DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 387 286 RC 020 231

AUTHOR Laosa, Luis M.; Henderson, Ronald W.TITLE Cognitive Socialization and Competence: The Academic

Development of Chicanos. Chapter 7.PUB DATE 93

NOTE 38p.; In: Chicano School Failure and Success:Research and Policy Agendas for the 1990s; see RC 020224.

PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Academic Achievement; *Child Development; Children;

*Cognitive Development; Competence; Early ChildhoodEducation; Educational Research; Elementary SchoolStudents; Elementary Secondary Education; FamilyCharacteristics; *Family Environment; FamilyInfluence; *Mexican American Education; MexicanAmericans; Parent Child Relationship;*Socialization

IDENTIFIERS *Chicanos; Hispanic American Students

ABSTRACTThis chapter focuses on the innermost level of

Bronfenbrenner's four-level conception of the human environmentalecology, namely the microsystem, and more specifically, the child'ssocialization in the family. Following discussion of concepts relatedto socialization, competence, and environmental ecology, selectedresearch studies are reviewed to illuminate various factors withinthe family setting that may influence Chicano children's academicdevelopment. Such factors include the mother-child relationship,maternal teaching behaviors, mother's educational attainment, familysize and sibling structure, socioeconomic status, home language,single parenting, home environmental processes (parent behaviors),and parent beliefs and aspiration. Also reviewed are interventionexperiments that involved training parents to adopt behaviors that

cilitated their children's academic success, and studies of theeffects of parents' beliefs on boys' and girls' mathematicsachievement. In addition to the family, the microsystem containsother settings that can be important socializers and determinants ofacademic development, including the school itself, the peer group,and the media. More research is needed to examine how thesocialization process interacts with other levels of theenvironmental ecology to create and maintain patterns of ethnic groupdifferences in academic learning, scholastic motivation, and movementthrough the schooling process. Contains 139 references. (SV)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

Chapter 7

COGNITIVE SOCIALIZATION AND COMPETENCE: THE

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHICANOS

Luis M. Laosa and Ronald W. Henderson

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

ND( FALMER PRESS )

TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER FRICI.

U S DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION!-,Pr e t Oucahoh eh()FOUCATIONAl RF SOURCES INFORMATIoN

CF/.3 11o0yrnent has Deer, ,ep,no./, ea as,e(thvacl on. Ihh Or'SOn r-rrgp,rialo,-orrginal.ng

ki nor frranges nilr Orr, ale yrreDrOCIrr IOn Quart,

IJIhnOnS Vale/ h.h,s ,'nen! 10 rni ^e- esSyrIrry reprOsPr. it., a!If PI 005.1,, or I.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Cha

pter

7

Cog

nitiv

e So

cial

izat

ion

and

Com

pete

nce:

The

Aca

dem

icD

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

Lui

s M

. Lao

sa a

nd R

onal

d W

. Hen

ders

on

It is

now

wel

l kno

wn

that

Chi

cano

s,' a

s a

grou

p, a

ttain

con

side

rabl

y lo

y er

leve

lsof

aca

dem

ic a

chie

vem

ent t

han

the

natio

nal a

vera

ge (

Oru

m, 1

986;

Val

enci

a, c

hap-

ter

1, th

is v

olum

e). T

his

is a

ser

ious

and

per

sist

ent p

robl

em f

acin

g ed

ucat

ors

at a

llle

vels

of

the

US

educ

atio

nal s

yste

m. M

ore

than

an

educ

atio

nal p

robl

em, h

ow-

ever

, thi

s st

ate

of a

ffai

rs h

as b

ecom

e a

pres

sing

soc

ial i

ssue

of

grow

ing

sign

ific

ance

and

urge

nt p

ublic

con

cern

, giv

en th

at th

is e

thni

c gr

oup

repr

esen

ts a

rap

idly

expa

ndin

g pr

opor

tion

of th

e U

S po

pula

tion

(US

Bur

eau

of th

e C

ensu

s, 1

988)

.N

ever

thel

ess,

ther

e is

littl

e ag

reem

ent a

bout

the

caus

es o

f th

e pr

oble

m. O

ur g

oal

in th

is c

hapt

er is

to p

rovi

de a

con

text

that

we

hope

con

trib

utes

tow

ard

a co

n-st

ruct

ive

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

thes

e ca

uses

. To

this

end

, wc

rela

te th

e qu

estio

n of

caus

es to

theo

ry a

nd r

esea

rch

bear

ing

on s

ocia

lizat

ion

proc

esse

s an

d th

e de

velo

p-m

ent o

f co

mpe

tenc

e in

chi

ldre

n an

d yo

uth.

