as the implementation of energy-efficient vehicles. Congestion charging should provide a revenue stream with the surplus (after operating costs) invested in transport systems that are more efficient.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
> USD1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
> 2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Congestion pricing
The city authority introduces congestion
charging. The key to effective
congestion relief is the price setting.
Most effective systems will operate with
a simple pricing structure although in
practice it is likely that this will be
difficult to achieve. Vehicles would be
charged for entering a defined zone
with the charge generally levied through
the purchase of permits, in the case of
60
congestion charging, or by conventional
charging for toll roads, either by using
automatic collection by means of signal-
controlled devices or manually. Physical
restriction of selected vehicles into a
zone seeks to target a group that can
vary by type or time of day/week/year.
Implementation requires measures to
be in place supported by legislation to
enable adequate enforcement. These
types of measures raise revenue that
can be invested in other public
infrastructure. See London, Singapore,
and Stockholm case studies for further
details.
Monitoring
Some suggested measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
• Perform traffic surveys of the number of vehicles in circulation pre- and post-implementation;
• Determine the mode share of people travelling in an area or the city;
• Collate registration data of users to paid schemes or voluntary schemes; and
• Perform statistical analysis of rate of growth of car registration data.
Case Studies
61
Congestion charge, Stockholm, Sweden
Source: C40 Cities (2010). "Stockholm: Congestion Charge," available online at
http://www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/transport/stockholm_congestion.jsp .
Drivers are charged every time upon entry into and out of the congestion zone
(“crossing the cordon”), which encompasses the city center. The charge varies according to
the time of entry, and high-definition cameras with Automated Number Plate Recognition
software are used to register vehicles. Drivers are automatically billed, usually by 7 p.m. the
same day. Measures that have been key to addressing the perceived implementation
barriers have been a simple and user-friendly zone charging structure; a simplified payment
process; and a consideration of seasonal traffic variations to enhance public opinion (the
month of July—a key holiday in Sweden—is exempt from the charge).
62
Congestion charge, London, UK
(1) Source: ESMAP (2011). “Good Practices in City Energy Efficiency, London, UK:
Congestion Charges for Urban Transport,” available online at
http://www.esmap.org/esmap/node/1279 .
In February 2003, London, the capital city of the United Kingdom, introduced a daily
congestion fee for vehicles travelling in the city’s central district during weekdays. This fee
was meant to ease traffic congestion, improve travel time and reliability, and make Central
London more attractive to businesses and visitors.
According to analysis by the city, the program has largely met its objectives. After
four years of operation, traffic entering the charge zone was reduced by 21 percent;
congestion, measured as a travel rate (minutes per kilometer), was 8 percent lower; and
annual fuel consumption fell by approximately 44-48 million liters or about 3 percent.
These changes translated into 110,000-120,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) reductions
annually, a 112 ton reduction in nitrogen oxides (NOx), an eight-ton reduction in particulate
matter (PM10), and some 250 fewer accidents.
In terms of the program cost-effectiveness, the identified benefits exceeded the
costs by more than 50 percent. In addition, the scheme brought a steady net revenue
stream for transport improvements, of which 80 percent has been reinvested in improving
public bus operations and infrastructure.
Among the first programs of its kind, London’s congestion charging scheme was
successfully developed and implemented. The city proved to be innovative and resourceful
by ensuring key elements of the scheme were in place, including technical design, public
consultation, project management, information campaign, and impact monitoring. London’s
innovation has helped other cities around the world assess this as a policy option in
meeting their urban transport needs.
(2) Source: UN Habitat (2006). “London's Congestion Charging System,” Habitat
Debate, Vol. 12, No. 1, available online at
http://ww2.unhabitat.org/HD/hdv12n1/Vol12No1e.pdf .
The London USD170,000,000 congestion charge scheme uses a flat-rate fee
applicable during normal working hours on weekdays as it is both easy to understand and
63
implement, and is also reflective of the nature of congestion in London (consistent
throughout the day). Video cameras at entry points to the zone and mobile units within the
zone register vehicles that enter the zone by means of automatic number plate recognition
technology. Payments are made electronically on the day of entry into the zone. There are
discounts for monthly/annual payments, as well as 90 percent discounts for residents within
the priced area.
