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Swick, Kevin J.

Disruptive Student Behavior in the Classroom. WhatRetr.-al.t..h Says Lo the Teacher. Second Edition.

National Education Association, Washington, D.C.ISBN-0-8106-1064-787

35p.

National Education Association Professional Library,P.O. Box 509, West Haven, CT 06516 (Stock No. 1064-7,$3.95).

Guides - Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Behavior Change; *Behavior Problems; *ClassroomTechniques; Comprehension; Curriculum; ElementarySecondary Education; Guidelines; Identification;Leadership Styles; School Community Relationship;*Teacher Role

The purpose of this research report is to explorepractices that teachers can use to respond to behavior problems intheir classes. Preliminary discussion focuses on understanding thecontext of student behavior and identifying student behavior problemsearly. Positive responses to student behavior problems are discussedin terms of the following tips: use a preventive approach; establishfair limits; set a positive example; restore order when a problemoccurs; avoid delegating classroom management problems to otherswhenever possible; locate the real problem; change the classroomenvironment when necessary; provide alternatives to undesirablebehavior; help students understand the consequences of theirbehavior; make provisions for a time out; help students modify theirbehavior; use group counseling procedures to promote positivebehavior; avoid reinforcing negative behavior; invite students tosucceed in the classroom; and know how to deal with pathDlogicalbehavior. Five teacher behaviors--modeling, designing, interacting,responding, and assessing--are discussed as ways of introducingstudents to a way of life in the classroom. Concluding discussionconcerns the influence of leadership style on student behavior, therelations between curriculum and student behavior problems, andstudent behavior problems and the community. Nearly 120 referencesare cited. (RH)

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What Research Says to the Teacher

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

What Research Says to the Teacher

DisruptiveStudent Behaviorin the ClassroomSecond Edition

by Kevin J. Swick

nea PR tJ!R tnRYNational Education AssociationWashington, D C

0

The Author

Kevin J Swick is Professor of Education in the Department of Instructionand Teacher Education at the University of South Carolina, Columbia. Heis also the author of' Maintaining Pradw tive Student Behavior, and thecoauthor of macher Renewal, Parenting, and Stress and the Clas,sroamTereher, publ, ;tied by NEA

Copyright © 1987. 1985. 1980National Education Association of the United States

Note

The opinions expressed in this publication should not he construed asrepresenting the policy or position of the National Education Association.Materials published as part of the What Research Says to the Teacher seriesare intended to he discussion documents for teachers who are concernedwith specialized interests of the profession

Printing HistoryFirst Printing February 1980SECOND EDITION. January 1985Third Printing February 1987

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Swick. Kevin JDisruptive student behavior in the classroom

(What research says to the teacher)Bibliography. p

Classroom management 2 Problem children3 Community and school, I Title II SeriesLB 3013 S95 1985 371 I '024 84-29504ISBN 0-8106-1064-7 4;;;;c. 4

CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION . . .

INTRODUCTION

UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEXT OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR 5

IDENTIFYING STUDENT BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS EARLY . 8

POSITIVE RESPONSES TO STUDENT BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS I IUtilize a Preventive Approach 12Establish Fair Limits . ........... .... 12Set a Positive Example 12Restore Order When a Problem Occurs . .... 13Handle You Own Problems Whenever Possible .. 13Locate the Real Problem .. . ..... . . ..... 13

Change the Classroom Environment When Needed 14Provide Alternatives to Undesirable Ezhavior ... 14Help Students Understand the Consequences

of Their Behavior 15Make Provisions for a "Time Out" Space .. 15Help Students Modify Their Behavior . ..... 16Use Group Counseling Proced gyres to Promote

Positive Behavior 16Avoid Reinforcing Negative Behaviors 16Invite Students to Succeed in the Classroom

7Dealing with Cases of Patho'ogical Behavior 117

THE TEACHER AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS . 18Modeling ....

. . . ....... . . 1198Designing .

Interacting . ...... . . . 20Responding .. ....... 21Assessing

THE SCHOOL: LEADERSHIP STYLE INFLUENCESSTUDENT BEHAVIOR 23

THE CURRICULUM AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS 25

E COMMUNITY AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS 26EPILOGUE

REFERENCES . ......... .. ................ 229SELECTED RESOURCES FOR THE SECOND EDITION . .. 33

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITIONConcern about student behavior continues to receive attention

from all members of the school-community partnership. Since thefirst publication of this book in 1980, a major focus on the societalconditions that influence student behavior has been emerging. Theleading proponent of this trend is David Elkind of Tufts University.Elkind has examined every facet of the student's life-space andfound some common threads running throughout all of them thatnegatively influence student behavior: forced growth patterns thatrequire children to meet totally unrealistic expectations, absence of"meaningful" jobs appropriate to me student's stage of develop-ment, lack of productive adult role models for learners to follow intheir early development, and a clear shortage of meaningful jobs foradolescents and young adults to form productive work habits. Thesesocial factors are influencing student behavior in and out of theclassroom.

In responding to this cultural situation, teachers (and othercitizens) need to emphasize learning designs that promote studentskill development via meaningful experiences. It has been known forsome time that students who have a sense of participation in thehome and school-community setting are generally positive in theirbehavior. As Elkind notes, howev.-1, the life-space of students is nolonger limited to these traditional social settings, it now includes the"electronic village" and an often misguided peer subculture. Aunique role exists for teachers in supporting productive studentbehavior. modeling intelligent and aesthetic lifestyles and involvingstudents in functional and challenging learning experiences.

1

INTRODUCTION

A major challenge confronting teachers is the handling of classroombehav itn problems In the past there has been a tendency to viewdist uptiv e student behav ior as a pi oblem evolv ing solely in the Classroomand thus solvable by simply altering Certain Londitions that prompt thedeviant actions Recent research suggests. however. that student be-havior (at various grade levels) is mfluenLed by many factors, andteacher responses to disorderly Conduct must he based upon a Lareculassessment of earn student's position in life as well as of the teaehei s

own role in the classroom Teachers and IL ,Larcht is who attempt to findeasy solutions to any human de, iancy i,ave aud A Id Continue to meetwith frustration Human bAtivitn is 'oo complex to be adapted to anysingle cause-effect syndrome. Indeed many 'disruptive students- haveincreased then neg,,tive soLiai iespon,es beLause they have been dealtwith as "problems Thus, the purpose of this iesearLh report is toexploit; promising piaLtiLes teaLhLis can use in responding to behav lotproblems that emerge in their classrooms

UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEXT OFSTUDENT BEHAVIOR

Individuals behave in Leitam ways as a result of the variety of geneticand socioLultinal fortes that hat c influent ed then development. Whileresponding to student behat toi pi oblems tt !afoul understanding theacontext can he an effluent way of taanagir,, the Classroom. far tt o oftenstudents me stereotyped as "tbst mime pi oblems' simply because noone has attempted to find out tvhy they behave in a negative marine( 1 he

effectiveness of %alums methods of handling behav101 problems can bemaximised when the teat her involved understands the student s pre-dicament.

