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Educational Policies and Practices: Their Impact onEducation, on At-Risk Students, and on MinorityTeachers by the Majority Staff, Committee onEducation and Labor, U.S. House of Representatives,One Hundredth Congress, Second Session. StaffReport.

INSTITUTION Congress of the U.S., Washington, D.C. HouseCommittee on Education and Labor.

PUB DATE Apr 38NOTE 26p.; Serial No. 100-W.PUB TYPE Legal/Legislative/Regulatory Materials (090)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Educational Change; Educationally Disadvantaged;

Elementary Secondary Education; *High Risk Students;Instructional Development; *Minority Group Teachers;*School Effectiveness; Teacher Education; *TeacherSupply and Demand; Urban Education

IDENTIFIERS Nation at Risk (A)

ABSTRACTThis House committee staff report concerns the impact

of educational policies and practices on at risk students andminority teachers. These two groups have been adversely affected byrapid changes in education. Demands for higher standards andexpectations have not been matched with adequate resources to meetthe special needs of these students and teachers. Major rclearch inthis area is reviewed. Issues that underlie this topic are thefollowing: (1) the organization of schooling into elementary andsecondary levels; (2) restructuring the high school; (3) how reformaffects disadvantaged students; (4) the effective schools movement;(5) the teacher shortage; (6) teacher testing policies; and (7)reform of the teaching profession. The report, "A Nation at Risk," isdiscussed in the context of educational reform. Several instructionalorograms that are research-based and that have worked for all typesof students are described. Cooperative learning, peer teaching, andwriting programs have improved student achievement. Teacherdevelopment programs in which teachers are meaningfully involved areencouraged. Legislators and policymakers are called upon to addressissues of educational reform. (VM)

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* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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[COMMITTEE PRINT]

STAFF REPORTON

EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES:THEIR IMPACT ON EDUCATION, ON AT-RISK

STUDENTS AND ON MINORITY TEACHERS

BY THE

MAJORITY STAFFCOMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR

U S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

ONE HUNDREDTH CONGRESS

SECOND SESSION

APRIL 1988

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

y)This document has been reProduCed aSreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it

0 Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction Quality

Points°, view or opinions stated tri thiS dOCu-ment do not necesurily represent officialOERI positron Or POLY

THIS REPORT HAS NOT BEEN OFFICIALLY ADOPTED BY THE COM-MITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR )0P ANY SUBCOMMITTEETHEREOF) AND MAY NOT THEREFORE NECESSARILY REFLECTTHE VIEWS OF ITS MEMBERS

85-856

Serial No. 100-W

Printed for the use of the Committee on Education and Labor

AUGUSTUS F. HAWKINS, Chairman

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1988

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR

AUGUSTUS F HAWKINS. California, ChairmanWILLIAM D. FORD. MichiganJOSEPH M GAYDOS. PennsylvaniaWILLIAM (BILL) CLAY. MissouriMARIO BIAGGI. New YorkAUSTIN J MURPHY. PennsylvaniaDALE a KII DEE. MichiganPAT WILLIAMS. MontanaMATTHEW G. MARTINEZ, CaliforniaMAJOR R. OWENS. New YorkCHARLES A. HAYFS, IllinoisCARL C. PERKINS, KentuckyTHOMAS C. SAWYER. OhioSTEPHEN J. SOLARZ, New YorkROBERT E. WISE. JR.. West VirginiaTIMOTHY J. PENNY. MinnesotaBILL RICHARDSON, New MexicoTOMMY F. ROBINSON. ArkansasPETER J. VISCLOSKY. IndianaCHESTER G. ATKINS. MassachusettsJAMES JONTZ, Indiana

JAMES M. JEFFORDS, VermontW!LLIAM F GOODLING, PennsylvaniaE. THOMAS COLEMAN. Missour.THOMAS E. PETRI. WisconsinMARGE ROUKEMA, New JerseySTEVE GUNDERSON. WisconsinSTEVE BARTLETT, TexasTHOMAS J. TAUKE, IowaRICHARD K. ARMEY, TexasHARRIS W. FAWELL, IllinoisPAUL B. HENRY. MichiganFRED GRANDY. IowaCASS BALLENGER. North Carolina

CONTENTS

I. OVERVIEW

Page

1

II. THE STUDENT 3

A. School Structure/Organization: Elementary vs.Secondary 3

B. Restructure/Reorganize the Higl School 5

C. Educational Reform 7

D. Assessment of the Impact of Educational Reformon Disadvantaged Students 8

E. The Effective School Movement 9

F. Instructionally Effective Schools at the HighSchool Level 10

G. Research-Based Instructional Programs 11

1. Drain Learning Research and Theory 12

2. Cooperative Learning 13

3. The IBM Writing To Read Progr:am 15

H. Conclusion 15

III THE TEACHER 17

A. Teacner Shortage 17

B. Teacher Testing Policies 19

C. Reform of tne Teaching Profession 20

1. Controversies and Reactions by MajorEducational Organizations 20

2. Teacher Development Initiatives 21

D. Conclusion 23

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EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES:THEIR IMPACT ON EDUCATION, ON AT-RISK STUDENTS

AND ON MINORITY TEACHERS

I. OVERVIEW

The American educational system is the traditionalinstitution which has been responsible for creating andmaintaining a literate society. As society changes,educational policies and practices must also change. Over

the past 10 to 15 years, as a result of the decliningachievement levels of students, there has been pressure toimprove education from many aspects of society.

The changes that the educational system has made havegenerally been in tne form of increased standards and higherexpectations for students and teachers. However, in manyinstances, the demand for higher standards and expectationshas not been matched with adequate resources, both financial

and human, to achieve them particularly for thoseindividuals who have in the past exhibited a need for them.

Students and teachers are the two most important groups inthe educational system. At-risk students and minorityteachers are the two subgroups that have been the mostadversely affected by rapidly changing policies and

practices. As the demographics in the country are rapidlychanging, as the society becomes more highly technological,

as the dropout rate continues to climb, and as student

achievement continues to decline, the need to address thefuture of at-risk students and minority teachers is beingemphasized by many diverse groups of society.