As a measure to meet the predicted rise in demand for public transportation, the city
authority invested in the pre-implementation expansion of the bus service. Results show
that the scheme has reduced congestion in the central zone by 18 percent; reduced delays
by 30 percent; and caused major reductions in road accidents (70 less per annum). Surplus
revenue over operating costs for the original zone are used to improve the efficiency of
public transport systems. The city authority is now looking to expand the scheme at a
forecast cost of USD25 million to USD40 million for the zone extension.
Congestion charge, Singapore, Singapore
Source: Singapore Land Transport Authority (2002). “Road Pricing—Singapore’s
Experience,” available online at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.128.8783&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Implemented first in 1975, Singapore’s congestion pricing initiative has evolved from
a manual scheme based on paper permits and applicable only during the morning peak
period to an electronic version that operates throughout the day. The city authority enacted
a pre-implementation expansion of the bus fleet to meet the predicted rise in demand and
also developed new Park-and-Ride facilities to support the scheme. Results show that
weekday traffic entering the restricted zone has been reduced by 24 percent (271,000 to
206,000 vehicles/day). Annual revenue is approximately 11 times the initial capital costs
and annual running costs, giving a significant payback. However, the variable cost of entry
into the restricted zone has made the scheme difficult to enforce.
Tools and Guidance
64
US Department of Transportation (2009). “Value Pricing Pilot Program Planning and
Decision Making Tools,” a series of tools for estimating the impact of congestion pricing
strategies. Available online at http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestionpricing/value_pricing/tools/
65
8.Travel Planning
Description
Informing drivers about alternative modes of transport and sharing resources with other drivers leads to fewer cars being used and more trips with public transport.
Removing vehicles from circulation reduces fuel use and increases the viability and efficiency of public transport.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
USD100,000-1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
1-2 years
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Financial savings
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Educational
Campaigns can be run to educate
drivers about alternatives to car travel,
including walking, biking, public
transportation or carpool options. Once
a target population is identified, it is
provided with promotional material of
sufficient detail such as maps,
brochures, and tips, as well as
invitations to attend community events.
See Portland case study for more
details.
Information
dissemination
Travel plans seek a commitment from a
group of users to create and implement
a strategy to reduce car use and
increase use of alternative travel
modes.
66
Economic
Car clubs are an initiative to share a
carpool among a group of users,
maximizing the utility of the carpool by
reducing idle time. Members do not own
the club’s cars, but can order and use
one for a fee. The price incentive lies in
the withdrawal of personal responsibility
over the running costs of the fleet, with
insurance and maintenance costs being
included in the membership package.
Monitoring
Some suggested monitoring measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are
as follows:
• Perform traffic surveys of number of vehicles in circulation by using traffic counters;
• Determine mode share of people travelling in an area or city; and
• Perform statistical analysis of registration data of users to paid schemes or voluntary
schemes.
67
Case Studies
Driver Education, SmartTrips, Portland, USA
Source: SmartTrips Newsletters #1 (2015), “Welcome to Portland SmartTrips”, available
online at https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/535740
Run by the city’s Office of Transportation, SmartTrips is a campaign that aims to inform
Portland’s citizens of the various existing alternatives to single-occupancy vehicle trips. It
hand delivers information packets to residents, detailing available alternative modes of
transportation, and distributes supporting maps and information on relevant event
schedules. The SmartTrips campaign operates by targeting specific areas and different
target groups over its lifetime, and notably runs “Senior Strolls,” which are slower paced
walks that help seniors become active and comfortable with walking as a transportation
option, as well as “Women’s Clinics,” which educate women on how to ride with children
and how to shop by bike. The program is funded by revenues from the city’s share of gas
taxes and other transportation revenues, supplemented by energy tax credits earned by
private businesses.
Travel plans, Nottingham Hospital, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Source: Rye, T. (2002) “Travel Plans: Do They Work?” Transport Policy, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.
287-298. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X02000045
Nottingham City Hospital has approximately 14,000 two-way car trips (including
visitors, patients, and deliveries) accessing its site each day. When the hospital underwent
redevelopment and expansion work, associated planning regulated required measures to
reduce this number of car trips. The hospital management introduced a range of measures,
including improved pedestrian and cycle access to the site, staff discount at a local bicycle
shop, bus services running through the hospital site linking local estates and suburbs
(though these services receive no subsidy from the hospital), and increased transport
information on the intra- and Internet sites. The results were reductions in single-occupancy
vehicle trips with significant increases in ride sharing and use of public transportation.