An examination of how one teachei iespoaded to disruptive behaviorin the classroom reseals how impoitant it in, lot educators to understandthe context of behav lot

5

Bill (grade four) launches a paper airplane and then trips Ld who is onhis way to the pencil sharpener. Mr Wyatt reprimands Bill andexclaims, "That will be points off your social studies grade' If ithappens again. Mr. Wyatt says, "you'll flunk this term Later, inthe lounge Mr Wyatt expresses disgust that he got Bill in his section."The kid's been a problem since he entered school," he growls

The reader might wonder if anyone has asked win 13111 has continu-ously been a "behavior problem" at school. Does it do any rood tothreaten a student with failure'' Nhy doesn't Mr Wyatt examine hispersonal attitude toward the student'' From a research perspective. MIWyatt responded ineffectively to the behavior problem in the ,lassroom.The following behaviors (used by Mr Wyatt) should he avoided whendealing with classroom behavior problems,

I. Overreacting to the problem2. Using threats.3. Using punishment that is unrelated to the behavior4. Admonishing the student in front of peers.5. Losing emotional control.6. Discussing the situation with colleagues in unproductive and un-

ethical ways.7 Assessing the problem without a thorough examination of the

situation. (7, 26. 36)

Mr Wyatt would have been more effective in dealing with Bill had heused some of the following behaviors

I. Asking Bill to leave the room with him for a moment2 Discussing with 13111 why the behavior is unacceptable and other

factors related to Bill's behavior3 Examining the home situation, pee' group setting, and other factors

that might influence Bill's behavior4 Asking Bill to apologize to the student he tripped and making any

punishment pertinent to correcting the misbehaviorS MPeting with Bill and possibly his parents if the problem has existed

for a long time, through such a meeting a possible solution could heworked out. (7, 40)

By looking at 'he context of student behavior, many teacherstudentconflicts can be solved in a positive manner Consider the following asInfluences that affect student behavioryet they often go unnoticed byteachers in their responding to behavior problems. malnutrition, childabuse/neglect, life cycle changes. teen-age r regrincy, drug abuse,excessive television view ing. violence in the home, community disorder.

6

lack of family support. peer conflicts. mental health problems. lack ofsleep. and other ,osioeultui al events Foi example, the ielationshipsdescribed in the following chart have been established through continu-ous research. (25. 44. 64, 72, 83)

Influen«' Related Behar:or Often Observed

I Malnutrition HyperactivityDrowsinessEasy loss of temperIt titability

2 Lack of Sleep InattentivenessShort attention spanIrritabilityInability to complete assignments

3. Child Abuse'Neglect Withdrawn. sullenAggressiveness. takes out anxiety

on peers and teacherPoor attendance recordExcessive seeking of attention

4 Excessive Television Viewing Short attention spanExtreme aggressivenessDifficulty in following directionsInability to complete work

assignments5 Violence in the Home Extreme anxiety level

Withdrawn and very depressedPoor attendance recordConstant seeking of attention

Factors within the school may also he influensing student behavior in a

negativc manner Teachers should ask themselves questions such as thefollow ing as they assess the context of student helm), rot ptoblems

I Does the environment of the school encourage human relation-ships') Are people ft iendly . personable. and concerned about eachother" Or is the setting hostile. imporsonal. and lacking in humanwarmth" (39)

2 How do I have my classroom organized in terms of the physicalsetting" Do the students understand what is expected of them" As ateacher do I have control of the class and provide direction in ter msof drub/ routines') (37)

LIWWWWWWIWPWWWIff.ffe..ff.WW015

7

"1L./

3. Do I know the students in a personal way'' Have 1 taken time torelate to the student's families, the community. and the specialsituations that influence the students' behavior in Inc classroom?(41)

4 Is the instructional program relevant to the needs and interests ofthe students') Or are many of the students bored because I ask themto repeat work thot they have already mastered') (76)

S As the teacher have I allowed the students an opportunity todevelop some of the classroom rules by which they are to function'Do I listen to strident explanations of problem situations.' (26)

Answers to questions such as these are critical when you are attempt-ing to determine why teachers and students respond to classroompredicaments as they do. Environments in which students are valued,listened to, and made a part of the instructional process are more likely topromote positive student beim% ior than are settings in which students aredegraded and forced to find their own psychological space in a hostileway.

The cycle of negative student behavior negative teacher responsefurther negative student response can only he remedied when theconditions that are causing the disrupto e behm ioi are identified, exam-ined, and used as the basis for impro, mg the situation Students who areexperiencing a difficult life at home an. certain to behave differently inthe classroom from their peers who have a positi e home life. Likewise,students who have been categorized as "problems** y ear after year arelikely to fulfill this prophecy by contini.mg to behave in dislopnve w iysHowever, through an examination of the context of student behavior(including the teacher's influence), many behavior problems can hesolved. (92, 93)

IDENTIFYING STUDENT BEHAVIORPROBLEMS EARLY

Student behavior problems usually are the result of a long-termprocess during which the studentin interacting with theenvironmentdevelops certain hello% iors that are unacceptable to theteacher end'or other students (6) The early ideritifiLvtion of potentialbehavior problems can lead to the avoidance of more serious studentcrises. (45) The following is one example of how a problemleftundetectedcan evolve into a more serous predicament

8

September Jane Loss (ninth grader) discovers she is pregnant Herschoolwork is poor and so is her attendance. which is in contrast to herusual behavior No one at school or at home takes notice of the changein behavior.

October Jane's school behavior continues to deteriorate. Herbelow-average scores on the first grai: report prompt her parents torestrict her social life But no one nas really inquired why Jane isbehaving so differentiy!November Jane is reported missing by her parents' School officialsare stunned No one seems to know why she is missingDecember: Jane is found in Honda'

This e \ample not only brings into focus the importance of identifyingglaring changes in student behavior early but also points to the need forbroadening our understanding of such problems. Too often studentbehavior problems are dewed only as situations that disrupt the teach-er's functioning In Jane's case the disruption is of a student-centerednature. affecting her learning and functioning. Teacher. need to observestudent behavior in terms of how it affes is not only the class but mostimportantly the strident msolsed in the situation. (40) Through naturalobservation teachers and Jane's parents should has e noticed the changesin her behavior and inquired. "Why the change"' or "Jane. is some-thing wrongcan we help?"