This report will review the major research in this area,and give a general overview of some of the issues that areimpacting these two Key groups. The first part will addressissues that are impacting students, and the second part willaddress teachers. The report will examine how elementaryand secondary schools differ, and how those differencesimpact students' achievement and success. It will trace the

impact of educational reform, before and after the releaseof tne "Nation At Risk" report, on education and

particularly its impact on at-risk students and minorityteacners. Additionally, several instructional programs thatare research-based and that have been proven to work for all

students will be highlighted.

II. THE STUDENT

Students are the target population that reflectachievement. Their declining achievement levels over thepast 15 to 20 years has caused educational policies andpractices to change at a rapid rate. Teachers are the majoreducators that directly impact student achievement; hosever,there are other factors affecting student achievement, andin many instances some are contributing to the high dropoutrate among high school students.

A. SCHOOL STRUCTURE/ORGANIZATION: ELEMENTARI, VS. SECONDARY

Research has shown that the difference in the organizationanC structure of schools at the elementary and secondarylevels does have an impact on students' achievement,particularly at-risk students. Educational researchers havefound that as children move from preschool to elementaryschool and then into secondary school, the school climategradually changes from a smaller, more personal, caringatmosphere to a larger, more impersonal atmosphere of

anonymity. In a more complex, threatening atmosphere,without proper assistance and support, the disadvantagedstudent is at risk of becoming lost, bewildered anddisinterested. When the pressures become too great, manyeventually give up and drop out of school.

Research in the a.ea of brain learning theory has foundthat the organization and structure of schools may have anegative effect on student achievement and success.Researchers have found that students perform better in anatmosphere that is nonthreatening.

Theodore Sizer, Professor at Brown University, former Deanof the Harvard School of Education, and strong, earlyadvocate for school reform and restructure at the highschool level, finds that high schools are too specializedand impersonal. In "Studies of Schooling--High SchoolReform: The Need for Engineering" (1983), he pointed out:

High schools are complicated organisms. To beorderly, the pieces must work together smoothly.In a typical high school of 1,500 pupils, almost10,000 individual place changes occur. In a

five-hour period, students and teachers move fromclassroom to classroom to cafeteria and so forth.The successful orchestration of so much traffic isjust the beginning of the problem (p. 680).

In one of the more extensive research studies "A PlaceCalled School" (1984), John Goodlad, Professor at the

University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), studiedschools across the country at all three levels, elementary,junior/middle and high school. His findings point out someof the major differences between the levels which may impactstudent achievement. Some of his major findings include:

(3)

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- -In the first three elementary grades, there is moreemphasis on relating learning to experiences, and thereis less dependence on textbooks and quizzes.

--In secondary SCh0OlS, there are built in accom-modations for students of differing accomplishments.'These differences are accommodated in upper, middle andlower tracks. (Sizer reiterates this point when hestates that poor students are tracked to be poor andrich students are tracked to be rich (p. 681, 1983).

--At the secondary level, the dominant role of theteacher, and limited opportunity of the class as a groupbecome virtues to be reinforced. Deviation may betolerated but it is neither condoned nor rewarded...(p. 265-266).

In an article by William Firestone, Director of FieldStudies, Research for Better Schoois, Inc., and RobertHerriot, independent Research Sociologist, "Prescriptionsfor Effective Elementary Schools Don't Fit SecondarySchools" (1982), the results of their study of a randomsample of 50 schools found that some of the major featuresthat characterize effective elementary schools aresignificantly less prevalent at the secondary level. Theirfindings revealed the following major organizationaldifferences between the levels:

--There was far more agreement on Instructional goalsat the elementary level.

- -In contrast to high schools, elementary schools haver)re of a shared sense of purpose with a greateremphasis on basic skills instruction.

- -Elementary principals also have more opportunity tobe instructional leaders by influencing classroommanagement (although this is still definitelv in theteacher's zone of control).

- -The structure of the secondary school and its broadrange of goals is different from the elementary school.

- -Departmentalization at the secondary level alsolimits the effectiveness of the principal.

- -Secondary school teachers are subject ma' erspecialists, elementary schGol teachers are primarilygeneralists.

Secondary schools tend to be larger, so a great dealof teacher contact is delegated to others: assistantprincipals, department chairpersons, etc.

These findings illustrate that much of what is suggestedas desirable by effective schools research is practiced moretypically in elementary than secondary schools (p. 53).

Even though educational researchers have found thatstudents often begin to mentally drop out of school at theelementary level, it is actually at the high school levelwhere they physically drop out of school. High schools can

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benefit by implementing the findings from the effectiveschools research and other research-based innovations.

B. RESTRUCTURE/REORGANIZE THE HIGH SCHOOL

In the article, "High School Reform: The Need forEngineering", (1983) Sizer concluded that current and futureplanning to improve the quality of, education particularly atthe high school level, must include the restructuring andreorganizing of schools. He clearly pointed out the needfor restructuring the high school when he stated:

Most of the central problems crippling U.S. highschools are obvious and well understood; it is theremedies that seem problematic. But there is noserious May to improve our high schools withoutrevamping their structure. Politically painfulthough such a re-engineering may be, it is

inescapable (p. 680).

A major inquiry into American secondary education, "AStudy of High Schools", was conducted from 1981 to 1984. It

was cosponsored by the National Association of SecondarySchool Principals (NASSP) and the National Association ofIndependcit Schools (NAIS). Theodore Sizer conducted thefirst extensive study to be published in this majorpublication.

In his comprehensive, two-year study of high schoolsacross the country, Sizer describes the condition of highschools in "Horaces Compromise: the Dilemma of the AmericanHigh School" (1984). As a result of his study, he

established the Coalition of Essential Schools which is ahigh school- university partnership devoted to strengtheningthe learning of students by reforming each school'spriorities and simplifying its structure.

