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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 400 185 SE 059 057

TITLE Scientific Literacy for All.INSTITUTION Brevard County Public Schools, Melbounre, FL.PUB DATE 95

NOTE 83p.

PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Curriculum Development; *Educational Change;

*Educational Strategies; Elementary SecondaryEducation; Science Curriculum; Scientific Concepts;*Scientific Literacy; Teaching Methods; Technology;Thematic Approach

IDENTIFIERS Reform Efforts; Stakeholders

ABSTRACTThis document resulted from the efforts of the

Brevard County (Florida) Science Leadership Team, a group of scienceteachers with a wide spectrum of experiences and philosophies. Itcontains a series of recommendations based on national trends forchange in curriculum. Sections include Scientific Literacy for All,Stakeholders and Their Roles, Communication Among Stakeholders,Recommended Science Content Core, Spiral Progression, ConceptConnections Using Themes, Home-Based Learning, Technology, TeachingStrategies, Assessment, and Program Evaluation. Contains 49references. (Jitti)

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Brevard County Public Schools1995

David E. Sawyer, Ed.D., Superintendent2 BEST COPY AVIMLABLE

SCHOOL BOARD OF BREVARD COUNTYEducational Services Facility

2700 St. Johns StreetMelbourne, Florida 32940-6699

SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS

Lynn Demetriades, ChairmanPaula E. Veibl, Vice Chairman

Roberta (Bobby) BechtelFran Pickett

William L. Powell

SUPERINTENDENT

Dr. David E. Sawyer

ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTDEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM SERVICES

Dr. Daniel T. Scheuerer

Office of Secondary ProgramsMarjorie Ebersbach, Director

Office of Elementary ProgramsWalter Taylor, Director

3

. .3mments

--aership Team of Brevard Countycio Ginger Davis2700 St. Johns StreetMelbourne, FL 32940-6699email: davisg@n s 1. brevard.k 12.flus

Recommendations for ScienceK-12

s: I

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

K- 12 Science Framework Task Team

Ginger DavisFred BartlesonBritt FultonJana GabrielskiTheresa GuthrieKathleen MeindertsmaRaul MontesJayne MosherKay ParkerRon VanderveerPhil Rose

Marjorie EbersbachDiane OkoniewskiWalt Taylor

Science Resource TeacherSuntree Elementary School

Rockledge High SchoolMcNair Magnet School

Space Coast Middle SchoolSouthlake Elementary School

Cocoa High SchoolSurfside Elementary School

Cape View Elementary SchoolMelbourne High School

Assistant

Advisors

Director, Secondary ProgramsDirector, Early Childhood Education

Director, Elementary Programs

Contributing AuthorsKim K. BraggPeggy CampbellJeb CarpenterRon ChapmanKen CookLouis DaughertyAl GarrWilliam F. HausmannCarolyn HolderCarolynn S. HowellRick KiperCamille LavinghousezLouis LutianSabrina MaxwellJim PedersenRichard ReganGordon ShupeCharlie ThompsonCarolyn Ward

Titusville High SchoolMelbourne High School

Hoover Junior High SchoolCocoa Beach High SchoolClearlake Middle School

Eau Gallie High SchoolJefferson Junior High School

Roosevelt SchoolSouthwest Junior High School

Palm Bay High SchoolSatellite High SchoolSatellite High School

Johnson Junior High SchoolCocoa Beach High School

Astronaut High SchoolStone Junior High SchoolStone Junior High School

Jefferson Junior High SchoolClearlake Middle School

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the following people for their significantcontributions to the science reform effort and the development of thisdocument.

Lynn AndersSuzanne Talluto AshleyPam BennettSue BorisScott DanielsonTheda HarrellMarion JohnsonDavid KeeneJim MarekNancy NicholsMarilyn O'BrienPriscilla ReamsRobin ReinhartsJean RogersAl SkelletFoster ThayerBetty WaldenJill Weaver

Merritt Island High SchoolJefferson Junior High School

Edgewood Junior High SchoolDe Laura Junior High School

Astronaut High SchoolMadison Middle SchoolMelbourne High School

Fairglen Elementary SchoolRockledge High School

Oak Park Elementary SchoolElementary Resource TeacherEnterprise Elementary School

Astronaut High SchoolDr. W. J. Creel Elementary School

Satellite High SchoolCentral Junior HighSchool

Merritt Island High SchoolSuntree Elementary School

In addition, the following groups contributed significantly to thisdocument:

American Association for the Advancement of ScienceBrevard County Schools Gifted Student ProgramSpace Coast Center for Excellence (Susan Ayars)Florida Department of Education (Marsha Winegarner)Florida Science Framework Commission (Martha Green)Florida Statewide Systemic InitiativeNational Science Teachers AssociationSouthEastern Regional Vision for Education (SERVE)

Special thanks to Barbara Austin and the Printing Services staff fortheir generous contribution to the production of this document.

Thanks also to Ellyn B. Smith and Donna Szpyrka for their supportin the development of Rubrics.

CONTENTS

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY FOR ALL

IntroductionRationale and ResearchRecommended Time Line for Implementation

679

STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR ROLES 10

COMMUNICATION AMONG STAKEHOLDERS 12

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE 14Introduction 14Grades K-2 16Grades 3-5 18

Grades 6-8 20Grades 9-11 22

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

Introduction to Spiral ProgressionExamples of the Science Content Core

242424

CONCEPT CONNECTIONS USING THEMES 32Introduction to Themes 32Interdisciplinary Unit 33Example Science Theme - Second Grade 34Example Science Theme - Fifth Grade 35Example Science Theme - Seventh Grade 36Example Science Theme - Ninth Grade 37

HOMEBASED LEARNING 38Introduction 38Activity Examples 38

TECHNOLOGY 40Introduction 40Computers in the Classroom 40The One-Computer classroom 40Computer Labs or Networks 40Laser Videodiscs 41Television/ Video Tape Player/ Computer 41

The Information Superhighway and Telecommunications 42Other Emerging Technologies 42

TEACHING STRATEGIES 43Introduction 43Teaching to a Variety of Learning Styles 43The 4-MAT Approach 46Concept Mapping 47

CONTENTS

Conflicting Viewpoints 48Cooperative Learning 48Discrepant Events 49Laboratory Investigation 49

The Learning Cycle - 5E's 50

Misconceptions (Assessing and Confronting) 51

Models 51

POE (Predict, Observe, Explore) 52Problem Solving 53Questioning Techniques 54

Reflective Thinking 54Role Playing and Simulation 55

ASSESSMENT 57Assessment for the 21st Century 57Continuous Quality Assessment 58Rubrics 60

Portfolios 62Performance Assessment 63Open-Ended Questions 63Open-Ended Labs 64

Self Assessment 64

Peer Assessment 65Teacher Observation 66Interviews 66Journals 67Products and Projects 67Graphic Organizers 68

PROGRAM EVALUATION 69

REFERENCES 70

"... Come, my friends, 'Tis not too late toseek a newer world."

-Alfred Lord Tennyson

"Understandingrather than

vocabulary shouldbe the main

purpose of scienceteaching."

Science for All Americans

IntroductionBrevard County educators have a new and exciting opportunity for

promoting excellence in science education for ALL students. Thisopportunity results from the efforts of the Brevard County ScienceLeadership Team, a group of science teachers with a wide spectrum ofexperiences and philosophies. Discussions on ideas for the future ofscience education were based on national trends for change incurriculum. After extensive research, the group reached consensus andestablished a series of recommendations to guide us in this journey.

The resources for these recommendations were major works ofresearch in science education. They were: Project 2061: Science for AllAmericans (sponsored by the American Association for theAdvancement of Science), Project on Scope, Sequence, and Coordinationof Secondary School Science (sponsored by the National ScienceTeachers Association), and Science for All Students: the FloridaPreK-12 Science Curriculum Framework (sponsored by the FloridaDepartment of Education). Central ideas from these documents are:

ALL students can learn science.Diversity enriches science classrooms.There is a body of science knowledge that is important forall students to know.The investigation of scientific processes will developenduring higher-order thinking and problem-solvingskills.

Science education driven by these central ideas should include thefollowing practices:

Science teachers are asked NOT to teach more, but to teachLESS so that it can be taught BETTER. A common core oflearning limits the ideas and skills to those which have thegreatest scientific and educational significance. Ideas andthinking skills are promoted at the expense of specializedvocabulary and memorized procedures.Students are prompted to be actively engaged in thedesign of investigations in which they participate.The existing boundaries between traditional subjectmatters are softened, so that emphasis can be placed onthe connections among the various subject matters.Students are given the opportunity to explore each of thesciences each year, in contrast to traditional curricula inwhich science is taught in discrete and separate subjects.This approach allows them to learn and retain newmaterial better in spaced intervals. In this plan, studentsare guided to learn at successively higher and higherlevels of abstraction.

9


As science teachers, we know that science is an integral part ofeveryone's life, and our goal has always been to share an appreciationfor science with all students. Science should be a lifetime pursuit thatassists individuals in responsible decision making and enriches theirview of our world. Scientific Literacy forAll leads us into the future. Ouropenness in accepting the ideas presented here can determine thesuccess of that future.

Rationale and ResearchExtensive research and a desire to best meet the needs of students

has led this committee to recommend an integrated science approachfor grades K through 11. Science for All Students (Florida Departmentof Education, 1993) recommends that students be provided witheducational opportunities that enhance process, problem-solving, andcritical-thinking skills. Current educational literature emphasizes thisneed for reform.

Science for All Americans (Rutherford and Ahlgren,1990) statesthat the nation can no longer ignore the science education of anystudent. In order to involve more students, we must change the wayscience courses are structured, sequenced, and taught (Pearsall, 1992).

Scope, Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science:The Content Core (Pearsall, 1993) states that the typical U.S. scienceprogram discourages real learning not only in its overemphasis of facts,but in its very structure which inhibits students from making importantconnections between facts. In addition, traditional assessment methodshave placed an emphasis on the recall of science facts. The currentreform suggests a move towards a more balanced assessment whichincludes a mastery of concepts, skills, and processes (Pearsall, 1993).The ACT Science Reasoning Test now emphasizes scientific reasoningrather than recall of scientific content.

Current reform initiatives advocate a focus on key concepts,appropriately sequenced, manageable in their scope, and coordinatedwithin the science disciplines. Students should encounter concepts,principles, and laws of science at successively higher levels of abstractionover several years, making it possible for them to truly learn andunderstand science. Earth/space science, biology, chemistry, and physicsshare topics and processes. Teaching strategies that coordinate thesefour disciplines lead students to see the interdependence of the sciencesand the relevance to their lives.

The Florida Science Curriculum Framework, Science for All Students,provides a rationale supporting an integrated curriculum based on thefollowing underlying principles:

4. Science connects concepts and processes toeveryday events.Schools should provide a learning environmentconducive to teaching and learning science.

Not all science learning takes place in school.Both the natural and cultural environment greatlycontribute to scientific literacy.People learn science in different ways.Instructional programs and teaching strategiesshould accommodate diverse learning styles.Excellence in science teaching and learning growsfrom a commitment shared by teachers, students,parents, and administrators.Science learning promotes the evaluation of newideas and alternative ways of knowing.