Not only did Jane's problem go unnoticed, but also apparently no one(at home or at school) talked with Jane Cononunn wing meth andcoun.selwg students is a pros en method of presenting many disciplineproblems Es cry student should Use at least one adult confidant theycan trust w tide in school Hopefully a similar situation would emst athome Teachers who counsel and interact w an their students on a regularbasis report that not only do they knois then students better, but alsothey are more able to detect problems that might des clop into moresevere situations at a later time. (39, 4(i. 52. 54) For example

Ms. Green "John. you really seem bothered lately'"John. "Oh'"Ifs. Green "Y.:s, you seem off in your own worldJohn. "Well. things aren't too hot at home these day s!"Ms. Green "John. have you talked with sow parents about it" You

know that might help."John "Oh. I Just don't knowAR Green "Feel free to stop and talk with me. John Sometimes

that can help."

9

Indeed. realizing that some concerned and willing to listen can hethe initial step in solving a problem or at least learning to cope with li.

Another very effective w ay of minimizing student behavior problemsis to keep in touch itith parents. This can help to accomplish twopurposes to develop communications betty een home and school, and toencoui age parents to he involved w ith their childien's development andeducational progress Research findings indicate that when a positivehomeschool relationship exists and w hen parents are highly supportiveof their children's educational endear ors. the school performance ofstudents increases in a positive direction From a practical standpoint.when parents and teachers are communicating with each other. they willcertainly be more likely to handle behavior problem~ than if suchlinkages do not exist. (73. 83. 92)

Finally, there are some ir amine signals that teachers look foi whenattempting to identify classroom hehas lot problems early 17. 21, 58. 65)Some of these al e as follow

1

2

4

5

10

A drastic change in a student's behavior or routine may indicate achange in the life context of that student. A child who is not mallyoutgoing and who suddenly becomes w ithdi aw n is usually signalingfor help.A student who exhibits extreme behavior indices usually has somedysfunction in tom,: of human functioning For example, anextremely aggressive child needs immediate attention and assis-tance in reorganizing her or h.s behavior A child who is verylistless may he telling the teacher that she of he is abused,malnourished, or not getting proper lest of attention at home Donot allow these extremes to go unattended. they can develop intoseveie discipline problemsA student who is always unprepared. constantly disorganized. andgenerally unable to handle basic classroom routines is indicating tothe teacher that she or he is in need of "organizational help:* Sucha student, if allowed to continue in this manner. will eventuallyhave a negative effect on other students and generate other prob-lems for herself or himself and the teacherA student who is unable to accept even the most basic authoritylimits necessary for classroom management should receive im-mediate attention "the "I don't have to do that'' syndrome cancreate a climate of chaos in the classroom and will only havenegative effects on ever; one involvedThe student and the teacher who have role conflicts and/or person-ality clashes early in the school year are. if left unattended, headedfor more severe problems later in the school year' The teacher.upon recognizing such a situation nerds to examine his or her part

in the conflict as well as assessing the student s part By resolvingthe problem early in the school year. everyone can have a moreproductive !ear rung eS per ience.

Additional indicators of pending behavior problem, include a poorattendonce record, continuous problems with completing assignments.ongoing conflicts with peers. uncorrected health problem,. severe con-flicts in the home setting, and related teacher attitudes and or schoolfactors that may be encouraging chs-upusc student behavim )See t83) )

In essence. research indicates that teachers and pal crust can preventmany serious student behavior problems by identifying them early andby formulating plans to correct such behav um, Through obser v mg,

counseling, and communicating with students, teachers, and parents. apositive relationship can he formed. and thus a majorif, of disciplineproblems prevented from taking place

POSITIVE RESPONSES TO STUDENTBEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

In any group setting. behav ion that disrupts the functioning of others isundesirable It is, hou.eser, natural that some conflict occurs in small orlarge group settings such as the ..1..ssroom. Teachers who expectstudents to behave ideally every day are going to he frustrated In theirefforts to work with children and young people in .1 positive manner.Children, like adults, have strong feelings about themselves and others,and sometime, these feelings emerge in conflict with those of othi rs Aclassroom without problems of some kind would be unreal. The mostpositive view of the classroom recognizes the possibilities of student andteacher behavior problems, while at the same time attempting to design a

setting where they are minimized and handled anpropnatek . (27. 42. 60,94)

The question most frequently asked by first-year teachers is What isthe best way to deal with discipline problems' Of course, there is nosingle answer. Researchers have explored a variety of techniques I'm use

in handling classroom behavior problems While one approach may workeffectively in one situation, it may he totally ineffectiv e in a differentcontext There are, however, social practices that classroom teachersand researchers have found to be effective in dealing with classroombehavior problems.

Utilize a Preventive ApproachMany behavior problems can he pre% clued when the te,wher knows

the students he or she is working with. has a well organized program ofstudies. exhibits an aura of confidence in his of her own teaching style.has a sense of humor, and is inxolxed ith the students to a meaningfulmanner Sonic practiLes that teaLhers have found useful in getting theschool year oft to a good start !mimic the following. (1) sending 'gettingto know you'. letters to students befoie school opens. (2) visiting or%1111ns patents of the students w ho will he in then classroom. (3) utilizingthe initial part of the sxho.)1 year to establish positiv e ielationships withthe students, and (4) organizing the classroom around the needs (de-velopmental, soLial. and educational) of the students who will be in theclassroom By utilizing these and other pracliccs. teachers can presentmany classroom problems from taking place. (54. 58. 71)

Establish Fair LimitsResearch Indicates that when students under,,tand w hat is expecled of

them. then behavior is more consistent. mote Lonstiuclive, and morereflective of what the teacher desires in the dassroom. It has beenfurther established that when students perceive classroom inks andlimits as fair and leasonable, they behave in productive ways. It is

advisable, therefole, to establish a few needed rules at the beginning ofthe school year Long lists of do's and don't's confuse students and givethem a negative impression of w hat learning is all about. When studentsare Involved in setting these limits and, ot are able to the need forsuch limits, many group behav lot problems can he pre ented. Foiexample. when students understand the need for liming the number ofindividuals at a learning station, usually they will Lowly. Students(especially those who lack self-management skills) desire some directionand limits from an adult so that they can function effectively in theclassroom In many classrooms student beha\ toi problems ok.a.in be-cause ('nuts have not been set of hi:Louse the established [ides do notmake sense. (54. 6'. 861

Set a Positive ExampleClassroom teachers can provide students with an exemplary model of

how to behave and learn The teacher who is well organized and

12

enthusiastic about the subevt matte' n vertam to infecl at least somestudents with a smular &sire to learn. The teacher ssho is disorganized,unmotivated. and cy nical is ins Inns students to misbehase. Actor d-ing to research findings, teat hers ssho listen to students. has e a relevantcurriculum. and ins oh e students in avuse learning has e fester behas wrproblems than do their less ins oh, ed counterparts (2. 20. 33. 431