The Coalition is a practical effort at "rebuilding", atmaking new compromises in the goals and procedures forstudents and more sensible conditions of work for teachers.The Coalition currently includes approximately 60 highschools throughout the country working intensely with theproject's central staff at Brown University. There is no"essential school model." Each school in the Coalition isautonomous and must develop a rrogram and a policy strategyappropriate to its own setting and constituency. The

Coalition is tied together by tha following nine common,general principles:

(1) AN INTELLECTUAL FOCUS--The school should focus onhe'ping adolescents to learn to use their minds well.Schools should not attempt to be "comprehensive" if sucha claim is made at the expense of the school's centralintellectual purpose.

(2) SIMPLE GOALS--The school's goals should be

simple: That each student master a limited number ofessential skills and areas of knowledge. While theseskills and areas will, to varying degrees, reflect thetraditional academic disciplines, the program's designshould be shaped by the intellectual and imaginativepowers and competencies that students need, rather than

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necessarily by "subjects" as conventionally defined.The aphorism "Less is More" should dominate: curriculardecisions should be guided by the aim of thoroughstudent mastery and achievement rather than by an effortmerely to "cover content."

(3) UNIVERSAL GOALS--The school's goals should applyto all students, while the means to these goals willvary as those students themselves var. School practiceshould be tailor-made to meet the needs of every groupor class of adolescents.

(4) PERSONALIZATION--Teaching and learning should bepersonalized to the maximum feasible extent. Effortsshould be directed toward a goal that no teacher shouldhave direct responsibility for more than eightystudents.

(5) STUDENT-AS-WORKER--The governing practicalmetaphor of the school should be student-as-worker,rather than the more familiar metaphor of teacher-as-doliverer of instructional services. Accordingly, aprominent pedagogy will be coaching, to provoke studentsto learn how to learn, and thus to teach themselves.

(6) DIPLOMA By EXHIBITION-- Students enteringsecondary school studies are those who can showcompetence in language and elementary mathematics.Students of traditional high school age studies will beprpfvided intensive remedial work to assist them quicklyto meet these standards. The diploma should be awardedupon a successful final demonstration of mastery forgraduation - -an "exhibition." This exhibition by thestudent of his or her grasp of the central skills andknowledge of the school's program may be jointlyadministered by the faculty and by higher authorities.As the diploma is awarded when earned, the school'sprogram proceeds with no strict age grading and with nosystem of credits earned: by "time spent" in class. Theemphasis is on the students' demonstration that they cando important things. (This is an example of analternative to the current, controversial system ofstandardized testing that is utilized in the U.S. ManyEuropean countries utilize this technique, such asFrance with its "baccalaureate".)

(7) ATTITUDE --The tone of the school shouldexplicitly and self-consciously stress values ofunanxious expectation ("I won't threaten you butexpect much of you"), of trust (until abused), and ofdecency (the values of fairness, generosity andtolerance). Incentives appropriate to the school'sparticular students and teachers should be emphasized,and parents should be treated as essentialcollaborators.

(8) STAFF--The principal and teachers should perceivethemselves as generalists first (teachers and scholarsin general education) and specialists second (experts inbut one particular discipline). Staff should expectmultiple obligation (teacher-counselor - manager) and Asense of commitment to the entire school.

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1,9) BUDGET -- Ultimate administrative and budget

targets should include, in addition to total studentloads per teacher of 80 or fewer pupils. substantialtime for collective planning by teachers, competitivesalaries for staff and an ultimate per pupil cost not toexceed that at traditional schools by more than ten

percent. To accomplish this, administrative plans mayhave to show the phased reduction or elimination of some

services now provided students in many traditionalcomprehensive secondary schools.

Goodlad, in "A Place Called School" (1984). recommendedthe restructuring of the entire school system. He proposed

that students begin school at the age of four and completeschool at the age of 16. By starting school at the age offour, the problem of early education would be solved, and by

completing school at the age of 16. the prohlems associatedwith truancy would bA minimized. (This proposal is similarto the educational system in France, where students completetheir secondary education at the age of 16.)

Educational reformers are advocating School Based

Management (SBM) as another aspect of restructuring the

schools. Increased awareness of the importance of buildinglevel activities to the learning growth of students hasmagnified during the past decade. Research data reported by

Sizer, Goodlad, Ron Edmonds, Project Director, Center forUrban Affairs, Harvard University, and others have Shown

that the rate of academic achievement of pupils is directly

related to the quality of the building level staff and

building level programs. SBM gives the authority tc thebuilding level personnel to plan, program, budget and

develop the overall operation of the school. This practice

encourages and promotes the "bottom-up approach" to

management as opposed to the "top down approach."

Restructuring and reorganizing high schools to meet the

needs of all students can have a tremendous impact on

student achievement and success particularly on at-risk,

disadvantaged students. Additionally, focusing real

decision-making power at the school building level can

permit a PARTIr.IPATORY LEADERSHIP style to be developed

where teachers, odministrators, stueents, parents and other

community members work trgether to solve the school's

problems.

C. EDUCATIONAL REFORM

The educational reform movement of the past 10 to 15 years

has also had a tremendous impact on disadvantaged students.

The first wave of educational reform actually began in the

mid 1970's. According to the na.:enal Center for

Educational Statistics (LACES), between '977 and 1982,

approximately 20 states had put in place competency-basedteacher certification requirements for high school

graduation and 13 had approved statewide testing for

remediation purposes. Th's first wave of reforms targeted

the high school.

The release of the "Nation at Risk" report (1983), by the

National Commission on Exceli_Ace in Education that was

commissioned by former Secretary of Education. Terrell Bell.

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began a proliferation of other national reports and studiesabout the condition of American education by a diverse mixof task forces, national commissions and academic groups.