Collaborative efforts of educators and current research support andcomplement this document. The implementation of Scientific Literacyfor All promises to create a more informed and responsible citizenry.

"We should all be concerned aboutthe future because that is where we

will spend the remainder of ourlives."

-Charles Kettering


Recommended Time Line for Implementationof The Science Content Core *

GRADE FALL

K-5ELEMENTARYSCIENCE K-5

1996

COMPREHENSIVE6-8 1995SCIENCE I-III

9INTEGRATED

SCIENCE I

10 INTEGRATED..1;:.SCIENCE II

11

12SPECIALIZED

SCIENCECLASSES

Students may enroll in specialized science courses inaddition to Comprehensive or Integrated Science.

1996

1997

1998

1999

Students in the 11th grade may enroll in specialized orAdvanced Placement science courses in addition toIntegrated Science.

Students in the 12th grade are encouraged to enroll inIntegrated Science W, specialized, or Advanced Placementscience courses.

Schools within a feeder system may work together on analternate time line to best meet the needs of their students.

12

STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR ROLES

Where Do You Fit?Curriculum reform designed to promote excellence in science for

all Brevard County students is guided by a vision of the lastingknowledge and skills that adults of tomorrow should possess. There arenumerous stakeholders in this promising reform process, and thecontributions of each are vital to the achievement of a scientificallyliterate population. Successful curriculum change will require collaborationand a commitment to excellence by all involved. Significant stakeholdersin improved science education and their roles in the process are brieflyidentified below.

School BoardProvide support and leadership for sciencecurriculum reform.Commit financial support to implement reform.

: Allow sufficient time for the science reform effort toprove its effectiveness.

District PersonnelSeek and designate funds to support sciencecurriculum reform.Provide information on science curriculum reformto school personnel and the community.Provide training for teachers in curriculum reform.Invite community members to provide inputconcerning curriculum reform.Work as an advocate for science curriculum reform.

School-Based AdministratorsMaintain awareness of science curriculum reform,rationale, recommendations, and efforts.Encourage all science teachers to become activeparticipants in science reform.Commit financial support to implement reform.Promote science reform efforts among parents andthe community.

TeachersMaintain awareness of science curriculum reformrationale, recommendations, and efforts.Become active participants in science reform.Promote science reform efforts among parents andthe community.


CounselorsMaintain awareness of science curriculum reformrationale, recommendations, and efforts.Promote scientific literacy as essential for ALLstudents and design schedules accordingly.

Media Specialists+ Maintain awareness of science curriculum reform

rationale, recommendations, and efforts.+ Promote scientific literacy as essential for ALL students.

Provide resources and technological support toteachers and students.

+ Become active participants in science reform.

Students+ Maintain awareness of science curriculum reform

rationale, recommendations, and efforts.+ Become active participants in science reform.

Community+ Maintain awareness of science curriculum reform

rationale, recommendations, and efforts.Contribute expertise and input to enhance scienceeducation.

Parents and Restructuring for SchoolImprovement Program (RSIP)

+ Maintain awareness of science curriculum reformrationale, recommendations, and efforts.Allow sufficient time for the science reform effortto prove its effectiveness.

: Contribute expertise and input to enhance scienceeducation.

14

COMMUNICATION AMONG STAKEHOLDERS

Curriculum change offers an opportunity to clarify goals, refreshapproaches, and renew enthusiasm. Authentic change must involveall stakeholders. Following are suggestions for assisting teachers inestablishing communication among those involved to assure the successof Scientific Literacy For All.

Communicating with StudentsClear, effective communication with students is essential to a

positive learning environment. Students who talk with parents aboutpositive experiences in science classes provide the best link to homes. Aneffective teacher needs to communicate the following to students:

The student's role in a science class is to developattitudes of curiosity, openness to new ideas, andskepticism.The teacher and other members of the class arepart of a team working toward the common goal ofbecoming lifelong learners.The teacher will play many roles in the scienceclassroom: facilitator, mentor, counselor, andadvocate.

Communicating with FamiliesStudents and their families will benefit from science reform. It is

important for teachers to:

Invite families to school to learn about the goalsand expectations of the science curriculum.Advise families of curriculum plans for theupcoming year and discuss questions or concerns.Encourage families to monitor student learning inscience.Encourage families to become involved in informalscience learning opportunities.

Communicating with the CommunityThe community can be an important partner for science curriculum

reform. An effective teacher may:

+ Invite members of the community to serve as guestspeakers, experts, or mentors.

+ Invite members of the community to observespecial presentations in the classroom.Articulate to members of the community a clearvision and purpose for science education.

15


Communication with Other TeachersPublic relations within the school will be an integral component for

implementation of the Scientific Literacy for All curriculum. Aneffective science teacher encourages other teachers to:

Visit science classrooms.Learn about inovative science teaching methods.Participate in cross-curricular activities.

Communication with AdministratorsIt is vital that teachers keep their administrators informed about

changes and seek their input and support. An effective teacher should:

Advise administrators of science workshops theymay wish to attend.Report to administrators on current informationand progress related to science reform.Invite administrators to participate in classroomprojects and demonstrations.

Communicating with Feeder SchoolsCommunication and articulation within feeder school systems is

essential to program success and continuity. The science teachershould:

Invite teachers from other schools to observe aspecial classroom activity.Host an open-house for incoming/outgoingstudents, teachers, and parents to share informationand answer questions about the sciencecurriculum.Encourage articulation meetings involving allfeeder school science teachers to plan implementationof science curriculum reform.Share successful strategies with feeder systemscience teachers.

4

/ RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE iY----

IntroductionThe Science Content Core reflects current research and

recommendations in science. This matrix connects concepts bothvertically and horizontally. The Spiral Progression builds verticallyfrom year to year on concepts within each content strand to successivelyhigher levels of complexity. Concepts may also be connected horizontallyat each grade level using a thematic approach to instruction. The goalof the Science Content Core is to promote scientific literacy for allK- 12 students through a coordinated, relevant continuum of learningexperiences.

It is important that no student be limited by the Science ContentCore. Some students may wish to gain a more sophisticatedunderstanding of a topic than is suggested at their level, and some maywish to pursue topics not listed at all. These special needs can andshould be served without sacrificing commitment to the Content Core.

c-k_4_P-z

"What you do speaks so loudly,they can't hear what you say."

-Emerson

17

/ RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE

18

Kinder-garten

FirstGrade

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE K-2 tStrand 1

The Nature ofMatter

SecondGrade

P4'hysical Properties.ofSolids

P.Hot and Cold

P-Physical Properties(Sorting andGrouping)

P-Physical Change(Cutting andBending)

P C-DifferentMaterials ChangeDifferently

Strand 2Energy

P-Sun as a Source ofHeat and Light

P-Sun CausesChanges

P-Home Energy Use

P-Sun Warms theLand, Air, andWater

P,V-CommunityEnergyConservation

Strand 3Force atMotion

P-Motion of Objects

P-Pushes and Pulls

P-Sounds

P-Yibrations Make:Sound

P-ActiOn of Forces

Strand 4Processes thatShape Earth

E-Daily and SeasonalWeather Changes

C-Properties of Freshand Salt Water

E-Daily WeatherData

E-Components ofSoils

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE K-2

Strand 5Earth in

Space

A-Day and Night

Strand 6Processes of

Life

Strand 8Natisre ofScience

B-Body Parts andTheir Function

B- Similarities andDifferences inHumans

B-Healthy Bodies

V- Human. Use ofLand and Water

B-Care of Living.Things

A-ObserveA-SortA-Use NumbersA-QuestionA-PredictA-Communicate::A-Follow Safety

ProceduresA-Use Science

Equipment

Discipline CodeA-AstronomyB-BiologyC- ChemistryE-EarthV-EnvironmentalP-Physics4-Science Process

A-Shadows B-Human Growthand Change

B-CommonCharacteristics ofPlants

B-CommonCharacteristics ofAnimals

V-Effects of Weatheron Daily Life

B-Products FromPlants

A-ObserveA-SortA-Use NumbersA-QuestionA-PredictA-CommunicateA-Follow Safety


Equipment

A-Sun and Moon asBodies

B-Basic Needs ofPlants

B-Basic Needs ofAnimals

B-Similarities andDifferenceS in:Living Things .

B-Life Cycles/Metamorphosis

A-ObserveA-ClassifyA-MeasureA-Collect/Record

DataA-QuestionA-PredictA-CommunicateA-Follow Safety


Equipment

20

ThirdGrade

FourthGrade

FifthGrade

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE 3-5

Strand 1The Nature of

Matter

Strand 2 Strand 3Force itMotion


P-Properties ofCommonSubstances

P-Solid and LiquidStates

P,C-Processes thatProduce Heat

P-Energy Uses

P-Costs of Energy

P-Characteristics ofSound

P-Simple Machines

P-Types of Forces

E-Evaporation'andPrecipitation

E-Erosion, Transport,Deposition ofSoils

E-Properties of Rocks

P,C-Properties ofCommon Solids,Liquids, and Gases

P-Energy Exists inMany Forms

P,C-Objects StoreEnergy

P-Uses of ElectricalEnergy

P-Simple MachineApplications

P-Effects of Mass onMotion

E-Features of Earth'sSurface

E-Water Cycle

17-Characteristics ofPhysicalStructures

P,C-Differences inPhysical andChemical Change

P-Energy Sources

P-Energy CanChange. Forms

P-Relationshipbetween Forceand Motion

P-Effects of Friction

E-Weather Patterns

E-The Atmosphere

E-Causes of Changesin Earth's Surface

21


Strand 5Earth in

Space

A-Changes of MoonOver Time

A-Star Patterns

A-Components ofSolar System

A-Sun as a Star

A-Movements of theSun, Earth, andMoon


Life

B-Food as Energy

B-Human Organsand Their Roles

Et-Role of Plants asFood

B-Cycles of Life

B-Human BodySystemIdentification

B-Living Things areMade of Cells

B-Human BodySystem Functions

a-Inherited Traits

B- One - celled Living .Things

Strand 7How Living ThingsInteract w/Their

Environment

V400d Webs

V-Natural Resourcesas BuildingMaterials

V-Changes inEnvironment

V-Conservation ofWater

V-Ecosystems

V,B-InteractionsAmong Plants andAnimals

Strand 8Nature ofScience


DataA-QuestionA-PredictA-Draw ConclusionsAConununicateA-Follow Safety


Equipment


DataA-QuestionA-Identify VariablesA-Interpret DataA-PredictA-Draw ConclusionsA-CommunicateA-Follow Safety


Equipment

A-ObserveA-ClassifyA-MeasureA-HypothesizeA-Control VariablesA-Collect/Record

DataA-Analyze DataA-InferA-Follow Safety


Equipment

A-AstronomyB-BiologyC-ChemistryE-EarthV-EnvironmentalP-PhysicsA-Science Process

22

SixthGrade

SeventhGrade

EighthGrade

/ RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE 6-8

Strand 1The Nature of

Matter

Strand 2Energy

Strand 3Force &Motion


P,C-Structure ofMatter (particles)

P-Changes in: Stateof Matter

P,C-Physical andChemical Proper-ties and Changesof Matter

P-Gravitational andMagnetic Forcesin Nature

C-Atoms, Elementsand. Compounds

P-EnergyApplications andImplications

P-Pectromagnetic.:.Spectrum

:P- Nature of Heat .