Restore Order When a Problem OccursWhen a discipline problem ()Lem, in he classroom, students are

snatching to see host the teacher ss ill handle the situation The restorationof order is the first pi writ) Identify ss here the problem esists and directyour efforts toss ard restoring the class to an orderly routine Mordemotional outbursts sshivh often lead to further disruption and seise nouseful purpose. If the problem is a minor one. treat it as such and shrevtthe student(s) to return to stork If a more serious problem esists. youmay ssant to take the student from the classroom and has e the aide oranother adult ssatvh the class temporarily By vonstruvusely dealing %kiththe situation. you ss ill demonstrate to the students that you are in vontrolof things and feel at ease in the classroom. (19. 55, 68)

Handle Your Own ProblemsWhenever Possible

A very important research finding is that people ssho ehibit a sense ofcontrol and direction are tressed as effeclise leaders This is vertambtrue of classroom teachers The teacher ssho is vonstantly sendingdisruptive students to the print ipar s otive is ins rung further trouble andmay eventually lose total vontrol of the students. While there may besituations that ss arrant outside help. as old delecaung classroom man-agement to others ss henes el possible Students respond posiusely toteachers ssho are able to manage then %.%n dasst oorns, Es en thedisruptise student is impressed by the teavher m tonuol and is morelikely to improve her or his behas roi ss ith suvh a leather than ssith onessho must alss s search for the pi inv,pal to handle problems. 119. 56. 60)

Locate the Real l roblemIn far too many vases student bcliasKii problems e dealt ss ith in the

immediacy of occurrence Once order has been restored to the dass-

13

v.)

room, examine the situation more thoroughly Was the behavior reflec-tive of a continuous student problem' Is the student utilizing thisbehavior to avoid come with the real problem? Does the situationreflect a studentteacher value conflict? As the teacher am I over-reacting to beim', an that is really a normal part of human development''Are conditions in the classroom, at home, or in the community prompt-log students to misbehave'' The answers to these questions Lan help yfind out what the real problem is (2. 73. 94)

Change the Classroom EnvironmentWhen Needed

When students are constantly disruptive. this may be a signa! that theclassroom setting needs reorganizing In some cases ther- may be toomany students in the room for orderly learning to take place. Mosthuman beings respond negatively to overcrowding Beyond [educing thenumber of students in the classroom, teachers can attempt to maximizethe space available by employing small-group seating arrangements orby using corridors (Miele possible) and other space within the school.Maximum use of "outdoor learning" centers can ilso be effectivein reducing discipline problems. (37. 47, 54. 65)

Provide Alternatives toUndesirable Behavior

Develop a set of alternatives that students can use in learning tomanage then behavior positively. A common discipline problem is thestudent who yells or jumps to get the teacher's attention. Develop analternative whereby students can achieve !hen goal without causing amajor disturbance in the classroom. Research also indicates that teacherscan benefit from developing alternative behaviuis in then teachingstyles. thus using different 1-chaviors according to he individual charac-teristics of students For example, in some eases a firm voice is effectivein communicating with students, while in other situations a gentle voiceis more appropriate Keep in mind that while alternatives are effective inmaintaining classroom order, flit-, are not the an.nrty to disciplineproblems. Eventually the teacher and the student must resolve theproblem that is causing the misbehavior (8. 27. 40, 58)

14

7 G

Help Students Understand theConsequences of Their Behavior

The sooner students are able to perceive the consequences of thenbehavior, the greater the possibilities arc for improvement in theirapproach to life This is why it is so important foi teachers (and parents)to utilize discipline approaches that ultimately bring students to therealization the their negative behav cur has detrimental effects on them-selves as well as others When a student can see how his of her actionsmade others feel badly and, in turn, caused others to has e negativefeelings toward him or her, a basis for changing the situation then exists.Likewise, reasonable corrective measures canif applied when theproblem is still solvablehelp students realize that positive behavior ismore conducive to successful group functioning than are negativeactions. Research indicates there is a hidden message in this practice forteachers, too' For example, disorganised classrooms, poorly plannedinstructional units, and hostile teacher attitudes toss aid students have adegrading effect on student self concepts which is certain to fosterdiscipline problems (7, 27,10, 57)

Make Provisions for a"Time Out" Space

All human beinl.;, have a tolerance level hes and which self control islost / ome cases (especial!> with children who have never benefittedfrom having self space ) a student's tolerance level is very los+, indeed.These students are, in such cases, signaling to us their n..c.d for time toorganize their behavior so that the. can fun,tion better in a groupProviding a place v hew disruptive students can go to think about theirbehavior, gain control of then '.motions, and organize themselves morecoherently can not onl) alleviate mans problem but also pros islefrarnewurk for students to sole then own problems Once again thispractice is very .eievant to helping teachers handle then km n problems.There should be a place and resources in the school that leachers can usein 'getting themselv es togethe. , hen conditions exist v hoc they needsome 'time out. Classrooms where only large-group instruction is usedare not conduove to providing students and teachers with the pen sonal

space'' needed to function effectively. (19, 65, 77)

IS

Help Students Modify Their BehaviorResearch indicates that when students learn way s to modify then

behavior. they are acquiring self-management skills needed for develop-ing positive approaches to classroom functioning An effective way touse the nrocedute is to have disruptive students keep a daily log of thenbehavior patterns Some teachers use a check sheet and. at the end of theday. review the progress made by the student in eliminating undesirablebehavior This is a transitional behas lot management technique becausethe ultimate goal is for the student to reach a les el of maturity where s; hecan monitor hei of his own behavior. (17. 20. 81. 91)

Use Group Counseling Procedures ToPromote Positive Behavior

Group behavior problems often emerge as a result of role conflict.misunderstanding of group functions, and, or lack of gi oup cohesiveness.An effective method of solving. clarifying. and possibly preventing groupconflict is the use of group counseling sessions Such sessions can heused to involve students in satire clarification. classroom behavior rules.and pr oblem solving and to provide them w oh opportunities to developteaming skills Probably one of the most valuable results of theseses,ions is the understanding that can he developed among studentsabout their function as a group and about then individual relationshipswith each other and with the teacher. (4. 14. 30. 52. 78)

Avoid Reinforcing Negative BehaviorsBy the very act of attending to a behavior pattern. the teacher.

unknowingly, is reinforcing it Ignoring minor nuances and incidentalclassroom behavior s can usually L.:crease their occurrence. Redirectinga student's behavior toward more constructive activities is another wayof failing to reinforce the undesirable helms lot. Cueing behavior (givingthe student subtle but clear suggestions on how to change his or herbehavior) can be an effective way to help the student move from anundesirable point toss ard another, more acceptable place in the class-room For example. "John. I think you've spent enough time in groupwork. I'd like you to help me clean these work areas With thisapproach the teacher as oids dwelling on John's negative behavior and