The "Nation at Risk" report also sparked a second wave ofeducational reform which was an acceler on and expansionof the first wave. These reports also targeted the highschool as the area in need of reform. State legislatures.governors and state boards of education moved to instituteschool improvement programs. According to a surveyconducted by the U.S. Depar merit of Education. "The NationResponds" (1984). 35 states recently changed their studenteducation evaluation/testing procedures and since 1980. 47states have raised their graduation requirements.

D. ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM ONOISADVANTAGED STUDENTS

As the post Nation at Risk report evaluation processbegins, the effects of this intensive reform movement arebeginning to be assessed, particularly its impact on thedisadvantaged, at-risk student. According to a recentarticle "Studying the Effects of Reform" (1987), by RichardColvin, free-lance writer from California and formerly withthe Oakland Tribune, states such as South Carolina andTennessee have undertaken efforts narrowly focused on theeffect of specific programs. Broader assessment efforts areunderway in California and at the Center for Policy Researchin Education at Rutgers University, where researchers arestudying education reform in six states (p. 7).

The Government Accounting Office (GAO) at the request ofthe House Subcommittee on Elementary. Secondary andVocational Education is beginning a national study of theeffects of the reform movement on disadvantaged students.Specifically, the objective of the study will be todetermine whether the recent educational reforms initiatedby the states have led to increased academic failure forat-risk students and the extent to which vocationaleducation is available to potentially alleviate some ofthese negative effects.

Additional research is currently being conducted by theMetropolitan Opportunity Project at the University ofChicago. The research is intended to compare educationaland economic mobility for young blacks, whites and Hispanicsin large, metropolitan cities. Early indications from thisresearch coupled with student achievement levels in recentNational Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) studies,Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, the dropout rate.etc. reveal that perhaps the recent educational reformmovement has not significantly improved student achievement.and that perhaps it has had a negative effect on the at-riskstudent.

The important outcome of the past educational reformmovement should be to influence and guide policy makers atall levels as they move into a third wave of educationalreform. Many aspects of society are now stressing theimportance of giving special emphasis to the needs ofat-risk students.

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Ernest Boyer, President of the Carnegie Foundatinn for theAdvancement of Teaching, recently addressed thit. issue in aspeech at a Presidential Candidates Forum at the Universityof North Carolina (1987). He concluded his renarks bystating:

Finally, the students. Will the reform movementroach all children, not just the advantaged?From the very first, this nation has understood

that education and democracy are connected. And atthis late hour it's almost embarrassing to a4c:"Which will be served?" Today, almost everyoneagrees that excellence in education moansexcellence for all.But, frankly that's not the way the reform

movement is working out. While "advantaged"schools are getting bet-er, others remain deeplytroubled institutions. And there is still anenormous gap between our rhetoric and results.

E. THE EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MOVEMENT

The effective school research which was conductedprimarily at the elementary level h.s playeo an importantrole in the educational ry4.;:m movement of the past 10 to 15years. Of the ef"ect%ve school researchers, Ron Edmonds'research. "Search fo- effective Schools: she Identificationand Analysis of City Schools that are 'Instructionally'Effective for Poor Children" (1976). has probably emerged asthe most popular and most widely discussed.

His research has had a tremendous impact on educating thedisadvantaged student. One of the major purposes of hisresearch was to prove tot there are successful schools inpoor, urban neighborhoods. He also wanted to disprove thefindings of James S. Coleman (1966). Arthur R. Jensen (1969)and other social scientists whose research found that lowachievement by potr children derived primarily from inherentdisabilities characterizing the poor.

Edmonds was successful in both of his research efforts.His research proved that students can and do achieve inspite of low socioeconomic background, and it proved thatschools do make a difference in the success of thesestudents. As a result of his research findings, the excuseof low socioeconomic status can no loner be utilized as anexcuse for not properly educating poor, disadvantagedstudents.

He was also able to Identify five dominant characteristicsthat were prevalent in the successful elementary schoolsthat he studied: (1) strong administrative leadership,

(2) frequent monitoring of student programs. (3) positiveschool climate, (4) acquisition of basic skills taking

precedence over all other school activities, and (5) highexpectations. However, it is important to point out thatthese character..,tics are dascriptive, not prescriptive, andthey primarily describe Wilding management. Edmonds'research did not progress to the prescriptive level where he

developed specific research-based programs that would bring

about scnool improvement. Nis untimely death, in 1963,prevented the continuatiln of h's research in this area.

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Therefore, a variety of different types of schoolimprovement programs have been developed and implemented inmany school districts throughout the country. Some of theseprograms have proven to be successful and some havenot--high schools are experiencing less success. It isimportant to stress that in order for school improvementprograms to be successful, they must emphasize theimplementation of strong instructional programs that havebeen proven to be successful for all students, in additionto duplicating the five, im ortant characteristics whichprimarily address building management and atmosphere.

Instruction is prescriptive and instructional programsdirectly impact student achievement along with the deliveryof those programs by teachers. In "Effective Schools forthe Urban Poor" (1979), Edmonds stressed the importance ofconcentrating on instruction as the basis foreffective/successful schools and as the basis for futureresearch inquiry when he stated:

What effective schools share is a climate in whichit is incumbent on all personnel to be"instructionally" effective for all pupils. Thisis not, of course, a very profound insight, but it

does define the proper lines of research inquiry.What ought to be focused on are questions such as:What is the origin of that climate of instructionalresponsibility? (p. 22).

F. INSTRUCTIONALLY EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS AT THE HIGH SCHOOLLEVEL

The high school has been and remains the target of theeducational reform movement. As pointed out earlier byGcodlad and others, elementary schools are more"instructionally" oriented than high schools and as pointedout by Sizer, the basic structure of high schools is morecomplex than elementary schools; therefore, it will be moredifficult to bring about change, restructure buildingmanagement and school organization, and to focus attentionon effective school research and other research-basedinstructional programs, etc.