P-Properties ofWaves

P,C-Energy ResourceConservation

P-Heat Transfer inMaterials

P-Nature of Light

P-Nature of Sound

P,C-EnergyAlternatives

P-Conductors andNonconductors

P-Machines andWork

P-Gravity

P-Mass and ForceRelated toMotion

P-Velocity andAcceleration

P-Momentum

P-CompoundMachines

P-GravitationalAcceleration

P -Work and.Efficiency ofSiniple Machines

P-Inertia,Acceleration,Action/Reaction(Newton's laws ofMotion)

23

F.-Climate

E,V-Impact ofHumans andNatural Forces onEarth's Surface

E-Geological Records

E-Plate tectonics

E-WeatherMeasurements

E-Weathering andErosion

E-Ocean Waves andCurrents

E-LandformTopography

E-WeatherForecasting

E-Ocean BasinTopography

E-Minerals, Rocks,Soil and. Fossils


Strand 5Earth in

Space

A-Movement ofObjects in theSolar System


Life


V,B-Technology. andthe Environntent

A-Components of theUrtiverse

B-Huinan :Body.Systems. WorkingTogether.

V,E-AdaptatiOns.A-Messiirenie.rit SystemsA-ExperinsentalDesignALHypothesizeA-Identify/Control

VariablesA-Collect/Record DataA-Analyze DataA- Dimensional. AnalystsA-Follow Safety

ProceduresA-Use Science EquipmentA- Historical/Social

Inigications of Saence

Discipline CodeA-AstronomyB-BiologyC-ChemistryE-EarthV-EnvironmentalP-PhysicsA-Science Process

A-Solar SystemMotion and Time

A-Seasons (Tilt,Rotation andTime)

A-Origin of Tidesand Tidal Changes

B-Cell Structure(Prokaryotic andEukaryotic)

B-Healthy Lifestyles

B-Plant and AnimalReproduction

B-Genetic Traits

V,B-Biotic andAbiotic Factors inEcosystems

V-Human Impact onthe NaturalEnvironment

A-Observe (Qualitative/Quantitative)

A-ClassifyA-Measurement SystemsA-Experimental DesignA-HypothesizeA-Identify/Control

VariablesA-Collect/Record DataA-Analyze DataA-Dimensional AnalysisA-Follow Safety

ProceduresA-Use Science EquipmentA-Historical/Social

Implications of Science

A-Solar and LunarEclipses

B-Genetic VariabilityNT,13:-Population:..; :

Interactiorts.:.


A- Classify&-Measurement Systems.'A-Expetiniental Design:A-HyPothesizeA.-Identify/Control

Vaziablei'A-Collect/Record DataA-Analyze DataADimensional Analysis ..

A4ollow SafetyProcedures

A.7Use Science EquipmentA4listorical/Social


24

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE 9-1 1

Strand 17/se Nature of

Matter

Strand 2Energy

Strand 3Force &ItMotion


C-SimpleStoichiometry andEquations

C-Periodicity

C-Atomic Structureand ChemicalBonding

P,C-Electrostatics

C-Acid/Base Systems

P,C-Effects of Heat &Temperature

C-Endothermic/ExothermicReactions

P,B-Energy Needs inLiving Systems

P-ElectromagneticRadiation

P-Simple Circuits

P-Wave Interactions

P-Work & Power

P,B- Simple. MachineApplications

P-Kinematics/Dynamics (One-dimensional)

P-Newton's Law ofGravity

P-Fluid Dynamics

E,V-ResourceDepletion

E-Geological Time

E-The Rock Cycle.

E-Ocean/AtmosphereInteractions

C,P-QuantumTheory.

C-Variations inChemical Bonding

C-Transmutation

C-SolutionChemistry

C-Reaction Rates andEquilibrium

P,C-Coulomb's Law

P,C-ElectrochemicalProcesses

P,B-EnergyTransformations

C,B-Catalysts

P- Calorimetry

C-Gas Laws & KineticTheory

P-Energy and Matter

P-Resistance andCapacitance

P-Friction, Drag, &Terminal Velocity

P-Kinematics andDynamics (Two-dimensional)

P-Conservation ofLinear Momentum

P-Rotational Systems

E-The ClimateSystem

E-Coastal Erosion

E,C-Natural Solute/Solvent Systems

E-Earth Structure(Geomorphology)

E-Renewable andNonrenewableResources

C- Crystallography

A,C-Dark Matter

P,C-Universal Forces

P-Fission/Fusion

P-Energy ConversionSystems (e.g.,Refrigeration)

P-Duality of Light

P-Magnetic Fields

P-Electric CircuitApplications

P-Optics and SoundApplications

P-Rinematics/Dynamics(Applications)

P-Conservation ofRotational Mo-mentum

P-Special Relativity

P-Electric Motors

P-Electric PowerDistribution

E-Radioactive Dating

E-Ice Ages (Past &Future)

V-Human Interactionwith Earth'sResources

''' ' w fir e.

25

RECOMMENDED SCIENCE CONTENT CORE 9 -1 1

Strand 5Earth in

Space

A-Origin of the SolarSystem

A-Solar System/Minor Bodies

P,A-Technology inSpace Studies

A-Stellar Evolution

A-Planetary Motion

A-Galactic Systems

E,A-Earth'sMagnetism

A-Cosmology

,P,A-Grand UnifiedTheory

B,A-Theories of Lifein the Universe

C,A-Chemistry of theUniverse


Life

B-Functions ofSpecific HumanCells

B-Cell Reproduction

B-MendelianGenetiOs

13:Cellular Transport

B-CellularCommunication

B-Meiosis

B-Chromosomes andGenes

B-Human Growthand Reproduction

B,C-Energy Transfersin Living Systems

Strand 7ow Liam Things

Interact w/TheirEnvironment

V,B-Habitat andNiche

B-Taxonomic Keys


A- Observe (Qualitative/Quantitative)


VariablesA-Collect/Record DataA-Analyze Qat*A- Dimensional Analysis:44-011oW.Safety

ProceduresA-USe.Science EquipmentA4listOrical/Social

. ,

.Implications of Science

B-TranScription &Translation:

B,P-BiotechitoIogy.

B-Human Body .

System Synergism

V,B-Natural Selection

V,B-PopulationDynamics

V,P-EnvironmentalObservationTechnologies

B-Epidemiology

B,C-Causes ofMutatioUs

B,E-Mechanisms ofEvolution

B,V- Interdependenceof living Things

V,B-EnvironmentalEthics



VariablesA-Collect/Record DataA-Analyze DataA-Dimensional AnalysisA-Follow Safety

ProceduresA-Use Science EquipmentA-Historical/Social



A-Classify'A-Measurement Systems'A-Exiierimental DesignA-HypothesizeA4dentify/Control

VariablesA-C-oliect/Record DataA-Analyze DataA-Dimensional AnalysisA-Follow Safety

ProcedniesA-Use Science EquipmentA- HIstorical/Social


Discipline CodeA-AstronomyB-BiologyC-ChemistryE-EarthV-EnvironmentalP-PhysicsA-Science Process

26

IntroductionThe Spiral Progression is a sequencing of instruction that involves

students in concepts, principles and laws of science at successivelyhigher levels of abstraction from kindergarten through eleventh grade.Repeated experiences in different contexts assist students in buildingconcepts. Relationships between concepts will be linked with increasingcomplexity over time. This gradual progression of process and contenthelps students relate science to themselves and their lives.

Examples of the Science Content CoreThe following are examples of the science content core topics as

they might be taught within the spiral progression of a strand. These

may be used as a guide when developing your own program.

Strand 1: Nature of Matter E,ramples

K Identify several objects by size, shape, color, texture, andbuoyancy.

1st Grade Sort objects such as buttons, rocks, and shells in a varietyof ways by attributes.

2nd Grade Demonstrate/explore mixing, melting, freezing, andcutting different materials to see how they change andhowthey stay the same.

3rd Grade Investigate and compare the properties of common solids(rice, beans, oatmeal) and liquids (water, oil, corn syrup).

4th Grade Measure the time it takes for various liquids to boil as wellas the additional time it takes for them to change into a gas.

5th Grade Design and build a structure using recyclable materials.Write a description of the design and the differencebetween the structure and the materials from which it wasconstructed.

6th Grade Describe molecular spacing in substances as they changestate from solid to liquid to gas. Use a balloon to investigatethe effects of heat on a gas sample.

7th Grade Distinguish between physical and chemical changes bydemonstrating repeated examples of each. Chemicallycombine substances to produce new substances.

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

8th Grade Create a concept map showing the relationship amongmatter, atoms, elements, compounds, solutions, and mix-tures.

9th Grade Examine the organization of the Periodic Table of theElements. Identify periods and groups and theirrelationships.

10th Grade Use the Periodic Table of the Elements to identify patternsand make predictions in chemical bonding.

1 1 th Grade Predict crystal geometry through the building of crystalmodels. Grow and examine crystals to verify predictions.

Strand 2: Energy Examples

K Compare sunny and shady spots in the school yard.

1st Grade Feel different objects outdoors in sun and shade. Compareand describe the differences.

2nd Grade Measure with a thermometer and compare the temperaturesof soil, water, and air in the sun and shade.

3rd Grade Observe processes that produce heat (friction by rubbing,burning a candle)

4th Grade Compare the energy sources of a variety of moving toys.

5th Grade Construct a flashlight using a bulb, wires, batteries, paperroll, tape, and a switch. Compare with a commercialflashlight.

6th Grade Observe the difference between heat and temperatureby exposing several substances (sand, soil, and water) toa heat source. Measure and evaluate the reason fordifferences in temperature.

7th Grade Design and construct a device that will keep an ice cube inits solid state for at least two hours.

8th Grade Design systems that demonstrate the effects of conduction,convection, and radiation. Analyze the components andmaterials of a saucepan.

28

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

9th Grade Predict the final temperature when mixing equal amountsof ice and tap water.

10th Grade Measure the latent heat of fusion of ice.

1 1 th Grade Evaluate and compare the energy efficiency of a conventionalair conditioning system and a heat pump air conditioningsystem.

1st Grade

2nd Grade

3rd Grade

Strand 3: Force and Motion Examples

Observe how various items move.

Explore objects that can be pushed or pulled.

Demonstrate how objects can be moved without beingtouched (magnetic forces).

Observe various moving objects and identify forces actingon them.

4th Grade Measure the distance that two objects will travel. Compareobjects of similar size and different masses.

Roll a marble down a board that is held at different angles.Measure differences in speed. Graph the results.

Determine the speed of moving objects. Describe howtheir motion is affected by forces.

Identify the motion of an object that is accelerating (e.g.speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction).

Design a balloon rocket to demonstrate action/reactionforces and acceleration.

Design and build a car that is propelled by the pressure ofa gas or liquid. Measure distance, speed, and acceleration.

Find the speed, period, frequency, acceleration, andcentripetal force of an object moving in a circular path.