16

helps him make a transition to a more positive role in the classroomDwelling on minor student disturbances van only lead students toincrease their disruptive behavior. (24. 31. 40. 58)

Invite Students To Succeedin the Classroom

Self-concept research indicates that successful students are invited toparticipate in the learning process in a mearangful way Teavhers whogive students a great deal of verbal and nonverbal attention usually findsuch students to be very positive in then approach to funvtioning, in theclassroom. Research also indicates that while teachers have little troublesending positive invitations to students whom they perceive as able andworthwhile. they are much less effective in doing this with problemstudents.'' When students who are having problems begin to teceiv,_positive messages from the teacher (on a continuous basis), they appearto become more productive human beings. The cycle of negativemessagesnegative behaviornegative messages must be replaced witha positive behavior cycle (35. 41. 55. 71)

Dealing with Cases of Pathological BehaviorIn some situations a student may has c uev eloped pathological he-

has patterns Such pattei ns are often exhibited either in the student'stotal inability to function in the group o in hei or his hostile andaggressive interaction with peers and teachers. This type of student vanonly have a negative effect on herself or himself and on the otherstudents. The classroom is not the plave to attempt to solve suchpsy _hological problems Consult with the appropriate school officals.parents, and community agencies in an attempt to refer the student forprofessional care. Indeed. in vci; severe vases the student may need tohe removed from the classroom until restored to a higher level of mentalhealth Once an appropriate level of mental stability has been achieved.the student can gradually he nunstieamed back into the classroom. (18.86.93)

There is a variety of positive responses teachers can use in dealingwith discipline problems. Many of these responses and approaches havebeen reviewed in this part of the book It is worth noting that no single

approach to classroom discipline exists Rather, research and effectivepractice have shown that it is how the teacher uses the differentresponses with students in the classroom that makes the difference.

THE TEACHER AND STUDENTBEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

The classroom teacher is the key person in establishing a basis forpositive student behavior, Thew are at least five teacher behaviorcategories that when combined, have a tremendous influence on howstudents progress in the classroom because they set the stage forintroducing students to a "way if life in the classroom These be-haviors are modeling, dooming, interat tine, responding, and a S ACS mg.

ModelingTeachers express a great deal about classroom management through

their behavior The teacher who uses a loud voice every minute of theday will soon find the students doing the same thing The followingconversation is indicative of how we often bring about student behav wrwe dislike.

Mr, Fern Ms Edwards, I certainly appreciate your visiting myclassroom today Did you notice how disoiderly thestudents are?

Ms. Edwards. Yes, I did May I make a suggestion"Mr. Fern. Why. yes'Ms Edwards If I were you one of the fir st things I would do is dean

up this room'

Similarly, well-organized, personable. and alert teachers usually havestudents Who behave in fi rendly and positiv e way s If student behavior isa constant problem, the first thing to examine is your own teachingbehavior.

I. Are you organized in your own teaching behavior?2. Have you established a direction for students by y0llr behavior?3 Vs ten a problem occurs, do you respond as a person in control of

things, or do you overreact"

Various observation studies of teacher behas lots indicate that manydiscipline problems are rooted in the inadequate models students have to

Ix

follow Teachers who set positive examples are utilizing a very effectiveinstnictional technique modeling (2. 22. 33. 46. 71)

DesigningThe classroom is an environment that. by Jesign. influences student

behavior Poorly designed classroom, can encourage student disciplineproblems. For example. ens ironments that are overcrowded and thatlack "human space" for students to move from one activity to anotherincrease the chances of students' misbehaving. Research indicates thatstudents are more likely to behas e incorrectly in classrooms where thereare no physical lines of movement than in those that have such limits.The classroom with rows of desks rather than flexible seating arrange-mcnts is not conducive to productive student behavior. Students andteachers need tirac to see and interact with each other if they are to formpositive relationships. (19. 37. 47. 60)

There is another vital part of a well-designed classroom. The 'socialand psychologu.al design" of the classroom can either promote positiveactions or encourage dim tiptoe helms, km When students ale able to finda place where they ale valued. have chances for positive interactionswith others. and can develop their 'lido [dual talents. they usually arepositive in their behav on Studies on disruptoe behaviot indicate thatsuch students exhibit negative behav lot responses in situations wherethey are neither v allied nor made a part of the cl,osroJrn process (6. 13.24. 35. 40)

The follow mg questions ale useful in attempting to examine the kind ofclassroom you have designed:

I How are student work areas designed? Art; seating ariangementsconducive to studentteacher communicadon0

2 If a learning centers approach is used in the classroom. me thecenters well organized and clearly defined'' Can students movef mm center to center without disrupting each other's activities''

3 Does the classroom have a plusant appearance and reflect thek:nds of learning outcomes desned of the students? For example.arc student work samples on di. play?

4 Is the classroom designed to pros wie for the students' social needsas well as for their individual needs? Do students have time duringthe day foi mfoimal socialization? Is each student involved inopportunities to develop individual kills and talents''

c Does the design of the classroom allow foi parental involvement inthe educational process" Parent teaches communication is essen-tial foi developing meaningful student behavior guidelines

Classrooms that are drab m appearance. poorly organized, over-crowded. and in general too institutional in nature are places wherestudents perform poorlyboth intelle%.tually and sooally In contrast,pleasantly designed classrooms w here students are involved in pi mitre-aye learning stimulate positive behav ior among students and teacher s.(27 37. 58)

InteractingTeachers who systematically work at Interacting with students have

fewer discipline problems than do teachers who minimize their com-munication with students This premise applies to nonverbal as well asverbal interaction between teachers and students. Observational studiesof teacher behavior Indicate that teachers interao (verbally and nom er-bally) more with students they like than with students they dislike thuscre,aing many behavior problems that could be avoided. (4. 9. 27. 31. 71)

Students have reported to counselors. parents, and researchers thepositive reinforcement that they received when a teacher took the time tofocus on something they accomplished To be ignored. treated as a 'slowlearner," or isolated from classroom events does not foster positivestudent behavior Some teachers have found the videotaping of theirclassroom behavior very valuable In changing then classroom interactionpatterns Indeed. when teachers perceive students in positive ways. theychange their behavior patter ns to a more meaningful level (7.28. 33, 71.88)

Interaction behaviors that seem to prompt positive strident reactioninclude the teacher's use of "we" statements, teacher contact withstudents while they are working. and the teacher's use of gestures thatindicate to the students that they are valued Contrast the follow ing twoteaching scenes.