Firestone and Herriott drew the following conclusionsabout the differences between elementary and secondaryschools that contribute to the difficulty of restricturingand changing high schools:

Differences between levels are unlikely to reflectthe characteristics of principals as individuals.Instead, they seem to reflect basic aspects of thestructure of the secondary school. In effect, abroad range of goals is built into the structure ofa school as soon as it has separate units forteaching English, mathematics, social studies,vocational courses and other topics. Thus,secondary teachers may agree that basic skillsinstruction is important, but many of them canargue reasonably that 'it's not my job'. Even themost charismatic principals may find it difficultto create consensus on instructional goals withsuch built-in diversity (p. 52, 1982).

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As mentioned earlier, 47 states have changed their

graduation requirements for high school students. This

usually consisted of adding more courses to the curriculumand these additional courses are usually more academic.However, it has been proven that just adding more rigid,academic courses to the curriculum will not necessarilyimprove students' achievement. Furthermore, in many

instances if additional services have not been provided forthe at-risk student, this practice has perhaps contributedto the student dropout rate.

Secretary of Education, William Bennett recently addressedthis practice when he introduced the fictitious high school,

James Madison. His ideal high school would have a rigorous,academic curriculum. However, he did not present a

comprehensive program of action that outlines the processfor implementing this curriculum that wil. show how this

curriculum would be successful in meeting the needs of allstudents.

Changing the curriculum and requiring higher standards hasbeen utilized throughout the American educational history as

a means of school reform. It is viewed by many as an

inexpensive strategy that is utilized in an effort to bringabout higher student achievement. In the past, just

requiring a more rigid curriculum without improving,reorganizing and/or restructuring the school program has notnecessarily caused student achievement to improve. Sizer

addresses this issue in his nine principles for restructur-ing high schools (see principle #2, Simple Goals, p. 5).

Perhaps one of the major reasons that many schoolimprovement programs have not succeeded, particularly at thehigh school level, is because an emphasis has not been

placed on implementing comprehensive programs that target

and emphasize instructional programs and other supportprograms that have been proven to work for all students.

The following section will present some examples of

instructional programs that have been proven to work for all

students.

G. RESEARCH-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS

Edmonds stressed instruction as the proper lines for

future research inquiry. During the past 15 to 20 years,

educational researchers have been making tremendous stridesin developing instructional, learning, teaching programs

that work for all students. The continuation of

instructional, teaching research for all levels of the

educational system should also be encouraged and supportedand strategies should be developed to facilitate the

transfer of programs to educators, particularly at the high

school level.

In a recent article, "How Poor Kids Get 'Dumbed Down'",

(1988), by William Raspberry, columnist for the WashingtonPost, Raspberry addressed the issue of educating the at-risk

student, the need for continued educational research in the

area, and the need for the development of strategies to

transfer that research to the classroom teacher and student

when he stated:

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Most teachers are poorly trained with a very narrowrepertoire of teaching skills. We have got toimprove the skills of teachers so that they under-stand and know how to surmount the barriers tolearning that these kids face. The knowledge toaccomplish that is accumulating, but it is rarelytransmitted from research scholars to classroomteachers.

The following are descriptions of several majorinstructional programs that are research based and that havebeen proven to make a difference in students' achievementand success levels.

1. Brain Learning Research and Theory

Educational researchers have made tremendous progress inthe area of brain learning theory. Leslie Hart, educationalconsultant, has developed a learning theory, the ProsterTheory, based on this brain research. Hart's theory isbeing implemented in an elementary school in New Jersey.The project is in its fifth year of implementation and thestudents are making tremendous progress. The theory isbased on three simple principles. The achievement level ofall students will improve if they are in a learningenvironment that focuses on: (1) freedom from threat,(2) communications emphasis and (3) reality emphasis. Hartstates the following about the theory:

Brain-compatible instruction, based on ProsterTheory, shows what is wrong and how to fix it:

ORGANIZATION. The school can move toward moreflexible, cooperative and collaborative arrange-ments that permit better instruction and enormouslybetter learning for all. Teachers are "set free"and empowered to contribute more.

CIMATE. The classroom typically put studentsunder threat, which severely "downshifts" the partsof the brain where learning takes place. In abrain - compatible setting, threat is sharplyreduced, as are confrontations. Student behaviororeatl,, improves; teachers can transfer much timefrom "control" to instruction, and work in a morerelaxed, productive way. The school becomes awhole instead of a collection of diverseclassrooms.

PEDAGOGY. Guided by new insights into whatlearning is and how to produce it, staff canreexamine old, conventional teaching techniques,practices, and materials, moving to new brain-compatible principles. Tradi ional methods thatmay actually impede learning can be replaced withways that help--producing startling gains.Teachers "grow" as their talents, experience,enthusiasm, and abilities are fully utilized.

QUALITY CONTROL. In the conventional school,there is often no reliable or automatic program forpreventing failure and monitoring students'

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individual attainment in real time. The brain-compatible school provides built-in means tocontinually assure excellence,

In spite of the fact that a tremendous amount of researchis currently available in the area of how the brain actuallyfunctions in the learning process, which has the capacity torevolutionize all students' success and achievement, feweducators are actively utilizing this knowledge to improvethe educational/learring process. This is primarilybecause there has been no organized program to dissemina.this research to educators,

A recent article in the Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development (ASCD. 1987), announced that severalresearchers will be traveling across the country and inother countries in search of brain-based learning andteaching programs. However, future efforts to disseminatethis knowledge to educators was not mentioned in thearticle.

The development of the $500 million Brain-Mind Instituteby the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland willalso contribute to the expansion of research in this area.Dissemination of its findings will be of importance toeducators and students.

2. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning refers to a set of instructionalmethods in which students work in small, mixed-abilitylearning groups. The students in each group are responsiblenot only for learning the material being taught in class,but also for helping their group mates learn. In anarticle, "Cooperative Revolution Catches Fire" (1988),Robert Slavin, researcher at the Johns Hopkins ResearchCenter for Social Organization of Schools and the Center forElementary and Middle Education, discusses this innovativestrategy and how it has expanded from the classroom to theentire school. He states:

We've been working for the past 15 years at theJohns Hopkins University's Center on CooperativeLearning methods in the classroom. In more recentyears, we've begun to move beyond cooperation inthe classroom to cooperation at all levels of theeducational enterprise. This article describescooperative learning and the extension of this ideato what we call the cooperative school.