5th Grade

6th Grade

7th Grade

8th Grade

9th Grade

10th Grade

1 1 th Grade Design and build a model car that uses the energy storedin a spring or a raised mass to propel the car. Measure thedistance traveled, speed, and acceleration.

29

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

Strand 4: Processes that Shape the Earth Examples

K

1st Grade

2nd Grade

Choose appropriate clothing for different weatherconditions from a basket of clothes.

Predict if tomorrow's temperature will be higher or lowerthan today's. Verify with thermometers.

Interview parents or other adults about their experiencesin unusual or severe weather, such as hurricanes, tornadoes,or snow storms.

3rd Grade Compare evaporation of water in sunlight and shade.Make rain gauges and measure rainfall.

4th Grade Demonstrate the water cycle by creating clouds and rainusing ice and hot water.

5th Grade Use latitude and longitude to plot the path of a hurricane.

6th Grade Identify the factors that determine the climate of an area.Plot long-term weather data on a world map and analyzefor climatic patterns.

7th Grade Construct and use weather instruments (barometer, slingpsychrometer) and measure weather conditions. Recorddaily.

8th Grade

9th Grade

10th Grade

1 1 th Grade

Using data from local weather observations, predict localweather patterns.

Relate Florida's unique geographical location to itspredominant weather pattern.

Predict how dramatic natural events, such as El Nino andvolcanic eruptions, affect the Earth's climate.

Design a flow chart to show how one change in a climaticsystem will cause changes in other natural systems.

30

SPIRAL PROGRESSION.-,

28

Strand 5: Earth in Space Examples

K Create a class collage using magazine pictures that showday activities vs. night activities.

1st Grade Measure and compare body shadows at different times ofthe day.

2nd Grade Record the number of days during a month in which themoon is visible during daylight hours.

3rd Grade Observe and draw on a calendar what the moon looks likeeach night over a period of one month (Home-based).Describe and analyze the observations.

4th Grade Demonstrate the relationship between distance andapparent size/brightness using a flashlight in a largedarkened room (cafeteria, media center).

5th Grade Construct a model that shows the relationship between theEarth, Moon, and Sun.

6th Grade Construct a model of the solar system and demonstrateeach planet's rotation and revolution. Describe why it isdifficult to construct an accurate scale model of the solarsystem.

7th Grade Demonstrate the role of the Earth's motion and tilt incausing seasons.

8th Grade Demonstrate the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses ina darkened room using a light bulb and two spheres.

9th Grade Explore, compare, and evaluate various theories of solarsystem formation.

10th Grade Verify and demonstrate Kepler's 2nd Law of PlanetaryMotion using selected media.

11th Grade Create a model depicting the orientation of our solarsystem in the galaxy. Explore theories of formation ofgalactic systems.

31

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

Strand 6: Processes of Life J ,vamples

1st Grade Create height, weight, and tooth loss charts. Comparethroughout the year.

2nd Grade Observe the life cycle of animals, such as frogs andbutterflies. Record observations in a journal.

3rd Grade Draw and describe human organs.

4th Grade Construct a life size model of the human circulatorysystem using an outline of the body and thick red and blueyarn.

5th Grade Construct a model of muscles and bones working togetherusing dowels, rubber bands, and paper clips.

6th Grade Construct a model to demonstrate the mechanics ofbreathing using common materials (e.g. plastic bottle-body, rubber sheeting-diaphragm, straws-trachea andbronchial tubes, balloons-lungs).

7th Grade Create a "user's manual" for the human body that focuseson healthy lifestyles and human system maintenance.

8th Grade Design a role playing game that depicts how a diseaseattacks the human body and how the body defends itself.

9th Grade Demonstrate the interaction of human cells with theirenvironment via the cell membrane through the use ofdialysis tubing.

10th Grade Create a brochure tracing human prenatal developmentwhich would assist an expectant parent in making healthynutrition and lifestyle choices.

1 1 th Grade Examine the technology and ethics of organ transplant.

32

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

Strand 7: How Living Things Interact with Their EnvironmentExamples

K Create murals depicting use of land and water.

1st Grade Plan, plant, care for and harvest a salad garden.

2nd Grade Draw a simple food chain within a habitat.

3rd Grade Observe and record the environmental changes that occurthroughout the year on a selected area of land.

4th Grade Collect and observe algae. Explore the implications ofexcessive algal growth in a lake.

5th Grade Examine the impact of a natural disaster on an ecosystem.

6th Grade Identify adaptations related to an organism's niche. Designa model organism that possesses adaptations enabling it tosucceed in unusual habitats and defend the benefits ofeach adaptation.

7th Grade Illustrate a local ecosystem. Include the community oforganisms with which humans interact and all the physicalfactors of the environment.

8th Grade Show how populations in a community affect each other.Plant a mixture of seeds and observe and measure growth.Evaluate difference in terms of competition.

9th Grade Create a three-dimensional model of a given habitat.

10th Grade Given a list of satellites, describe which ones would bestmeet the requirements for measuring deforestation onEarth.

1 1 th Grade Conduct an environmental impact study.

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

Strand 8: Nature of Science E,vamples

K Compare the mass of objects using balances.

1st Grade Measure hot and cold temperatures using a thermometer.

2nd Grade Examine soil samples using a hand lens.

3rd Grade Measure the amount of rainfall over a specific period oftime using a rain gauge.

4th Grade Create and examine a spectrum of colors using a prism.

5th Grade Observe pond water using a microscope and illustrate yourfindings.

6th Grade Measure the mass of different substances using a triple-beam balance.

7th Grade Create a grid to use with a microscope to accuratelymeasure the size of microscopic organisms.

8th Grade Determine work efficiency of simple machines by usingspring scales, metric rulers and calculators.

9th Grade Select the appropriate equipment to measure the densityof an object.

10th Grade Demonstrate the proper use of a calorimeter in determiningheat loss or gain.

11th Grade Develop an inexpensive instrument to test auto emissions.

34

CONCEPT CONNECTONS USING THEMES

Introduction to to Themes

A theme is an idea that organizes the study of concepts. A thematicapproach intertwines the various science disciplines and provides theframework necessary for students to make connections between con-cepts, themselves and the world. This approach can also be used to createinterdisciplinary (cross-curricular) units. The time allocated for atheme varies according to the complexity of the theme.

A thematic approach helps students retain and retrieve informa-tion, emphasizes process skills and analysis of complex situations, andoften enhances student motivation and participation. Themes also act ascurriculum organizers so that students and teachers know what iscoming next.

Teachers should consider the following questions when planningthematic units:

Does it demonstrate real-world relevancy?What resources are available?

+ Is it age-appropriate?Are the connections logical and significant?Is it important?Is the time allocated appropriate for the theme?

The following represent examples of thematic and interdisciplinaryunits that could provide connecting concepts for frameworks:

"You may not divide the seamless cloak oflearning. There is only one subject matter

for education and that is Life in all itsmanifestations."

-Alfred North Whitehead

35

/ CONCEPT CONNECTONS USING THEMES

Interdiscipinary Unit

The manner in which humans make use of science andtechnology affects the environment and changes the way we live.

11Clidin

L Deiaibe L Read_ Jurassicdinosaurs andtheir habitats.

2. Explain DNA

1 !dFatifyprecLitor/preyrelationships.

4. Describeradioactive dating.::

writtn-1. Rec9,14 f-xamP10.:

and obiervations:2. Write :report Cin

new technologiesand theireffection society.;::...

SOCial Science1. Research new

technologies and:their.. effects 'on:society:

2. Eiiintine the:araieologiCaIevidence :of

MathematicsReduce informa-tion to digital form(binary).

2. Use probability/statistics.

3. Use.scientificnatation.

4. Develop atime line...

Field Experiences1. Explore natural

history museum.2. Iftenlify local

animals most-closely related todinosaurs.

Art. 'Angie & P.E.1. ;Design and build

a technologicaldinosaur;

2. Paint event whichmay have endedthedinosaur

3. Create.music thatportrays dinosaur

Health1. Iduitify pros/cons

of geneticengineering.Explore.extent ofcurrent geneticengineering: inmedicine.

Connecting TopicsAdaptations, Competition

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HOME-BASED LEARNING

IntroductionNot all science learning takes place in schools. Both the natural and

cultural environment greatly contribute to scientific literacy. Homeworkand out-of-school explorations are essential extensions of the classroom,and helps maintain continuity. Home-based learning must be relevantwork as opposed to busywork.

Activity Examples1. Thought Questions.

Describe a journey through our atmosphere and whatone might see.

Complete a "What if.. ?" statement.

2. Posters or collages.Label pictures from magazines that show examples of

kinetic or potential energy.Create a collage of machines that do work.

3. Comic strips.Create a comic strip demonstrating bean develop-

ment..

4. Labeled diagrams.Draw and label a diagram of a flower.Draw and label an animal cell undergoing mitosis.

5. Models.Make a machine composed of two or more simple

machines that can perform a practical function.Make a model of a plant.

6. Surveys.Create and complete a survey on what people recycle.Create and complete a survey about nutrition and

health awareness.

7. Experiments.Explore surface tension by filling a cup completely

with water, add pennies until water overflows.Repeat with soap added to water.

Explore chromatography with pens with water solubleink.

45

HOME-BASED LEARNING

8. Current events.Present to the class a current science issue or event.Prepare a debate with a classmate representing opposing

views on a current environmental issue.9. Games.

Design and construct a board game about water.Design and create a game similar to Bingo.

10. Energy Uses at Home.Read the electric meter and graph data.Compare the cost of incandescent and fluorescent.

11. Brochures.Create a travel brochure for a voyage through the solar

system.Create a brochure for traveling through the human body.

12. Math and Science Application.Count teeth on gears of a bike to determine the mechani-

cal advantage.Determine the number of petals on a variety of flowers.

13. Kitchen Labs.Make fake glass from corn syrup and sugar.

14. Scavenger Hunts.Find common household items from a list of scientific

names.Create a list of things that use energy in the home.

15. Media ResearchFind examples of science facts and fallacies in the media.

16. GraphingProduce a graph of daily precipitation for one week.

17. Concept Drawing.Create a drawing which depicts the causes of wind.

18. Collections.Collect and label plant parts that are used for food.

46

IntroductionTechnology has changed the way society operates. Science educators

are responding to these changes by preparing students to function inthis technological world. Students should be taught how to use technologyin doing science so that technology becomes a tool for exploringscientific principles and ideas. The following are ideas for usingmultimedia technology in the science classroom.

Computers in the ClassroomComputers are quickly becoming as common as the chalkboard in

classrooms. Whether there is a fully networked laboratory or onecomputer shared among several teachers in the science department,there are ways to integrate computer technology into science lessons.

The One-Computer ClassroomThe following is a brief list of suggestions for the use of a single

computer:

Use the computer to present graphics or demonstrations/simulations. The monitor can be hooked up to anoverhead projection panel or to a TV monitor using anadapter and software.Use the single computer as a station. The computerstation could present a lesson, provide the students withresearch information, or run a simulation program.Use the computer as a learning center where students maygo for remediation or enrichment activities.Connect probeware to the computer for the students togather data in the laboratory.Have classes send projects or e-mail to other schools.Telecommunication activities are often done on a singlecomputer because there is often only one telephone lineavailable for connection to the modem.Telecommunications can also provide students with accessto the Internet and to experts in different fields ofresearch.