A "Mary. that project is coming along nicely you might vs ant totalk vs ith Mr Brogan about the painting design."

B "Mary, are you still building that protect'' My. almost ever yoneready to paint today'"

In Scene A vs e have a very suppoinve teacher who is vJevvrng thestudent as an indiv idual and is ploy iding further direction for completingthe project Scene B. in contrast. is a very negative teacher interactionwith the student. Certainly. the student must feel inadequate. andpossibly hostile toward those in the classroom, after 'NUL h an experience.

20

RespondingThe formation of student behav 'ors is in large pal t due to the way that

adults respond to their early attempts at behav tor ExLellenLe (bothacademically and socially) is not aLlneved all at onceit is a processduring which people refine and extend their skills. This process isdependent upon teacher responses to student attempts to improve thenfunctioning in the classroom ResearLh in the field of human psychologyclearly indicates that negative responses to undesirable behavior areineffective in changing student behav lot patterns. Nut only are theyineffective as discipline methods. but even worse they tend to elicitfurther negative behavior 117. 73. 80. 90)

Teachers have found that by forming a positive set of responses todifferent student behav lois. they can affeLt students in positive ways.For example. the follow mg situation happens quite often in classrooms

"Lisa. you've been out two days now Please see me at recess becauseyou'll need to get that work made up today!"

Now read the following response and ask yourself which appioachpromotes a positive atmosphere between teacher and student.

Lisa. we missed you! It's good to have you hack Janet. could youshow Lisa what we've been working on and help her out' Thanks.Janet!"

In the second situation the teacher welcomes Lisa hack. encouragesothers to help her. and in general Lreates a we like you' feeling in theclassroom Even in difficult situations. positive teacher iesponses aredesu able.

"Patti. you must not feel well today' You know pushing is not ourway of doing things. You spend some, time ,done until you Lan act morelike the Paul I know

This teacher's response indicates that Paul can behave belie' and helpshim regroup his thoughts hefote rejoining the group While these will becases in which teacher I esponses must he firm. authoritative. andfor ceful in order to maintain classroom Lontiol. it is evident in theresearch that positive responses are most (Aleut%e in limiting anthorsolving classroom discipline pi oblems (40. 58. 77. 91)

21

1J

AssessingIt is no great surprise that students who are assessed as academically

weak also appear on "disruptive behavior lists.' Likewise. we shouldnot be surprised to find that te,icheis who assess their teaching, behaviorsperiodically have fewer discipline problems than do teachers who hold totheir cherished patterns of 'teaching the same way as last year Theassessment process. when used to foster improved student and teacherbehavior, can be a valuable method of making classrooms meaningfulplaces for everyone (2. 9, 45, 46)

Teacher assessment of student learning is important because of theeffect it can have on the direction set for helping that student become aproductive and self-managed human being. The problem withdeficiency-oriented assessment is that it has a negative effect on studentself concept, teacher perception of the student. and peer relationshipswithin the classroom The Lase of Jimmy Hall brings this point intofocus

Jimmy, in kindergarten, was diagnosed as having speech problems,club feet, low I Q.ind minimal hearing loss By third grade he wasfurther assessed as a slow learnei who must have at least some braindamage. At no point during this time period has any teacher becomehis friend, realized how his father s death affected Jimmy, of com-municated with his mother about the problems faced by the family.

The term assessment implies that we "take stock of Ind "set acourse with a more positive direction Unfortunately, and in too manyLases. assessment is used to sort students into categories of winners andlosers Ilesealch shows that where assessment procedure, iire used topromote audent development, the students most often re.,pond byimprov mg their behavior and school performance. The following studentreactions to &violable teacher assessment behaviors confirm what class-loom research studies have found:

Janet Mr. Elsworth was quite deal with me that I had problemswith writing skills. But that vi as okay because he helped meset up a plan to improve and constantly pointed out to me howI had improved'

Ftank Coach Glen set high expectations for himself, and our teamfollowed his example. He had a way of showing you where toimprove and how to improve without making yon feel bad orbelittled

Rita My third Dade teacher changed my Rife Until then I thought I

12

was dumb She showed me how to do things. stuck by me.and helped my parents realize I was okaygoing to be a finepet son.

Most students are willing to accept their weaknesses when theirstrengths are highlighted and they are given an opportunity to improve.In essence. teacher behaviors such as modeling, designing. menuresponding, and (13105 Sini; are, tI,COlding to research. very influential ineither promoting or delimiting student behavior problems. (19, 27. 71, 93)

THE SCHOOL: LEADERSHIP STYLEINFLUENCES STUDENT BEHAVIOR

Classroom teachers (even those whc function in self-contained set-tings) are not the only influential role models wh ) affect studentbehavior. The school is an ecological system in which people arecontinuously influencing each other's behavior One very importantaspect of this en, ironment is the leadership style of the educators whooperate the school While the principal is often viewed as the school'sleader, it must be noted that every person in the school exhibits leader-ship in some capacity or role. When the behaviors of these peopleare combined, a style of human interaction that has a high imptu I onhow students behave emerges (6, 28, 34, 38)

A critical review of the research indicates that leadership styles canpositively of negatively affect students' behavior patterns and theiracademic performance Related to this is the fact that many "leaders"try hard to fulfill the role expectations set by their superiors. Jobdescriptions and role expectations often infer a desired leadership styleto the person applying for the job. For example.

NEEDED, Middle School Counselor. Position available for Fall1980. Master's Degree in Guidance and Counseling required.Primary responsibilities include handling .iev ere discipline problems,working with local officials on juvenile delinquency , and taking care ofstudent dismissals due to continuous violations of school rules.

This job description Indicates that the leadership philosophy of theschool district is a deficit type of philosophy. No mention is made ofcounseling, listening, and relating to students, teacheis, andior parents.Indeed. a person with a degree in criminal justice might he best qualified

23

for this job Although this example may seem extreme. it as, unfortu-nately. indicative of the leadership sty les existent in many schools.

In contrast to the job description for a counselor, look at the follow mgadvertisement:

NEEDED' Elementary Prau tpal. Position available Fall 1980. AMaster's Degree in School Leadership is desuable. Applicant shouldhave sr me teaching experience and skills in working with people. Weneed a person who can utilize faculty talents. relate to students in apersonal manner, and involve parents and citizens in the educationalprocess. A sensitive. mature. and well-organized person w ill find thisjob most rewarding.

The emphasis in this description is on the principal's working withpeople. involving them in making decisions. and supporting them in thedevelopment of a humane learning setting Just as students tend to adoptthe expectations set by .adult~ in the school, so it is with educationalleaders.

Research indicates that the following leadership behaviors are posi-tively related to productive student behavior.