Description of The Strategy:

--The technique does not involve technology, money, ormassive changes in school organization. It involvespeople, students, teachers, and administrators workingcooperatively to enhance the learning of all.

--Cooperation among regular, special, and compensatoryeducation teachers to meet the needs of at-risk studentsis increasing,

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-Student Team Learning is a set of instructionaltechniques that have been evaluated all over the UnitedStates. The basic idea behind the Student Team Learningtechniques is that when students learn in small,

carefully structured heterogenous, learning teams andare rewarded for working toward a common goal, they helpone another learn, gain in self-esteem and feelings ofindividual responsibility for their learning and

increase in respect and liking for their classmates,including their classmates of other races.

- -Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) in mathematicshas been developed for grades three through six.

-Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition(CIRC) has been developed in reading, writing, andlanguage arts for grades three through five.

--Peer coaching, where teachers help one another tolearn and use new instructional methods, is another

effective form of cooperation. (Peer coaching is

extremely effective for the successful implementation ofinnovative, instructional/educational programs).

-Still another is increasing involvement of teachersin working with administrators to set a direction forthe school. (This is the beginning of a participatoryleadership style.)

- -What ties together these disparate forms of

cooperation is that in each case, collaboration amongpeople working toward a common goal is expected toproduce more than the individuals working alone; thewhole of their combined efforts is greater than that ofits parts. (This is the expansion of a participatoryleadership style.)

Outcomes:

- -Of 40 studies (each study being a minimum of four

weeks' duration) whIch compared cooperative methods ofthis ty!e to traditional control methods, 35 iound

significantly greater achievement for the cooperativelytaught classes and five found no significant differ-ences. In contrast, only four of 20 studies that

evaluated forms of cooperative learning without groupgoals based on group members' learning found positiveachievement effects.

- -The successful studies of cooperative learning havetaken place in urban, rural, and suburban schools, in

the U.S., Canada, Israel, West Germany, and Nigeria, at

grade levels from two to 12, and in subjects as diverse

as mathematics, language arts, writing, reading, social

studies and science.

--In general, achievement effects have been equal for

high, average and low achievers, for boys and girls, andfor students of various ethnic backgrounds.

- -Positive effects of cooperative learning have also

been found on such outcomes as race relations.

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acceptance of mainstreamed academically handicappedclassmates and student self-esteem.

3. The IBM Writing To Read Program

The writing program that has been developed by DelorisSaunders, Professor at the George Washington University, toaccompany the IBM Writing to Read Program, is beingimplemented by her in the Washington, D.C. Public preschooland elementary schools. The writing program utilizes aphonetic approach to teaching children to write. As aresult of their writing, they also learn to read becausethrough phonetic mastery which they ultimately achieve, theyinterpret the code. All children who gain phonetic masteryread and write but not all children who learn to read fromother approaches can write. Saunder's research is findingthat students are making tremendous progress in the area ofreading and writing.

The researchers have learned that disadvantaged studentsusually enter school with approximately 2,500 words andadvantaged students usually enter school with approximately5,000 words. However, they have found that very often thedisadvantaged students catch up with the advantaged studentsand often move beyond them. They have not been able todetermine why this occurs.

Other, innovative, research-based instructional/learning/teaching programs include Mastery Teaching, a ClinicalSupervision program by Madeleine Hunter, Professor andResearcher at UCLA; Mastery Learning by Benjamin Bloom,Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, The University ofChicago; and Student Learning Styles by Rita Dunn,Professor, St. Johns University in New York,

Implementation of successful programs like the above-mentioned have been proven to improve learning for allstudents. These programs may also be effective instrengthening existing programs that are intended to improveeducation for the disadvantaged student (Head Start,Chapter 1, etc.).

H. CONCLUSION

As we move into the 21st Century, and as our society andits needs continue to rapidly change, more collaborativeprojects between universities and schools such as Sizer'sCoalition of Esssential Schools, Saunder's Writing Program,etc. have the potential to improve schools and consequentlyimpact students' achievement. The effective school researchof Ron Edmonds and others has great potential for improvingschools particularly at the high school level. Examiningand adopting innovative policies and practices of othermajor nations also has potential for improving oureducational system.

What happens to students at the elementary level willimpact their achievement at the secondary level, and whathappens to them at the secondary level will effect theirsuccess at the university level, Focusing attention on theneed for educators to begin to Ilaborate at all levels of

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the educational system, and developing a "holistic" approachto educating all students can serve to improve the Americaneducational system.

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III. THE TEACHER

Teachers are the one group of educators who directlyimpact student achievement and success in school. Theirability and the extent of their knowledge base determine howsuccessfully they impact student achievement. As efforts toimprove student achievement and success levels continue,society is realizing the importance and necessity ofimproving the development of practicing teachers as well asimproving the training and preparation of new teachers. Asthe country struggles t3 compete with other nations, theseissues have become high priorities at all levels ofgovernment. However, there are many factors that threatenthe future progress of this profession.

A. TEACHER SHORTAGE

In the past, females have traditionally dominated heteaching profession. According to surveys by the NationalEducation Association (1966-1986) and The National Centerfor Education Statistics (1987), women have consistentlycomprised approximately 65 to 70 percent of the profession.primarily because careers in other professions were notavailable to them. However, today, due in part to Federalpolicy and to the women's movement, other professions aremore accessible to women. Consequently, they are choosingcareers other than teaching. Additionally, minorities, ingeneral, are also choosing careers other than teaching at atime when the minority student population is rapidlygrowing.