Observations have been made that expanding the ride-share scheme to other local
employers could increase the number of potential matches and uptake.
68
Car clubs, Singapore, Singapore
Source: Foo, T. S. (2000). “Vehicle Ownership Restraints and Car Sharing in Singapore."
Habitat International, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 75-90.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397599000302
Operated by NTUC Income Co-operative, Singapore’s first residential car club is
seen as a more efficient option than individual car ownership, as individuals are able to
choose the most cost-effective mode for specific journeys. Private car ownership is very
expensive in Singapore as a result of licensing quotas, and the car club has been able to
ease the pressure on demand. The car co-operative in Singapore has also caused a net
reduction in public transport use, although a reduction in public transport use for social and
shopping trips has partly been compensated by an increase in use for commuting, reducing
congestion.
Tools and Guidance
Sustrans travel plan guidance: http://www.sustrans.org.uk/what-we-do/active-travel/active-
travel-information-resources/active-commuting-and-travel-plans-help-and-advice/active-
commuting-and-travel-plans-good-practice .
Aukland Sustainable Transport Plan (2006). Available online at
https://at.govt.nz/media/imported/4827/AT_ARTA_Policy_SustainableTransportPlan2006_1
6.pdf
69
9.Awareness-Raising Campaigns
Description
Public education and training campaigns will increase the public’s awareness and understanding of the benefits of energy efficiency and can help change attitudes towards energy efficiency. Providing information on easy ways to be more energy efficient can help modify citizen behavior and contribute to overall energy savings. This can be achieved through:
Advertisement campaigns; Public events; Articles in the local press; User-friendly website providing information about
energy efficiency; Training programs in schools, community centers, and
businesses; and An “energy efficiency champion” program.
Key benefits are more efficient energy behaviors by residents leading to reduced energy consumption within the city. Indirect benefits include reduced pressure on energy infrastructure, reduced carbon emissions, and better air quality.
Attributes
Energy Savings Potential
100,000-200,000 kWh/annum
First Cost
USD100,000-1,000,000
Speed of Implementation
< 1 year
Co-Benefits
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved air quality
Enhanced public health and safety
Financial savings
Security of supply
Implementation Options
Implementation Activity Methodology
Targeted training
programs
Working with an experienced
education/training provider, the city
authority develops training programs
that can be rolled out in schools and
offices. These programs should target
70
big energy users, for example, offices.
These programs can also be
implemented through a partnership with
other organizations such as utility
companies, businesses, and NGOs.
Public education
campaigns
Working with an advertising and
marketing company experienced in
public education campaigns, the city
authority develops a strategy for
providing information on energy
efficiency to all residents. This can
include posters, billboards, and leaflets,
as well as public media announcements
and advertisements. A partnership can
be created with a business or utility
company to help finance this.
71
Energy efficiency
champions
The city authority recruits local energy
efficiency champions and trains them to
teach people about the importance and
benefits of energy efficiency.
Champions can be anyone interested in
spreading the message about energy
efficiency, for example, local authorities,
businesses, local community groups,
NGOs, health trusts, school children,
and other individuals. This
implementation activity can be carried
out in a number of ways:
• Ask champions to come to a
“train the trainer” course and
provide them with support to run
sessions within their own
community.
• Teach champions about simple
ways to save energy and then
give them leaflets to distribute in
their community. Ensure that
champions inform people that
they are the local contact for any
energy efficiency questions.
Since energy efficiency champions are
often volunteers, an officer should be
appointed to provide support and
encouragement, conduct regular follow-
ups and monitor progress of each
energy efficiency champion program.
72
Monitoring
Some suggested monitoring measures that relate specifically to this recommendation are as follows:
• Number of people participating in training programs annually;
• Number of hits to city energy efficiency website monthly (if developed) or number of requests for energy efficiency measures;
• Number of articles in the press about energy efficiency in the city; and
• Number of energy efficiency champions trained (if this option is chosen).