Computer Labs or NetworksAll of the ideas mentioned previously for the one-computer classroom

can be even more effective with a dedicated computer lab or a networkedgroup of machines. Listed below are additional ideas that are mosteffective when there are enough computers for small groups of students.

TECHNOLOGY

Authoring software (such as Hypercard for Macintoshand Authority for DOS machines) effectively introducesstudents to computer use as they focus on a topic orcontent area. For example, teams of students can createmultimedia computer lessons on a certain topic. Thoselessons can be evaluated by other teams or incorporatedinto the lesson plans of other classes.CD-ROM software can be used on a network as aresearch and simulation tool. Simulation programs (suchas a chemistry simulation of an explosive reaction) cantake the place of a more expensive and less safelaboratory experiment.

Laser VideodiscsThe videodisc is an excellent way to store huge amounts of visual

information and can be a great aid to the teacher's presentation. Thecomputer and the videodisc player can combine to enhance the lesson.

Use the images on a videodisc for visual aids duringpresentations or to quiz students.Use a videodisc as a substitute for a dangerous orlogistically difficult demonstration.Combine a computer and videodisc as a station in arotation. Students can use this station as a multimediatutorial for remediation or enrichment.Encourage students to write videodisc lessons for otherstudents or for project presentations.

Television/ Video Tape Player/ CamcorderA television can enhance a teacher's lesson in many ways, especially

if a video tape player and a camcorder are also available.

Use the television as a large screen computer monitor.Use videotapes in short, relevant bursts to illustrate pointsand enhance instruction. Scientific American Frontiers is agreat source of short video segments.Hook up a microscope to a video camera for class viewingof organisms or demonstrations of microscopephenomena.Encourage small groups of students to create their ownscience video program and have them present it to theclass.

48

The Information Superhighway andTelecommunications

Education is dependent on the ability to access information,analyze it, and communicate with others. From School Net to Internet,telecommunications between computers is getting less expensive, easierto use, and faster. Most commercial online services (e.g., AmericaOnline, Compuserve and Prodigy) have special educational membershipsand access areas. Consider the following opportunities:

Compile data from an experiment in several differentclasses on the same campus, in the same county, in thenation, or even internationally by networking.Administer a survey across political, cultural, and regionalboundaries and then analyze it.Share your students' projects by digitizing them anddownloading them on a bulletin board.Discuss science, technology, and society issues with otherstudents via a bulletin board.Research information and perhaps even speak with theauthorities themselves through electronic mail.

Other Emerging TechnologiesMany devices or systems that were out of reach of school budgets

ten years ago are now quite inexpensive. Some examples of new, or lessexpensive, instructional technology include:

Satellite downlink systems which can be purchased for under$4,000 and allow teachers and students to receive imagesdirectly from satellites orbiting the Earth.Wireless cable television which may expand the selectionof educational programming available over the broadcastand cable channels at a lower cost.Voice recognition technologies for computers which mayallow physically challenged students better access tocomputers.

Computers and peripherals are becoming less expensive and morepowerful. The future of instructional technology is a bright one.

49

TEACHING STRATEGIES

IntroductionChildren learn about their surroundings naturally and

enthusiastically, and teaching methods should encourage and build onthis natural curiosity. Changes in the science curriculum must be basedon how students learn science.

Recent findings in brain research indicate that the learning processis complex and unique to each individual. Students differ widely in theways they learn. Some learn better in a group setting, while others preferto work alone. Some need a great deal of structure and support, othersare more independent and self-motivated.

These findings are driving a move toward more learner-focusedmethods in science education. As enhancing individual student learningbecomes the focal point, old barriers are removed and creativity isencouraged. The results can be dramatic. Addressing all types of learningstyles provides optimal experiences for students.

Many factors affect learning:student characteristics and background,teacher characteristics and methods, andthe context or learning environment.

Current thinking in science education reveals a change in focus incurriculum, instruction, and assessment: the needs of the learner shapecurriculum planning, the learning environment, and the teacher's role.

Teaching to a Variety of Learning StylesThe Theory of Multiple Intelligence

In 1983 Howard Gardner of Harvard University proposed a theoryof multiple intelligences. Gardner's research indicates that teachers canenjoy more success educating students when their lessons address theseintelligences. Based on the populations studied, the following sevenareas are described in Gardner's Frames of Mind: Linguistic Intelligence,Logical-Mathematical Intelligence, Musical Intelligence, SpatialIntelligence, Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence, IntrapersonalIntelligence, and Interpersonal Intelligence. Relative strengths inthese areas is different for each person. It is important that we provideopportunities for learners to work and develop in all areas so that we donot limit human potential.

"...the logic bywhich we teach is

not always thelogic by whichchildren learn."

59

In his book, In Their Own Way, Dr. Thomas Armstrong explains thedifferent learning characteristics of each learning style. The seven basicstyles and characteristics are:

Linguistic IntelligenceLearn by listening, reading, and verbalizingThink in wordsBenefit from discussionEnjoy writingLike word games, books, records, and tapesLike tape recorders, typewriters, and wordprocessorsHave a good memory for verse, lyrics, or triviaEnjoy outings to such places as libraries, bookstores, and publishing houses

+4.

Logical-Mathematical IntelligenceThink conceptuallyReason things out logically and clearlyLook for abstract patterns and relationshipsEnjoy computing math problems in their headsLike brain teasers, logical puzzles, and strategy gamesLike to use computersLike to experiment and test things outEnjoy science kitsLike to classify and categorizeEnjoy outings to science museums, computer fairs,and electronic exhibitionsAsk questions like "Where does the universe end?,""What happens when we die?," and "When didtime begin?"

Musical IntelligencePlay musical instrumentRemember melodies of songsTell when a musical note is off keySay they need to have music in order to studyCollect records, tapes, and CD'sSing songs to themselvesKeep time rhythmically to musicUse rhythm or cadences to remember facts

51

Spatial IntelligenceSpend free time engaged in art activitiesReport clear visual images when thinkingRead maps, charts, and diagrams with easeDraw accurate representations of people or thingsEnjoy movies, slides, or photographsEnjoy doing jigsaw puzzles or mazesDaydream frequently

Body-Kinesthetic IntelligenceCommunicate through gesturesLearn by touching, manipulating, and movingLike role playing and creative movementDemonstrate skill in crafts, such as woodworking orsewingEnjoy participating in sporting events

Interpersonal IntelligenceUnderstand and care about peopleHave many friendsLike to socializeLearn by relating and cooperatingEnjoy group gamesAre good at teaching other childrenEnjoy clubs, committees, and volunteerorganizations

Intrapersonal IntelligenceDisplay a sense of independenceSeem to be self-motivatingLearn more easily with independent study,self-paced instruction, and individualized projects

52

The 4MAT ApproachBernice McCarthy developed an instructional system called 4MAT

which is based on the research of Kolb, Lawerence, Jung, and others. In4MAT, instruction is organized to address the different ways peoplelearn. McCarthy identified four major, equally valuable, learning stylesand recommends that the development and integration of all four styles,as well as both right and left brain processing skills, should be a majorgoal of education. 4MAT is also a cycle of learning and teaching thatmoves students through a natural learning progression designed topromote individual growth and success.

The 4MAT Learning Cycle

4 1Apply to real

life and new,% more complex

% experiences

Analyze for %relevance and

usefulness

Create anexperience

Reflect andanalyze

experience

Experiment toverify concepts

and skills IPractice and

apply conceptsand skills

IntegratereflectiveN% analysis intoconcepts

Developconcepts and

skills

3 2

BE'

The following instructional strategies enhance student learning inscience. They are not meant to be used in isolation or in a linear fashion.Teachers may incorporate several of them in a single lesson. Persistenceis key to success. The teacher should allow time to adapt and refinestrategies to fit the needs of the students.

Concept MappingWhat is it?

A concept map is a diagram that shows relationships among ideas.Usually, the concepts are circled, and the relationships are shown byconnecting the circles with lines. Linking verbs or short explanations areused to show the relationship between concepts. Concept mappinghelps show how ideas are connected and how knowledge is organized.It improves comprehension and problem-solving skills. Conceptmapping can be used by teachers to plan lessons, identify misconceptions,and assess learning.

How to do it1) Select a main idea.2) Write concepts associated with the main idea on

slips of paper.3) Rank concepts in related groups from the most

general to the most specific.4) Connect related concepts with lines and label the

links with short verbs or phrases.5) Revise as needed.

xample of a Concept Map

COPY AVAILABLE

"Success is thebest kind ofmotivation"

"We arecontinually faced

with greatopportunities

brilliantlydisguised as

insolubleproblems."

-Lee Iacocca

TEACHING STRATEGIES

Conflicting ViewpointsWhat are they?

Conflicting viewpoints are expressions of several hypotheses orpoints of view that are inconsistent with each other. These can be usedto reinforce critical thinking skills.

How to do themThe teacher or a student selects a topic. The topic may be an ethical

issue or a research-based problem.1) Students should research topics.2) Debate or discuss the viewpoints generated from

research.3) The teacher should summarize the viewpoints of all

groups.

Example of a Conflicting Viewpoint ActivityMs. Jones provided her class with several articles on the use of

animals in research. Each student was assigned to read all the articles.The class was divided into two groups: a group in favor of using animalsin research and a group against using animals in research. Students wereallowed to align themselves with the group of their choice. Ms. Jonesfacilitated a group discussion allowing each side an opportunity toexpress its views. She then summarized the arguments of both sides.

Cooperative LearningWhat is it?

Cooperative learning involves students working together in smallgroups to achieve a common goal. Often the groups are of mixed ability.Several cooperative learning models exist which are described in profes-sional books and journals. Cooperative learning has the potential toimprove achievement, attitude, and interpersonal skills by havingstudents assume responsibility for the learning of the entire group.

How to do it1) State the goal of the lesson.2) Place students in groups that are culturally and

intellectually mixed.3) Facilitate the selection of individual roles within the

group.4) Monitor group progress and provide assistance as

needed.5) Evaluate the success of each group in

accomplishing the task or solving the problem.

Example of Cooperative LearningMr. Garcia introduced a lesson on the ear and hearing. He divided

his science class into groups of four to design devices to test hearing. Eachindividual in the group chose a role of background researcher, tester,data recorder, or communicator. The students collaborated toresearch, design, build, troubleshoot, and then demonstrate theirdevices.

Discrepant EventsWhat are they?

Discrepant events are phenomena that do not conform toexpectations. These events can be used to gain students' attention andto interest them in finding the cause of the discrepancy.

How to do themAsk students to predict what will happen when acertain procedure is performed.Perform the procedure.Have students observe the results and try to explainwhy the results did not conform to their predictions.Explain the discrepant event or provide an activitythat will allow students to determine why the re-sults did not meet their expectations.

&ample of a Discrepent EventMr. Gray showed the class two beakers, each containing 100 mL of

a clear liquid. He asked the class what the volume would be if bothbeakers were emptied into the same container. After discussion, hepoured the two liquids into a graduated cylinder and showed the classthe volume. The volume was not what the class expected. He then askedthe class to determine why. After an appropriate period of time, he askedthe class to share their conclusions. Next, Mr. Gray told the students thatthe liquids were alcohol and water. He allowed time for the students todiscuss possible explanations and finally guided them to the correctexplanation.