In an article, "America's Future Teaching Force:Predictions and Recommendations" (1987), Richard Kemper,Chairman of the Department of Instruction and TeacherEducation at the University of South Carolina, and JohnMangieri. Dean of the School of Education, Texas ChristianUniversity, discussed the results of two national surveyswhich they conducted. The surveys were Londucted in 1993and 1987. They were national surveys of high schoolseniors, and they studied students' responses to questionspertaining to their "interest" in teaching as a profession.

The first study, 1983, was comprised of more than 4,000high school seniors, and it focused primarily on the extentof student interest in teaching. The second study, 1987,had the same basic goal as the first study: however, itfocused on the "quality" of seniors who were interested inteaching as a profession. This survey studied the responsesof the top 50 percent of college-track seniors in schools inurban, suburban and rural districts.

Results from the first survey include:

--Only a small proportion (9 percent) of theparticipants were very interested in teaching as aprofession.

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--Among those who said they were very interested inteaching, the percentage of "women" was more than twicethat of men.

The population in the second survey consisted of 589seniors who ranked in the top 50 percent among theircollege-bound classmates. Of the 589 participants, 261(44 percent) were male, 328 (56 percent) were female, 129(22 percent) were members of minority groups, and 460(78 percent) were white.

The results from the second survey include:

--Only 8 percent of the college-bound students werevery interested in teaching as a career, 25 percent weresomewhat interested, 13 percent had no opinion, and53 percent were not interested.

- -When the variable of gender was taken into account,*1 of the male respondents (27 percent) and 125 of thefemale respondents (38 percent) were very interested orsomewnat interested in teaching as a career.

Implications from the Studies Include:

--The teaching profession will continue to experiencea shortage of recruits particularly from among highachieving secondary students.

- -Unless efforts are made to change young people'sperceptions of teachers' roles, kindergarten and earlyelementary classrooms in the U.S. will continue to bestaffed predominantly by women, and men will continue tomake up a majority of the teaching force at the juniorand senior high school levels.

- -Efforts should be made to attend to the fact thatmany pcJple change careers several times during theirworking years, and teaching should probably be promotedas one of those careers.

-Some 47 percent of the respondents in this study whosaid that they were very interested or somewhatinterested in teaching as a career also said that theyexpected to teach less than 10 years, while only19 percent said that they expected to teach more than 20years, This finding suggests that teaching might beprofitably promoted in some way other than as a lifelongcareer.

- -(Expanding upon this idea, perhaps the professioncould consider recruiting top students by utilizing asystem similar to the Peace Corps. Top-rankinggraduates could be attracted to the profession on a two-to five-year contractual basis, and after having taughtfor this amount of time, they would be free to pursueother careers. Pay and other incentives could beattractive for these short teaching periods.Additionally, new ideas and new energy would beconstantly available in the profession.)

- -A strong effort must be made to encourageprospective teachers to prepare themselves to teach

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students with special needs. Our findings suggest animpending shortage of teachers for all types of specialstudents, those requiring remedial :ork, low-abilitystudents, the handicapped, and gifted and talentedstudents (p. 394).

A recent survey (spring, 1987) conducted by the NationalEducation Association (NEA), found that the supply ofqualified teachers is inadequate. The survey was based on128 of the nation's 190 largest school districts.

Data from the survey found the following:

--Forty-one percent of the respondents say they mayuse "emergency" certification to hire people from otherfields who have not completed professional teacherpreparation programs.

--Forty percent say they may increase the use ofteacher aides or interns.

--Almost half (48 percent) of the districts respond.ngsay they may hire more temporary or substitute teachers.

Additionally, it was found that the most acute shortage isin bilingual education, where 80 percent of the positionsare unfilled. Nearly half of the positions in specialeducation and a third in science and mathematics are stillopen. The area of minority teachers will also experience amajor shortage.

8. TEACHER TESTING POLICIES

In the area of teacher testing, minorities appear to bemore adversely affected by current rJlicies and practices.The results of a 1986 survey conducted by the NationalEducation Association showed that states in southeastern andwestern regions of the country required passing a competencytest for ini.ial certification more than did states in otherregions. More than 34 percent of the teachers in thesoutheast were tested before they were allowed to enter theteaching profession, compared to 11.7 percent in the west,9.0 percent in the northeast, and only 7.8 percent in themiddle region. Since minorities represent a higherproportion of the population in these regions than in therest of the country, they are more likely than whites, on anational basis, to have been subjected to certificationtesting.

The available data clearly indicate that in statesreporting results of teacher testing, the passing rates forminorities were well below those of whites. In a study byPeter A. Garcia, Professor, Bilingual Education Project, TheSchool of Administration and Supervision, Pan AmericanUniversity, "A Study on Teacher Competency Testing..."(1985), Garcia found that of the 16 states reporting resultsof competency tests by race and ethnicity:

--Fve states reported lower test scores for ethnicminorities on tests of professional education(pedagogy).

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--Seven states reported lower test scores forminorities in the area of academics.

--Seven states reported lower test scores oncertification tests.

He also found the following:

- -Available data clearly indicate that a dispropor-tionately high number of black, HispaniC, and Asiancandidates are being screened from the teachingprofession. This exclusionary trend is evidentregardless of the state and regardless of the type ofexamination--admission or exit; standardized orcustomized: basic skill, subject matter, or professionalknowledge (p. 61).

--Tests such ds the National Teachers' Examination(NTE) were never intended to predict teaching perform-ance, and there are very low corelatinns betweenmeasures of teacher effectiveness and test scores(p. 12).

- -The predictive validity of pencil-and-paper testshas been questioned by numerous studies (p. 52).

C. REFORM OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Teachers and students have been directly impacted by therecent waves of education reform, yet neither group has beendirectly involved in the process. Of the recent nationalreports that have been released on restructuring theteaching profession, the Holmes Group report, "Tomorrow'sTeachers" and the Carnegie Forum on Education and theEconomy's report, "A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21stCentury", are probably the most discussed by educationalleaders and major educational associations/organizations andthey are the most controversial.