I Leaders who are visible and interact with students and teachers ona regular basis have fewer discipline problems tli n do leaders whoisolate themselves. (28)

2. When leadership is shared by the school plincipal, teachels,students, and parents. a team approach to teaching and learningemerges and usually has a positive influence on student and teacht.rbehavior. (60)

3 Leaders who are identified as open to the ideas of others (includingteachers and students) and who are willing to incorporate theseideas in school plans have a positive effect on students andteachers. (86)

4 When leader s set high expectations for those in the school to reachtoward (and provide support so that the expectations can bereached). students usually respond in positive and pi oduvtiv e ways,(71)

5 When leaders reward positive behavior and focus on the strengthsof individuals. they usually receive high pi oduvtrvity from people.(54)

6 Leaders who ar e firm. fair , and flexible in implementing schoolpolicies usually find that teachers and students are consistent andpositive in their behavior. (82)

7 Leaders who are responsive to the needs of others and who attemptto accommodate such needs have a posuiv e effect on how studentsand teachers 'elate to each other in the school setting. (4)

8 When leaders ai e predominantly chaiav tea ized as counselors. lrs-

24

tenets, problem soix els. and doers. they geneially ha\ e schoolsettings in \stitch positive human relations exist (88)

The mod .1 for people to use ,n their daily interaLtions is established bythe school leader Settings x+ here people are respeL led. made a part ofthe school. and go, en opportunities to beim\ c responsibly are a it.sult ofproductive leadership In contrast, sLhools V.here people are treated asobjects. constantly reminded to stay in then plaLe, and isolated fromthe decision-making process are indiLatixe of ineffeLtixe leadership Inorder to minimize discipline problems and loavinize posnixe studentbehavior, the leadership team (principal, Lounselors, and teachers) musthe acting as a group of deople truly interested in the Ls.ellare of the stu-dents they teach

THE CURRICULUM AND STUDENTBEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

One of the basic functions of sLhools is to proL nle students mthexpeirenLes by xx Ilia they can heLome literate and fummonal asmembers of a demoLratiL society EL en in a rtnal soLiety (in which

attic e basically oomogenous). it \Las a challenge for teachers to',:vise a Lurriculum that Lotild meet the needs of students In today's

metropolitan. technologically Lomple\. and ex ei-Lhanging soLiety. . thechallenge to formulate a 'able LutilLultim is one of the teacher , mostdifficult tasks Thus. poorly designed insuuLtional programs ha e playeda part in the continuing macase of Llassioom disLipline problems. (83)

In a society that places emphasis on the "here and noL+. it is difficultfor students to LonLenuate on subjcLts that appear to base little bearingupon then lives lima ex . v hen teachers design Lim iLulum experienLes

that help students relate current happenings to past situations. thestudents' interest nnd perfoimanLe are likLly to impioLe Some pionas-ing techniques teachers Lan use to make content it:It:sant to studentreeds are as folios'., ( ) using analogies, (2) insolL mg students incritically analyzing then culture. (3) haying students chi onologicadytrace the emergence of Lui rent social problems. (4) providing options sostudents can select topics of study. and (5) integrating aLademiL subjectsinto the cateet and occupational objeLtiLe1 Of students hey'. students.for example. understand the skills they L+ ill need to perform their desiredcareer roles InstitiLtional units that are related to the personal lives of

25

students still have a posime effect on student beha%ior patterns. 115, 19,59)

Students who are assigned insuuLtional tasks that arc below or abovetheir ability levels tend to perform in less than effective way s A lockstep" curriculum is inadequate to meet 0 diverse ability levels ofstudents Many disrupt:Ye students ale also has ing diffkulty masteringcontent that is unrelated to their skill level In the same respect, manystudents are not challenged by the curriculum While there is no pet-fedcurriculum student match, It is esident that well-planned curriculumsthat are related to student abilities w ill deL lease 'elated student behto, torproblems. (28, 38, 76, 85)

Research findings in psychology and s000logy indicate that both asindividuals and as group members, people respond best in situationswhere they are challenged and gisen a setting to a;.tisely meet thechallenge Many students report that their best teachers were those whohelped them reach a goal they never thought ayhtesable In studies thattsk students to identify what they like best about school, the followingresponses are most often listed (38, 55,

My teacher' She really makes what we do importantThe things we do' Last w eels w e %isited a nuclear power plantthat

really made our science class lively that weekArt class' In art we do things and have a chance to improse on whatwe do.Mr Kaiser's class' There is no fooling around in there. Yo' knowwhat is expected and he really teaches

An experience-based curriculum that is accompanied l.y directedlearning pioyes,cs can he effective in helping students learn and beha%pioductisely Insob,:ng students in selecting and of designing certainast,eets of the curriculum is yet another way of promoting positivestudent attitudes toward school Instructional programs that ale tooabstiact its content. poorly ingamicd, unrelated to student needs andabilities. and lacking in coherence ale among the major causes ofdist uptive behavan (26, 43, 91)

THE COMMUNITY AND STUDENTBEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

While teachers can rand should) use a Natio) of approaches in dealingwith LItt,,sloom discipline pmoblems, no iey ley% of this subJeLt would be

26

adequate without an examination of the relationship between the com-munity setting and studen: behavior problems The school is not anisland unto itself (69) It is no surprise. for example. that communitiesthat have a high crime rate have a corresponding high rate of schoolvandalism While many people still believe that such behavior problemsare restricted to urban schools, the current research indicates they existin all areas of our society In examining schoolcommunity, arrange-ments that seem to promote positive student behavior, the followingitems are of significance:

1 Schools that utilize community resources and facilities in theirinstructional program find schoolcommunity relations to be im-proved. (59)

2 Communities that actively support the schools by continuallyattempting to improve their quality minimize disruptive behaviorand vandalism. (19)

3 Vandalism, delinquent crime rates. and classroom discipline prob-lems are reduced in communities 1, here students are given mean-ingful work experiences and are involved in directed recreationalactivities (such as in the extended school day program). (15)

4 Schools that use citizen advisory councils on a continuous basisreport that the citizenry becomes more aware of problems such asclassroom discipline and is usually supportive of teachers in theirattempts to solve these problems. (19, 92)

5 Schools and communities 1, here students are given responsibilitiesfor managing their behavior and caring for the facilities report fewerbehavior problems and less vandalism than, do communities wherestudents are not expected to participate in keeping things clean andsafe. (3, 50)

Community involvement is vital to preventing and corlectir,b studentbehavior problems Communityschool linkages such as cooperativecareer development programs, community -based school evaluation proj-

ects, ongoing advisory councils, shared extended school day and schoolyear programs, public information campaigns, and other cooperativeefforts have been used effectively to create positive school environmentsin many communities. The key to preventing school vandalism andexcessive school discipline problems resides in positive leadership inboth the school and the community. (19. 83)