Laboratory InvestigationWhat is it?

Laboratory investigations involve students in the process of scienceand help students visualize science concepts.

56

TEACHING STRATEGIES

How to do it1) Begin the investigation with a question.2) Focus the investigation on a specific variable

related to the question.3) Develop a hypothesis.4) Determine how data are going to be measured and

collected and how other variables will becontrolled.

5) Conduct the investigation.6) Analyze the data using appropriate mathematical

tools.7) Draw conclusions from the results.8) Report the results and conclusions of the investigation.

Students may present their results using an oral orwritten presentation.

The Learning Cycle (5E's)What is it?

The Learning Cycle is a sequence of lessons designed to engagestudents in exploratory investigations, construct meaning from theirfindings, propose tentative explanations and solutions, and relateconcepts to their own lives. The Learning Cycle is an instructional modelconsistent with the constructivism theory. Students learn best when theyare allowed to construct their own understanding of concepts over timeby active engagement in the learning process.

How to do itStage 1: Engage the students with an event or question.

Stage 2: Explore the concept, skill, or behavior withhands-on experience related to the lesson.

Stage 3: Explain the concept, skill or behavior anddefine terms. Students use the terms to explaintheir exploration.

Stage 4: Elaborate the concept, skill or behavior byapplying it to other situations. Students discussand compare ideas with others.

Stage 5: Evaluate student understanding of the concept.

TEACHING STRATEGIES

E,rample of the Learning CycleMrs. Mundy demonstrated the formation of a cloud in a bottle. She

engaged the learner with the event by asking why the cloud formed. Herstudents experimented to determine how changing variables, such aspressure, humidity, and temperature, affect cloud formation. Next theyexplained the relationships between pressure, temperature, and humidityin the formation of clouds. She guided the students in applying theconcept to cloud formations on earth.

Misconceptions (Assessing and Confronting)What are they?

Students often hold beliefs that are at odds with commonlyaccepted scientific thought. These misconceptions should be identifiedand addressed so that effective learning can take place. Determiningwhat students think prior to instruction enables the teacher to directmeaningful instruction.

How to do it1) Use probing questions to identify existing beliefs

and misconceptions.2) Ask students to explain their ideas of the concept.3) Use demonstrations, activities, or computer

simulations to correct misconceptions.4) Help students to make connections with related

ideas.Ixample of Misconception

To explore misconceptions about volume, Mr. Polinski took two testtubes containing water. He then showed the students two cylinders with thesame dimensions but different masses. (One cylinder was made of brass, andone of aluminum.) The students were asked to predict what would happento the water level when each cylinder was placed in one of the tubes of water.The students discussed their understanding of volume. Many students had themisconception that the water level would be higher in the tube in which thebrass cylinder was placed. Students then put a cylinder in each tube andobserved the results. Mr. Polinski gave the students further activities toexplore this concept. He made use of this foundation to show connectionsbetween volume, mass, and density.

ModelsWhat are they?

A model is a simplified representation of a structure or concept. Itmay be concrete, such as a ball-and-stick model of an atom; or it maybe abstract, like a model of weather systems. A model enables studentsto more easily understand complex ideas.

58

How to do it1) The teacher or student determines the concept or

structure that is to be modeled.2) The students research the concept or structure to

be modeled.3) The students construct models.4) The students explain how their model represents

the concept or structure.

Example of a ModelMs. Brown provided materials for students to build a model of a

landfill. The landfill was built in an aquarium tank using soil, gravel,plastic bags, water, and different types of waste. Students shared theirlandfill models with the class.

Predict, Observe, &plain (POE)What is it?

The Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) strategy involves showing aclass a situation and asking them to predict what will happen when achange is made. POE's can be used to support correct predictions andchallenge incorrect predictions. The most important aspect of POE's isidentifying and discussing student's concepts.

How to do itDemonstrate a situation and ask students to predict what will

happen when specific changes are made. Students observe whatactually happens and discuss differences between their predictions andobservations. Students should be encouraged to support their theorieswith evidence or scientific principles.

Example of POETo introduce the concept of density, Ms. White drops an apple into

a tub of water, then asks the class to predict what will happen when agrape is dropped into the tub of water. Ms. White demonstrates anddiscussion follows. Students are then asked to predict what will happenif each fruit is cut in half and dropped into the tub of water. Studentsmake predictions and observe the results. A class discussion and studentexplanations follow. Ms. White uses students' theories to lead into adiscussion of density.

Problem SolvingWhat is it?

One of the highest forms of learning is applying knowledge to solveproblems. Problem solving is a method of learning that facilitatesscientific thinking. Problem solving allows students to discoverrelationships that may be completely new to them. Students usepreviously learned information, skills, and strategies to construct newideas and concepts. Problem solving can effectively engage students inlearning science.

How to do itDescribe a problem or have students suggest a real-world problem.Guide students to define the problem by stating itin the form of a question.Discuss the characteristics of the problem and setlimits on possible solutions.Research the solutions.Choose a promising solution.Test the solution.Determine if the problem has been solved.

"Scientists thrive oncuriosity -and so do

children."Science for All Americans

Example of Problem SolvingMs. Otello presented the class with a packet of seeds and asked,

"What kinds of things make it possible for these seeds to germinate?"The class defined the problem by asking, "What are the conditions

under which seeds germinate?" Ms. Otello asked the class to consider thephysical conditions that would promote the germination of the seeds.Students gathered information and then planted sets of seeds under differentlight, water, and temperature conditions.

The students observed and recorded the germination and growthdata for all groups of seeds. The students planted a second group of seedsunder the conditions they determined were optimal. They compared thepercentage and speed of germination with the previous trial. Studentsanalyzed data to determine if the problem had been solved.

60

TEACHING STRATEGIES

Questioning TechniquesWhat are they?

Good questions can expand and reinforce knowledge, providefeedback, and focus student attention. A good question is short enoughfor students to understand and remember, is stated clearly, and requiresmore than a simple yes or no answer. Questioning can be used to assessstudent knowledge, motivate, and reinforce. It increases studentparticipation, improves listening skills, and promotes interaction.Questioning can also be used to raise the level of student thinking bylinking recently acquired concepts with other related concepts, byapplying new knowledge to a new problem, and by encouragingreflective thinking.

How to do it1) Ask a question.2) Allow think time. When teachers wait at least three

seconds after asking a question, students tend tohave longer responses, make more inferences, andcompose logical arguments.

3) Select a student and listen to the response.4) Pause before giving feedback while the teacher and

students consider the answer.5) Give feedback: reinforce, acknowledge, dignify,

prompt, clarify, or refocus.

Example of a Questioning TechniqueMr. Nix's class was studying the greenhouse effect. He asked the

following questions which addressed various levels of learning.Recall: What causes the greenhouse effect?Comprehension: Why does the greenhouse effect occur?Creative: What if the greenhouse effect were to increase dramaticallyover the next twenty years?Evaluation: How do you think the new laws concerning the use ofrefrigerants in air conditioners will affect the environment?

^r

Reflective ThinkingWhat is it?

Reflective thinking is a valuable tool to help students assimilatewhat they have learned. Reflection can help connect concepts to makeideas more meaningful.

How to do itBelow are some suggestions for some reflective thinking activities.

Have students write what they have learned in astudent journal.Instruct students to write about the success of thelesson, questions they have, or areas they wouldlike to explore further.Have students complete a questionnaire about the lesson.Lead a class discussion about the students' opin-ions of the lesson.

xample of Reflective ThinkingMs. Chang asked the students to write down the answers to the

following questions,1) What did you do? What was the topic? Did you

understand it?2) How did you do it? What methods were used in

learning? Did you like them?3) Why did you study this? Can you relate it to your

life outside of school? Did it explain somethingyou learned earlier?

Role Playing and SimulationWhat are they?

Role playing allows students to assume the identity of anotherperson or thing and helps students understand a different perspective.Simulations involve students in representing the functioning of asystem or process. Both role playing and simulations address learningstyles and intelligence areas that are often overlooked. These strategiesare also especially useful in integrating science, technology, and society(STS) issues into the curriculum.

How to do it1) Choose a topic to be used in simulation. Examples

are available in books, journals, and educationalsoftware. Interactive videodiscs can provide goodsettings and background information.

56

TEACHING STRATEGIES

2) Have students read and gather background information.3) Assign to each student a defined role.4) Allow students to work in groups and to decide on

their course of action.5) Present simulations to the class.

Example of Role PlayingMr. Jabbar was teaching about the states of matter. Students

studied about the characteristics of the different states. One group inMr. Jabbar's class used music to simulate the states of matter. First thegroup stood still with joined hands thus simulating solids. Next thegroup turned on some quiet music and began moving slowly andsomewhat separated. This simulated a liquid. The group then playedmusic with a faster tempo, started dancing, with some of the groupmembers losing touch with the others. This simulated the movement ofgas molecules.

4--+._i-z

"...this time, like all times, is a very goodone, if we but know what to do with it."

-Ralph Waldo Emerson

ASSESSMENT

Assessment for the 21sf CenturyScience, by its very nature, lends itself to a variety of assessments.

Students must develop more than a factual knowledge base in order tobecome scientifically literate. They need to develop skills and attitudesthat are appropriate for critical thinking and problem solving. Givenopportunities to use resources, analyze information, and criticallyevaluate problems and solutions, students will be better prepared for lifein the 21st century. In order to assess the students' growth in these areas,diverse assessment strategies should be used.

How and what we assess sends a clear message about what isimportant. Traditionally, we have almost exclusively valued students'success at retaining and reproducing assigned information withinestablished time limits. Time has been the constant; performance hasbeen the variable. When factual knowledge is emphasized, students mayconclude that remembering facts is the goal. When opportunities forimprovement are not provided, students may conclude thatimprovement is not valued. If higher-order thinking, problem solving,and critical thinking are valued, then classroom assessment needs tolend value to them.

Alternative assessments encourage creativity and will allowstudents to demonstrate knowledge in different ways. An additionaladvantage in using alternative assessments is that growth can bemeasured for each student wherever they may be on the learningcontinuum. Students stretch to reach new levels, competing only withthemselves rather than against other students.

Getting Started in Alternative AssessmentIn this chapter you will find brief descriptions and examples of

selected alternative assessment techniques. Traditional objective testsare not included since teachers are familiar with them and abundantexamples are readily available.

The process of incorporating and using a broader array ofassessment methods can:

sharpen teachers' thinking about the meaning ofstudent success in science,improve the quality of instruction that teachersdesign for students, andencourage students to evaluate the quality of theirown work.

5 -

Changing assessment practices is not a simple linear, lock-stepprocess that all teachers follow in a prescribed manner. Rather, it is aprocess of becoming more purposeful about:

the clarification of goals for student performance,the design of learning experiences in support ofthese goals,the use of assessment methods that match desiredgoals, andthe use of grading systems that reflect the student'sachievement of these goals.