1. Controversies and Reactions by Major EducationalOrganizations Include:

--Requiring vigorous preparation for teachercandidates: both Carnegie and Holnifs recommendabolishing the undergraduate education degree, andrequiring a master's degree for beginning teachers.

Adding an additional year of study as a requirementfor entering the profession will cause disproportionateeconomic hardship for minority students who are alreadyexperiencing difficulties financing their education.For many of these students, education may cease to be aviable career.

- -The Holmes report points out the importance ofminority children having access to minority teachers.However, the report recommends additional testing forteachers at each level of preparation. Low performanceof minorities on teacher tests and controversies aboutwhat tests actually measure are among the reasons thatthis recommendation has been questioned by educators.

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Requirements for additional and mare rigorous testsshould be accompanied by strategies and resources toincrease the pass rates of minorities.

--A Nation Prepared calls for establishing a NationalBoard for Professional Teaching Standards. ThisNational Board would call for higher standards torteachers.

Requiring higher standards coUld cause additionalproblems for minority teachers who are alreadyperforming poorly on existing teacher tests.Additionally, the establishment of a national teacherstandards board is .. long-term project that is projectedfor a minimum of five years. The need to improve theteaching profession is tar more immediate. The resultsof national teacher testing practices have found thatteachers need immediate ay.sistance in improving theirskills. Available funds should be invested in upgradingand developing teacher skills.

--Teacher testing and the establishment of strictstandards should be implemented after teachers skillshave been upgraded.

Raising standards and increasing teacher testing hasno direct impact on improving their skills. Thesepractices serve to highlight and accentuate the existingproblems.

2. Teacher Development Initiatives

Both Boyer and Doodled in their extensivi studies ofschools have recommended the establishment of TeacherInstitutes in every region of the country which would serveto develop and strengthen the skills of teachers. Boyer. ina recent speech at a presidential candidates forum at theUniversity of North Carolina (1987), made the followingstatement:

What I now propose is a MB version ofEisenhower's NOEA. a new legislative packagetr.:would, among other things. establish TeacherInstitutes in every region of the country andprovide fellowships to thousands of teachers fromall fifty states, allowing them to spend time inlibraries, in laboratories, and with otherteachers--the simple things that college professorsjust take for granted.

Expanding Boyer's proposal to focus on the establishmentof Summer Teacher Institutes would provide opportunities forteachers and education researchers to collaborate. It wouldalso provide an excellent opportunity to researchers andteachers to work with disadvantaged, at risk students incontrolled settings. The opportunit, would provideadditional assistance Io these students, ,old provide themadditional time and exposure to the lea,ning process andwould be beneficial to the profession.

The American Association of Colleges for eacher Education(AACTE) recently released their report "Minority Teacher

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Recruitment and Retention: A Call for Action' (1987). Thatreport proposes ten specific programs to address this issue.Three of these proposals are geared to the Federal level.one proposal is geared to the state level, one is geared toth2 state and local levels. one is geared to the local andnongovernmental levels, and four are geared to all levels.The ten programs are National Scholarship Program, StateScholarship Program. Targeted High School Work-StudyProgram, Targeted College WorkStudy Program, Two year/Four-year Articulation Program, Assistantships and GrantsProgram, Support Program for Reentry and Career Change,Targeted Teacher Induction Program, and AssessmentDemonstration Grants Program.

The American Council on Education (ACC) and the EducationCommission of States (ECS) are jointly sponsoring the

formation of a 34-member, blue ribbon panel that will

recJmmend ways that government, business and education canimprove opportunities for members of minority groups.Former Presidents Jimmy Carter and Gerald Ford will serve asHonorary Chairmen of the panel. Otner members of theCommission include: former r Jcation Secretary Terrell Bell,Arkansas Governor William , inton. NAACP Executive DirectorBenjamin Hooks, former Representative Barbara Jordon, NOWJersey Governor Thomas Kean, Coretta Scott King. tormerSenator Edmund Muskee and former Secretary of State WilliamRogers.

The '1We-ribbon panel is one of four initiatives that havebeen announced by ACE to address the issue of minorityparticipation. The other three initiatives are'

(1) The development of a handbook explainingsuccessful programs to increase minority enrollment.

(2) A special issue of ACE's publication. "EducationalRecord."

(3) ACE's "Memorandum to the 41st President.

State initiatives nave included the implementation ofMaster Teacher Programs, Career Ladder Programs, Merit PayPrograms, Mentor Teacher Programs, etc. However, the

imnlementation of incentive programs without the

establishment of teacher development programs in conjunctionwith them have not necessarily improved the quality OtInstruction and teaching in the educational system. In some

instances these programs may have had an adverse affect onteachers, lowering their morale instead of stimulating their

creative talents. On the other hand, pru9rams of thisnature that have actively and meaningfully involved teachersin their development, participatory leadership, have provento be more successful.

Adrotionally. Maryland. California and other states are

actrvety involved in analyzing past practices and policies,and they are estaolishing and organizing new education

commissions to plan new statewide initiatives in the publicschools as well as in higher education. Policvmakers at the

Youth Policy Institute Forum (1987). held in Washington.

D.C., advocated the necessity for state and Federal

policymakers to collaborate as this new planning process

begins.

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On the Federal level, during .he Second Session of the100th Congress, Jeveral Members of Congress are developinglegislation to address this issue. Major educationalleader:, organizations and associations are also calling forlegislation to address this issue.

O. CONCLUSION

As the country moves to restructure and improve theteaching profcssion, it is important to invest availablero*surces, both human and monetary, in teacner developmentas opposed to just emphasizing teacher testing. The currentand past practices of investing time and other resources intesting teachers and raising standards before providingappropriate programs to improve their skills has not alwaysproduced better, more effective teachers. These policiesand practices are, t,. p,4,0, instances, having a negativeimpact on our alr*zoi ni,ilnishing Supply of teachers,especially minorit

The initiatives 1,s, in this report will perhapsbegin to improve this ,4um.oty of the teaching protession andconsequently improve zt, SuCCOS5 and achieveme inSCh001.

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