Case Studies
PlaNYC, New York, New York, USA
Source: PlaNYC. Available online at
http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc/html/home/home.shtml
PlaNYC is a comprehensive sustainability plan for New York City’s future. The plan
puts forth a strategy to reduce the city’s greenhouse gas footprint, while also
accommodating a population growth of nearly one million, and improving infrastructure and
the environment. Recognizing the importance to reduce global carbon emissions, and the
value of leading by example, New York has reduced its citywide carbon emissions by 19
percent since 2005, and it is on track to reach the reduction of 80 percent by 2050.
Within the energy sector of the plan, the city has an initiative to undertake extensive
education, training, and quality control programs to promote energy efficiency. In 2010, the
city launched an energy awareness campaign and set up training, certification, and
monitoring programs. The plan proposes that these measures will be delivered through a
series of partnerships until an Energy Efficiency Authority is established.
73
Energy Efficiency Office, Toronto, Canada
Source: City of Toronto. Available online at http://www.toronto.ca/energy/saving_tips.htm .
The Energy Efficiency Office in Toronto provides energy saving tips for households,
businesses, and developers on the city’s website. As an example, the Energy Efficiency
Office conducts the Employee Energy Efficiency at Work (E3@Work), an awareness
program designed to save money and promote energy efficiency practices by managing
office equipment power loads. Developed and implemented by the City of Toronto in 2002,
the program is being promoted to business establishments and offices across the city. The
goal is to reduce energy consumption and building operating costs, improve energy security
and reliability, and help preserve the environment.
Low Carbon Singapore, Singapore
Source: Low Carbon Singapore. Available online at http://www.lowcarbonsg.com .
“Low Carbon Singapore” is an online community dedicated to help Singapore
reduce its carbon emissions and move towards the goal of a low-carbon economy. The
project aims to educate individuals, communities, businesses, and organizations on issues
relating to climate change, global warming, and clean energy, providing information, news,
tips, and resources on various ways to reduce carbon emissions, including adoption of
clean energy and energy efficient behaviors and technologies.
Low Carbon Singapore is published by Green Future Solutions, a Singapore-based
business that promotes environmental awareness and action for a green future through a
network of green websites, events, presentations, publications, and consultancy.
74
Carbon Management Energy Efficiency (CMEE) Program, Walsall Council, UK
Source: Walsall Council. Available online at
http://www.walsall.gov.uk/index/energy_awareness_staff_presentations.htm .
Walsall Council has been rolling out energy awareness training with the Carbon
Trust under their funded Carbon Management Energy Efficiency (CMEE) program,
including:
• Energy surveys of the council’s least energy efficient buildings;
• Evaluating feasibility of combined heat and power (CHP) generation at the council’s
leisure centers; and
• Raising staff awareness through a number of energy presentations to senior
managers, building managers, school caretakers, and a number of the council’s
general staff. A total of 226 staff were trained in this round using presentations
developed by the Carbon Trust and adapted, with the help of some of the
environmental champions, to reflect Walsall Council’s needs.
The aim of the CMEE program is to identify and achieve significant carbon savings
throughout the council and, as a consequence, financial savings, too. By reducing the
energy spent, the council will also reduce the number of carbon credits it has to buy under
the Carbon Reduction Commitment, which was adopted in March 2010.
75
Siemens Australia and New Zealand, Energy Efficiency Incentives
Source: Siemens. Available online at http://www.siemens.com.au/eeincentives
The Siemens Energy Efficiency Academy brings together some of the leading
international and local experts to share their insights on government policy, emerging
technologies, market drivers, and best practice implementation.
Apart from adopting and showcasing its own energy efficient practices, it runs
regular training programs for businesses across topics such as:
• Incentive schemes: Market mechanisms, grants, and funding explained;
• Building winning business cases for energy efficiency;
• Energy efficiency policy in Australian governments;
• Next generation technology: What’s next?
• Best practice implementation for variable speed drives and power quality; and
• Energy monitoring in industrial and commercial facilities.
Energy Awareness Week, Meath, Ireland
Source: ManagEnergy “EU Local Energy Action: Good Practices 2005.” Available online at
http://www.managenergy.net/download/gp2005.pdf .