The benefits of exploring a variety of assessment methods lie asmuch in the conversations they engender between and among teachersand students as they do in the information they provide on studentcompetence. Students as well as teachers often become empowered asassessment becomes a dynamic, interactive conversation about progressusing interviews, journals, projects, and portfolios. Through theseassessment methods, the teacher relates to students more as a facilitator,coach, or critic rather than as an authority figure who dispenses allinformation and knowledge.

Hints for Getting Started in Alternative AssessmentShare successes with other teachers.Analyze tests used in the past and try toincorporate new assessment strategies.Start a folder of assessment samples from testbanks and published articles.Review hands-on activities and develop rubrics thatcould effectively assess student performance onthese tasks.Develop a system for using a variety ofassessment data in determining student grades.Identify colleagues who have experience inalternative assessment and use them as resources.

Continuous Quality AssessmentA new movement in student assessment, Continuous Quality

Improvement (CQI), presents a positive outlook for education andstudent achievement. Traditional assessment sometimes produces afalse record of student achievement. For example, if a student were toearn a series of test grades, such as 30%, 60%, 95% and 100%, thestudent has apparently improved in mastery of the material. Yet, theaverage would be 71%. This does not demonstrate that mastery wasachieved and would actually be an unsatisfactory grade average.

65

CQI more truly reflects a student's knowledge base. Its results canbe rewarding for students and teachers.

With a specific set of criteria established prior tothe assignment, the student knows what theexpectations of success are. The criteria may bedesigned by both the teacher and student.If the criteria are met, the student will then earn a"Q" for Quality; if not, a "NY" for Not Yet Quality.The student may repeat the assignment at theinstructor's discretion until "Quality" is achieved.The student is not penalized for not achievingquality immediately.All students have the opportunity to succeed.

How to transfer CQI to traditional grade sheetsA teacher can convert "Q's" and "NY's" to letter grades. The

teacher counts the number of assignments and divides them into 100.For example, if a teacher made ten (10) assignments, they would beworth ten points apiece. To weight a major assignment more heavily,assessments in multiple categories may be recorded. A sample formatfollows:

Research Paper 1 Quality (10 points)Presentation: Research 1 Quality (10 points)Presentation: Visual Aid 1 Quality (10 points)Presentation: Creativity 1 Quality (10 points)Lab Performance 1 1 Quality (10 points)Lab Performance 2 1 Quality (10 points)Discussion 1 Quality (10 points)Problem-Solving Activities 1 Quality (10 points)Unit Quiz 1 Quality (10 points)Journal 1 Quality (10 points)

Compute each assignment as worth 10 points. If quality is achieved,then the total of 10 would be given. If a "NY" is given and neverreworked, then 5 points are earned. If the assignment is not done, thena 0 would be earned. A scale of 100 would be used to compute apercentage.

0 0

When studentsdesign their own

rubrics, theycreate a sense of

ownership,relevance andcommitment,

critical factors increating andmaintaining

learnermotivation.

RubricsThe term rubric, rather than scoring key, is used to refer to the

guidelines laid out on performance-based tasks. Rubrics spell out indetailed language what learning is expected and the standard forproducts and performances. Rubrics are designed for reporting results,scoring, and coaching students to a higher level of performance.Furthermore, because rubrics are determined in advance, they provideclarity of focus for students and teachers. Rubrics are also helpful toolsin increasing student competencies in the areas of self management,peer assistance, and self evaluation.

Developing a Rubric

Building a rubric is an ongoing process. Rethinking, refining, andrewriting are a part of the process. Students, teachers, parents andothers can offer valuable insight and objectivity . It is important to havea purpose for the rubric and to be certain that the rubric supports thatpurpose.

Determine which concepts, skills, or performancestandards you are assessing.List the concepts and rewrite them into statementswhich reflect both cognitive and performancecomponents.Identify the most important concepts or skills beingassessed in the task.Based on the purpose of your task, determine thenumber of points to be used for the rubric (ex-ample: 4-point scale or 6-point scale).Based on the purpose of your assessment, decide ifyou will use an analytic rubric or a holistic rubric*.Starting with the desired performance, determinethe description for each score remembering to usethe importance of each element of the task orperformance to determine the score or level of therubric.Compare student work to the rubric. Record theelements that caused you to assign a given rating tothe work.Revise the rubric descriptions based on perfor-mance elements reflected by the student work thatyou did not capture in your draft rubric.

67

Rethink your scale: Does a [ [ -point scaledifferentiate enough between types of student workto satisfy you?Adjust the scale if necessary. Reassess student workand score it against the developing rubric.

* Analytic rubric vs. Holistic rubric:

Analytic: Assigning separate scores for different traitsor dimensions of a student's work. The separatescores should total your predetermined amount.

Holistic: Assigning one overall score based on thecombination of performance standards beingassessed.

Sample Rubrics to use for Student Products, Projects, and ProblemSolving

Does the product reflect that the student made validinferences from data sources that varied in complete-ness and quality?4=The product reflects that the student made valid

inferences from data sources that varied incompleteness or quality.

3=The product reflects that the student made invalidinferences from data sources that varied incompleteness or quality.

2=The product lacks inference from data sources thatvaried in completeness or quality.

1=The product lacks evidence that the student used datasources.

Does the product show evidence that the student reachedvalid conclusions based on data analysis and displayedthe results of the analysis in appropriate formats (e.g.graphs, charts, tables, pictures and other reprentations)?4=The product shows evidence that the student reached

valid conclusions based on data analysis anddisplayed the results of the analysis in appropriateformats.

3=The product shows evidence that the student reachedvalid conclusions based on data analysis anddisplayed the results of the analysis in inappropriateformats.

"Multiple choicetests have theirplace, but so do

portfolios,observations,

performance tests,student interviews,

and eyhibitions.Once teachers areclear on what theyhope to accomplishwith their students,

choosingappropriateassessment

methods follows."

68

2=The product shows evidence that the studentreached conclusions not based on data analysis anddisplayed the results of the analysis in appropriateformats. OR The product shows evidence that thestudent reached valid conclusions based on dataanalysis but lacked evidenceof the analysis.

1=The product shows no evidence of data analysis.

PortfoliosPortfolios refer to the process of assessing student progress by

collecting examples of student products. Physically, it is a container ofevidence of a student's achievements, competencies, or skills. It is apurposeful collection in the sense that the collection is meant to tell astory about achievement or growth in a particular area. Portfoliosrepresent complex, qualitative, and progressive pictures of studentaccomplishments.

The use of portfolios, like any assessment method, starts with aconsideration of purposes. A properly designed assessment portfoliocan serve four important purposes. It allows:

teachers to assess the growth of students' learning,students to keep a record of theirachievements and progress,teacher and parents to communicate about studentwork, and/orteachers to collaborate with other teachers toreflect on their instructional program.

An essential step for determining what to include in a portfolio isto answer the question: What should students know and be able to do?This establishes criteria by which the quality of a task is judged. Aportfolio may include, but is not limited to:

a table of contents,a description of the concepts to be mastered,artifacts that demonstrate the student'smastery of concepts,evidence of self reflection,a series of work samples showing growth over time,examples of best work,assessment information and/or copies of rubrics,andprogress notes contributed by student and teachercollaboratively.

ASSESSMENT

A portfolio may be as simple as a large expandable file folder in aplace that is easily accessible to students and teacher. The locationinvites student and teacher contributions on an ongoing basis.

It is important for students to review their portfolios to assess whatthey have achieved. It is in self reflection that the student realizesprogress and gains ownership in learning and achievement.

Performance AssessmentKnowledge and understanding are tightly linked to the

development of important process skills such as observing, measuring,graphing, writing, and analyzing. The teacher can assess such skilldevelopment by observing student performance. Many science teachershave experience with performance assessment through the use of labpracticals.

It is important to note that developing scoring guidelines forperformance assessment requires careful analysis of student responsesto accurately assess performance levels.

Open-Ended QuestionsOpen-ended questions are highly compatible with the current

emphasis on teaching students to become active complex thinkers andeffective communicators.

Open-ended questions can assess a variety of instructional goals,including:

conceptual understanding,application of knowledge via creative writing,the use of science process skills, anddivergent thinking skills.

If open-ended questions are to be included on a test that will begraded, it is important that teachers prepare students for expectationsthat may be new to them. Student anxiety over open-ended testquestions could be reduced by sharing examples of model studentresponses and providing opportunities for practice.

Grading open-ended questions involves interpreting the quality ofthe response in terms of some criterion. Several suggestions for ratingopen-ended questions are offered below.

Determine in advance the elements expected in ananswer.Communicate the criteria that will be assessed.Read a sampling of answers before assigninggrades to get an idea of the range of responses toeach question.

70

Some suggestions for open-ended questions that lead to higher orderthinking are listed below.

What is the relationship between ...?How might this principle be applied to ...?What are some of the limitations of the data?How might this information be used in another area?

Open-Ended LabsOpen-ended labs are exploration activities in which students are

responsible for all aspects of the experimental design. (Students mustdemonstrate sufficient knowledge of content, process and safetyprocedures before they are permited to proceed in order to ensure a safeand meaningful laboratory experience.) Assessing open-ended labsrequires teachers to recognize that not all students will choose to explorethe same aspect of a given problem. Students should be able to explainand justify each step of their procedure. Evaluation may be based on:

reasoning skills,the ability to identify the question,the experimental design,documentation of data,drawing conclusions from data, andteamwork.

Self AssessmentStudent self assessment questionnaires are helpful in determining

how students perceive their knowledge, skills, or the quality of theirwork. When used appropriately, self assessments actively involve studentsin reflecting on their learning process and emphasize the importance ofstudents' awareness about what they know and what they need to know.

Teachers may find it helpful to present a science selfassessment at the beginning, middle, and end of theschool year to monitor student changes in attitudestowards science and their individual successeswithin a given class.

Students may be requested to includeself assessments as a part of project andportfolio assignments.

71

ASSESSMENT

Groups or teams may be required to evaluateindividual and group performance related toteamwork and responsibility and to makerecommendations for improving group performanceon future projects.

Students can be asked to evaluate their understanding of conceptsat any point in the instructional process. A teacher might announcefuture topics (e.g., carbohydrates, starch, glucose, digestion) and askstudents to rate each concept using the following key:

1 = I have never heard of it.2 = I have heard of it but do not understand it.3 = I think I understand it partially.4 = I know and understand it.5 = I can explain it to a friend.

Such an approach to assessing students' understanding is lessthreatening than a pre-test and can give students a sense of the differentlevels of knowledge, particularly if used frequently in a class situation.Results of student ratings of each concept could be tabulated as a classactivity, which may promote positive peer interactions and expandlearning opportunities.

Peer AssessmentPeer assessment occurs every time students collaborate on

assignments, explain their understanding of a topic to another, or asktheir neighbor in class how to proceed with a lab experiment. Manytimes the most valued opinions and assessments are those whichstudents determine with one another.

Peer assessment requires students to put aside any biases towardeach other and truly reflect on accomplishments. Procedures and criteriafor peer assessment should be developed with the class. By assessingothers' work, students often see alternative reasoning patterns anddevelop an appreciation for the diverse ways of approaching problems.Some advantages of peer assessment are:

increased quality of performance,improved cooperative attitudes, andenhanced leadership skills.