Where school vandalism and disruptive student behavior are severeproblems, the community can play a major role in resolving the situation.For example a common problem is the conflict over accepted values andexpected behavior in the home, school, and community. When thedivergence of home values and school values is extreme, classroom and

27

school discipline problems seem to increase An effective way of dealingwith this conflict is to develop a school community dialogue by whichdifferences can be resolved and a common goal established so thatstudents trderstand that there is a desirable way of behaving, applica-ble to all facets of the community. (3)

Community attitudes toward the school system are significantly re-lated to how students respond to their educational experience. When the

predominant view of the schools is negativ e and or hostile, studentsappear to adopt a similar perspective and exhibit uncooperative and ev enaggressive behavior toward school personnel. By forming a communityinvolvement plan and promoting the positive aspects of school servicesto the ,_ommunity. a beginning can be made in building more functionalschoolcommunity relationships. An authenni, partnership, however,will occur only when teachers, parents, and citizens listen to each otherand cooperatively design programs that reflect their combined concern(92)

The myth that classroom discipline problems can he handled best bythe teacher alone is not supported by research findings. The evidenceindicates that every member of the community influences the waystudents behav e Indeed, the most current research deafly indicates thatwhen parents. citizens, and teacher s begin early in the life of the child toset a positive example of aLLepte.lbehal ior (and continue this effort), theresults are very positive in terms of student social behavior and academicachievement (51)

EPILOGUE

"Conditions for learning, whether in the classroom or in theworkplace, shape human responses to many issues. Teachers shapeat least some of these learning conditions in the classroom. Parents,of course, influence another facet of the student's life at home. Themos' promising approaches for dealing with disruptive behavior inschoo' have emphasized educational and support activities thatstrengthen parent and teacher skills in dealing proactively withstudent behavior. Skilled teachers and knowledgeable parents are thebest "tools" available for promoting positive student behavior.Education programs for parents and professional development oppor-tunities for teachers that focus on increasing their power t influencestudents' lives in a positive direction are ultimately the mosteffective meth, ls for responding to behavior problems.

28

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19

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82 Stoops. E , and Stoops, 1 K Discipline or Disaster Bloomington. Ind PhiDelta Kappa. 1972

81 Sw ick Kevin .1 kfainraming Produente Student Behmior Washington,D C National Education Association. 1977

84 "Challenging Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers' Per-ceptions of Minority Group Children A Res Itnt of Research The Journal ofNegro Education. Spring 1974

85 Swift. NI . and Spnack, NI 'Clanfying the Relationship Between AcademicSuccess and Overt Classroom BehaYior Et, epnonal Children, October1969

86 Tanner. Laurel Cla croon) Discipline for Lift's tie Tern lung and LearningNew York Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1978

87 Thompson. G H Discipline and the High School 'reacher lice ClearingHouse. May 1976

88 Tittle. B 'Disruptive Children' Check the Compatibility I,evel of TheirTeachers'' Dimensions.March 1978

89 Tyrrell, R , and Natko, J Helping leachers :Solve Classroom Problems,'Middle School Journal. November 1977

90 Van Horn. R W "Effects of the Use of Four Types of Teaching Models onStudent Self-Concept of Academic Ability and Attitude Toward TheTeacher Aineri«in Edi «itional Reseal-ill Journal, Fall 1976.

91 Volknor. C . Langstaff. A , and Higgins. NI Stria luring the Classroom forSuccess Columbus. Ohio C F Merrill, 1974

92 Wardle. Frances The Quality of Community Often Leads :o Low QualityInner-City Schools /Aar/non. Fall 1)77.

91 Whiteside, Marilyn "School Discipline The Ongoing Crisis the ClearingHouse. December 1975

94 Wilde, J , and Sommers, P 'Teaching Disniptive Adolescents A GameWorth Winning." Phi Delta Kappan. January 1978

32

%...sL'

EXPANDED RESOURCES FOR THE 1987 PRINTING

Blanco, R F Prescriptions for Children with Learning and Adjustment Problems 2ded. Springfield, Ill : Charles C Thomas. 1982.

Bronfenbrenner, U "Alienation and the Four Worlds of Childhood ' Phi Delta Kap-pan 67, no 6 (1986) 430.35

Byrnes. D "Cipher in the Classroom " Childhood Education 62. no 2 (1985) 91-97

Chamberlin, L 1 Coping with Today's Kids Springfield, Ill Charles C. Thomas,1984

Charles. C M Elementary Classroom Management New York. Longman, 1983.

Duke, D L , ed Helping Teachers Manage Classrooms Alexandria. Va. Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1982.

Elkind, D The Hurried Child Growing Up Too Fast Too Soon Reading. Mass..Addison-Wesley, 1981.

All Grown Up and No Place to Go Teenagers in Crisis. Reading. Mass..Addison-Wesley. 1984

Fairchild, T Crisis Intervention Strategies for School-Based Helpers. Springfield, Ill .

Charles C. Thomas, 1986.

Fontana, D Classroom Control Understanding and Guiding Classroom Behavior.New York: Methuen Books, 1986.

Gilstrap. R , ed Toward Self-Discipline A Guide for Parents and Teachers. Washing-ton, D C . Association for Childhood Education International, 1981.

Glasser, W Control Theory in the Classroom. New York. Harper and Row. 1986

Lakebrink, J M Children's Success in School Teacher-Learner Compatibility in theLearning Place. Springfield, Ill Charles C. Thomas. 1983.

McDaniel, T "A Primer on Classroom Discipline Principles Old and New PhiDelta Kappan 68, no 1 (1986): 63-66

McKinnon, A J and Kiraly, 1 Pupil Behavior, Self Control and Social Skills in theClassroom. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1984

Miller, M. Childstress. New York Doubleday Publishers. 1982.

Osborn, D. K , and Osborn, J D Discipline and Classroom Management. 2d ed.Athens, Ga.: Education Associates, 1981

Phi Lambda Theta AdolescentsNature and Nurture Bloomington, Ind Phi LambdaTheta. 1979 (4101 East 3d St.).

Purkey, W The Inviting Relationship Englewood Cliffs. N J. Prentice-Hall. 1987

Rich. J Innovative School Discipline Springfield, Ill.. Charles C Thomas, 1985

Smith. C A Promoting the Social Development of Young Children. Strategies andActivities Palo Alto, Calif.: Mayfield Publishing. 1982

Swick, K The Developing Teacher. Champaign. III. Supes Pubk,hing, 1987

Swick, K J , and Hanley, P E Stress and the Classrown Teacher, 2d ed Washing-ton, D.0 National Education Association, 1985.

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