In 2004, the Meath Energy Management Agency (MEMA) extended its Energy
Awareness Week to everyone who lived or worked in the County of Meath, Ireland, using a
concentrated burst of media campaigning to raise energy awareness among consumers.
Visits to schools, information displays, widespread media coverage, competitions, a “Car-
Free Day,” and an offer of free CFL light bulbs encouraged participation at all levels. The
campaign dramatically increased requests for information from the energy agency. The
competitions and promotions also improved local knowledge of energy efficiency, and
encouraged people to choose sustainable energy and transport options in the future.
Energy Awareness Week activities were coordinated and carried out by MEMA with
the support of the Environment Department of Meath County Council. The direct costs for
the campaign were USD4,470. This covered printing and copying of promotional materials,
76
prizes, and provision of reflective jackets for walking bus23 participants. Local companies
and Sustainable Energy Ireland (SEI) provided additional prizes and sponsorship.
Tools and Guidance
“EU Local Energy Action: Good Practices 2005.” Available online at
http://www.managenergy.net/download/gp2005.pdf .
23 Walking Bus, is a form of student transport for schoolchildren who, supervised by two adults (a "Driver" leads and a "conductor" follows), walk to school, in much the same way a school bus would drive them to school. Like a traditional bus, walking buses have a fixed route with designated "bus stops" and "pick up times" in which they pick up children.
77
Annex 2: List of City Abbreviations for Cities in the TRACE Database
City Country Abbreviation City Country Abbreviations
1 Addis Ababa Ethiopia ADD 40 Karachi Pakistan KAR
2 Amman Jordan AMM 41 Kathmandu Nepal KAT
3 Baku Azerbaijan BAK 42 Kiev Ukraine KIE
4 Bangkok Thailand BAN 43 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia KUA
5 Belgrade Serbia BEL 44 Lima Peru LIM
6 Belo Horizonte Brazil BE1 45 Ljubljana Slovenia LJU
7 Bengaluru India BEN 46 Mexico City Mexico MEX
8 Bogotá Colombia BOG/BO1 47 Mumbai India MUM
9 Bhopal India BHO 48 Mysore India MYS
10 Bratislava Slovakia BRA 49 New York USA NEW
11 Brasov Romania BR1/BRA 50 Odessa Ukraine ODE
12 Bucharest Romania BUC 51 Paris France PAR
13 Budapest Hungary BUD 52 Patna India PAT
14 Cairo Egypt CAI 53 Phnom Penh
Cambodia PHN
15 Cape Town South Africa
CAP 54 Ploiești Romania PLO
16 Casablanca Morocco CAS 55 Pokhara Nepal POK
17 Cebu Philippines CEB 56 Porto Portugal POR
18 Cluj-Napoca Romania CLU 57 Pune India PUN
19 Colombo Sri Lanka COL 58 Puebla Mexico PUE
20 Constanta Romania CON 59 Quezon City Philippines QUE
21 Craiova Romania CRA 60 Rio de Janeiro
Brazil RIO
78
22 Dakar Senegal DAK 61 Sangli India SAN
23 Danang Vietnam DAN 62 Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
SAR
24 Dhaka Bangladesh DHA 63 Seoul South Korea SEO
25 Gaziantep Turkey GAZ 64 Shanghai China SHA
26 Guangzhou China GUA 65 Singapore Singapore SIN
27 Guntur India GUN 66 Sofia Bulgaria SOF
28 Hanoi Vietnam HAN 67 Surabaya Indonesia SUR
29 Helsinki Finland HEL 68 Sydney Australia SYD
30 Ho Chi Minh Vietnam HO 69 Tallinn Estonia TAL
31 Hong Kong China HON 70 Tbilisi Georgia TBI
32 Iasi Romania IAS 71 Tehran Iran TEH
33 Indore India IND 72 Timișoara Romania TIM
34 Jabalpur India JAB 73 Tokyo Japan TOK
35 Jakarta Indonesia JAK 74 Toronto Canada TOR
36 Jeddah Saudi Arabia
JED 75 Urumqi China URU
37 Johannesburg South Africa
JOH 76 Vijayawada India VIJ
38 Kanpur India KAN 77 Yerevan Armenia YER
39 Leon Mexico LEO
79