72

Teacher ObservationSome goals and objectives can only be assessed by observation. For

example, it is difficult to imagine how a teacher would assess students'team problem-solving skills or success at independent lab work withoutobserving them. The three types of teacher observation are informal,structured and narrative.

Informal ObservationsTeachers constantly observe students and make assessments about

their performance that influence future instruction. With informalobservations, teachers observe with no predetermined focus. Theinformation gathered may be used for parent or student conferences.Informal observations occur daily, and occasionally teachers may wantto record information from their observations.

Structured ObservationsThe components of structured observations include a specified

focus and a sample behavior to be observed systematically. Theinformation may be used to show which students need improvement orto give students feedback about how they are improving.

NarrativesProgress on some objectives can be tracked best through narrative

records of observed behavior. A narrative is a written record. Suchnarratives are particularly appropriate for complex behaviors, such asgroup interactions, which cannot be described effectively with achecklist. For example, a teacher might observe and describe a cooperativeteam learning activity. Over time, a series of these narratives mightdemonstrate how students improved in working as a team.

InterviewsIn an interview, the teacher questions students individually about

learning. A series of probing questions can be developed that are usefulin deciding how to help students improve their performance. Manybenefits can result from interviews:

Rapport is encouraged and student motivation maybe increased.Students who are intimidated by written tests mayexpress what they understand in a less threateningcontext.Interviews provide teachers the opportunity toprobe and ask follow-up questions in ways thatchallenge students to think beyond their currentlevel of understanding and to organize theirknowledge in more systematic ways.

73

Some suggestions for effective interviewing follow:Keep the tone of the interview positive andconstructive. Remember to avoid giving verbal cuesor exhibiting facial expressions that can beinterpreted as meaning that an answer is incorrect.Let students respond without interruptions and givethem time to think before they respond.Try to keep interviews short, and focus on relevantquestions.

JournalsA journal is a student's record of activities and reflections. Journals

are dynamic assessment tools that promote communication between theteacher and student, reflection on what students are learning, and activeinvolvement in classroom activities.

Journals can also be used to assess attitudes toward science. Torealize the full potential of the journal, the teacher should probe,challenge, or ask for elaborations about the entries submitted.

Assessment of journals depends on the purpose of the journal andthe age of the student. The act of keeping a journal can be considered agoal in itself if a teacher wants the students to structure or feel ownershipof their own learning, and the criterion for success of this objective mightsimply be the completion of the assigned journal entries.

Products and ProjectsProducts can include models, drawings, stories, videotapes, and any

other objects by which students demonstrate what they know. Modelsand drawings allow students to use tactile skills to represent ideas,feelings, structures, or concepts. Oral and dramatic presentations helpstudents with public speaking skills and reinforce their own knowledgeand that of the audience. Whenever possible, other classes, the community,and families could be invited to participate in the presentation.

Projects are assignments that require students to perform morethan one type of activity or task. Projects usually result in one or moreproducts, and may include a research paper. Sharing the project with theclass or another audience should be encouraged.

The variety of products and projects that students may produce isimmense. The following are examples of products and projects.

Build a model cell.Build a model human.Establish a classroom zoo.Present a favorite scientist in costume.

74

Create an interdisciplinary Medieval Fair.Gather items for a semester long scavenger hunt(dicot seed, bone from an endotherm, a third classlever, a substance made of only one element, aforce-measuring device, a marine arthropod).

Criteria for evaluating products and projects should be establishedand understood before work begins.

Graphic OrganizersGraphic organizers allow students to organize large amounts of

information in a limited space, usually one page. Student-developedgraphic organizers can be displayed to show how other students haveconnected ideas.

Examples of graphic organizers include concept maps, diagrams,word webs, idea balloons, and Vee diagrams.

See page 47 for an example of a concept map.

"A wise question is half of knowledge."

-Lord Bacon

75

PROGRAM EVALUATION

Improving science programs is a continuous process that re-quires regular evaluation of purposes, context, resources, methods, andprogram goals.

It is important that the success of district science programs beevaluated on a regular, on-going basis. Information should be collectedand reviewed within the context of current research and reform criteria.Informal evaluation will take place as part of the day-to-day activity ofteaching and learning. Formal program evaluations may include infor-mation gathered from the following sources:

questionnaires,

+ interviews,

+ school statistics (enrollment in subjects, electives),

evidence of student performance,

reports from external evaluators such as theSouthern Association of Colleges and Schools.

Systemic change takes time and succeeds only in anenvironment that permits people to do things differently. Effectiveschool and district science improvement must provide time forimplementation, practice, reflection, revision, and renewal.

"To grow is to change,and to become perfect

is to have changedmany times."

76

Teaching Strategy References

Conflicting ViewpointsKuhn, D. (1991). The Skills of Argument. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge

University Press.

Kuhn, D. (1992). Science as argument: implications for teaching andlearning scientific thinking skills. Manuscript submitted forpublication.

Cooperative LearningAndrini, B. (1990). Cooperative Learning & Mathematics. San Juan

Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers.

Gibbs, J. (1994). TRIBES: A New Way of Learning Together. Santa Rosa,CA: Center Source Publications.

Shaw, V. (1992). Community Building in the Classroom. San JuanCapistrano, CA: Kagar Cooperative Learning.

Discrepant EventsLien, T. (1990). Invitations to Science Inquiry. Chino Hills, CA: Science

Inquiry Enterprises.

Integrated Thematic ApproachKovalik, S . and Olsen, K. (1991). Kids Eye View of Science: A Teachers

Handbook for Implementing an Integrated Thematic Approach toTeaching Science, K-6. Village of Oak Creek, CA: Center for theFuture of Public Education.

Kovalik, S. with Olsen, K. (1993). Integrated Thematic Instruction: TheModel. Village of Oak Creek, CA: Susan Kovalik and Associates.

Laboratory InvestigationsRowell, J. and Dawson, C. (1984). Controlling variables: testing a

programme for teaching a general solution strategy. Research inScience and Technological Education, 2(1), 37-46.

Wollman, W. and Lawson, A. (1977). Teaching the procedure ofcontrolled experimentation: a Piagetial approach. ScienceEducation, 61, 57-70.

REFERENCES

The Learning CycleLawson, A., Abraham, M., and Renner, J. (1989). A them), of instruction:

using the learning cycle to teach science concepts and thinkingskills. Cincinnati, OH: National Association for Research in ScienceTeaching.

Novak, J. and Gowin, D. (1984). Learning How to Learn. Cambridge,MA: Cambridge University Press.

MisconceptionsArnaudin, M. and Mintzes, J. (1986). The cardiovascular system:

children's conceptions and misconceptions. Science and Children,23(5), 48-51.

Bar, V. (1989). Children's views about the water cycle. ScienceEducation, 73, 481-500.

Brown, D. and Clement, J. (1989). Overcoming misconceptions viaanalogical reasoning: abstract transfer versus explanatory modelconstruction. Instructional Science, 18, 237-261.

Jugwirth, E. (1987). Avoidance of logical fallacies: a neglected aspectof science and education and science-teacher education. Researchin Science and Technolgical Education, 5, 43-58.

Stepans, J. (1994). Targeting Students: Misconceptions: Physical ScienceActivities Using the Conceptual Change Model. Riverview, FL: IdeaFactory, Inc.

Multiple IntelligencesArmstrong, T. (1987). In Their Own Way. Los Angeles, CA:

J.P. Tarcher, Inc.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: BasicBooks, Inc.

Lazear, D. (1991). Seven Ways of Teaching. Palatine, IL: SkylightPublishing.

Lazear, D. (1994). Seven Pathways of Learning. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press.

78

4MATMcCarthy, B. (1980). The 4MAT System. Barrington, IL: Excel, Inc.

McCarthy, B. (1990). 4 MAT in Action II. Barrington, IL: Excel, Inc.

McCarthy, B. (1990). Using the 4MAT system to bring learning stylesto schools. Educational Leadership, October, 31-39.

Concept MappingHorton, P., McConney, A., Gallow, M., Woods, A; Gary, S., and Hamlin,

D. (1993). An investigation of the effectivenes of concept mappingas an instructional tool. Science Education, 77(1), 95-111.

Yager, R.E. (1991). The constructivist learning model. The ScienceTeacher, September, 52-57.

ModelsGrosslight, L., Unger, C., Jay, E., and Smith, C. (1991). Understanding

models and their use in science: conceptions of middle and highschool students and experts. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 28, 799-822.

Problem SolvingHennessy, S., McCormick, R., and Murphy, P. The myth of general

problem-solving capability: design and technology as an example.Curriculum Journal, (in press).

Micklus, C. (1989). Problems to Challenge Creativity. Glassboro, NJ:Creative Competitions, Inc.

Micklus, C. (1990). Problems! Problems! Problems! Glassboro, NJ:Creative Competitions, Inc.

Questioning TechniquesCosta, A. and Lowry, L. (1989). Techniques for Teaching Thinking. CA:

Midwest Publications.

Reflective ThinkingBaird, J., Fensham, P., Gunstone, R., and White, R. (1989). A study of

the importance of reflecting for improving teaching and learning.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Associationfor Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco.

Kitchener, K. (1983). Educational goals and reflective thinking. TheEducational Forum, Fall 75-95.

79

Assessment References

Hart, D. (1994). Authentic Assessment. Menlo Park, CA: AddisonWesley, Inc.

McColskey, W, and O'Sullivan, R. (1993). How to Assess StudentPerformance in Science: Going Beyond Multiple-Choice Tests.Tallahassee, FL: SERVE

National Center for Improving Science Education. Assessment in ScienceEducation: The Middle Years. Colorado Springs, CO: NETWORK,Inc.

National Center for Improving Science Education. (1989). Assessmentin Elementary School Science Education. Colorado Springs, CO:NETWORK, Inc.

General References

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993).Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York, NY: Oxford UniversityPress.

A Tool Kit for Professional Developers: Alternative Assessment.(1991). Portland, OR: Laboratory Network Program.

Gardner, H. (1989). The Mind's New Science A History of theCognitive Revolution. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc.

Hall, G. (1992). The local educational change process and policyimplementation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(8),877-904.

Hewson, P. and Hewson, M. (1988). An appropriate conception ofteaching science: a view from studies of science learning. ScienceEducation, 72(5), 597-614.

Lazear, D. (1991). Seven Ways of Knowing. Palatine, IL: SkylightPublishing.

Pearsall, M., ed. (1992). Scope, Sequence, and Coordinationof SecondarySchool Science: Relevant Research. Washington, DC: The NationalScience Teachers Association.

80

REFERENCES

Pearsall, M., ed. (1993). Scope, Sequence, and Coordinationof SecondarySchool Science: The Content Core. Washington, DC: The NationalScience Teachers Association.

Rutherford, J. and Ahlgren, A. (1990). Science for All Americans. NewYork, NY: Oxford University Press.

Schamel, D. and Ayres, M. (1992). Minds-on approach: student creativityand personal involvement in the undergraduate science laboratory.Journal of College Science Teaching, 21(4), 226-229.

Science for AllStudents. (1993). Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department ofEducation.

"What we call the beginningis often the end

And to make an end is tomake a beginning

The end is where we start from."

-T.S. Eliot

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