Soci

aliz

atio

n

Alth

ough

ther

e is

son

ic: v

aria

tion

in h

ow s

chol

ars

of d

iffe

rent

dis

cipl

ines

and

theo

retic

al o

rien

tatio

ns c

once

ptua

lize

it, c

urre

nt d

efin

ition

s of

soc

ializ

atio

n ca

n be

sum

med

up

as th

e pr

oces

s w

here

by th

e in

divi

dual

acq

uire

s th

e va

lues

, bel

iefs

,w

ays

of th

inki

ng, b

ehav

ior

patte

rns,

and

oth

er p

erso

nal,

yet s

ocia

l, at

trib

utes

that

will

cha

ract

eriz

e th

e pe

rson

in th

e ne

xt p

hase

of

his

or h

er d

evel

opm

ent.

Mos

tco

ncis

ely

put,

the

stud

y of

soc

ializ

atio

n fo

cuse

s on

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f th

e pe

rson

as a

par

ticip

ant i

n so

ciet

y (f

or a

rev

iew

of

the

evol

utio

n of

the

conc

ept s

ee'(:

laus

en, 1

%8)

.So

t lal

izat

ion

mav

be

view

ed f

rom

the

pers

pect

ive

of th

e in

divi

dual

or

from

that

of

a co

llect

ivity

be it

the

larg

er s

ocie

ty o

r a

cons

titue

nt g

roup

. Som

ew

rite

rs p

ut th

e st

ress

on

the

indi

vidu

al's

lear

ning

or

deve

lopm

ent;

othe

rs e

mph

a-si

ze th

e so

cial

app

arat

us th

at in

flue

nces

suc

h le

arni

ng a

nd th

at d

efin

es f

or th

ein

divi

dual

the

rang

e of

wha

t is

acce

ptab

le. I

n ei

ther

cas

e, s

ocia

lizat

ion

impl

ies

that

ith

e in

divi

dual

is in

duce

d in

som

e m

easu

re to

con

form

to th

e w

ays

of th

e so

ciet

y

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

or o

f a

part

icul

ar g

roup

. Soc

ializ

atio

n an

d so

cial

con

trol

ther

efor

e go

han

d in

hand

; the

y ar

e co

mpl

emen

tary

pro

cess

es. S

ocia

l con

trol

res

ts la

rgel

y on

the

tran

smis

sion

of

norm

s th

roug

h so

cial

izat

ion.

Mor

eove

r, a

s C

laus

en f

urth

er r

e-m

inds

us,

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

soc

ial c

ontr

ol d

epen

ds 'o

n th

e re

crui

tmen

t and

soci

aliz

atio

n of

(w

ittin

g or

unw

ittin

g) c

ontr

ol a

gent

s' (

1968

, p. 6

). A

s an

und

er-

lyin

g ba

sis

for

soci

al c

ontr

ol, s

ocia

lizat

ion

lead

s th

e ne

w m

embe

r to

adh

ere

to th

eno

rms

of th

e so

ciet

y or

of

the

grou

p an

d to

bec

ome

com

mitt

ed to

its

futu

re(C

laus

en, 1

968)

.T

he p

roce

ss o

f so

cial

izin

g th

e gr

owin

g ch

ild ta

kes

plac

e th

roug

h m

any

aven

ues,

incl

udin

g sc

hool

s, te

levi

sion

, and

pee

rs; b

ut th

e fa

mily

gen

eral

ly is

, .at

leas

t for

you

ng c

hild

ren,

the

prim

ary

aren

a fo

r so

cial

izat

ion.

In

rece

nt y

ears

, the

reha

s be

en a

gro

win

g aw

aren

ess

that

soc

ializ

atio

n is

not

alw

ays

a un

idir

ectio

nal

proc

ess;

ther

e is

evi

denc

e th

at c

hild

ren

infl

uenc

e th

eir

pare

nts

or te

ache

rs a

s w

ell

as v

ice

vers

a (f

or r

evie

ws

of r

esea

rch

see

Bro

phy

and

Goo

d, 1

974;

Dus

ek a

ndJo

seph

, 198

3; H

ende

rson

, 198

0; L

aosa

, 197

7a; M

acco

by a

nd M

artin

, 198

3; P

eter

-so

n an

d R

ollin

s, 1

987;

Sig

el, D

reye

r an

d M

cGill

icud

dy-D

eLis

i, 19

84).

But

, as

Mac

coby

and

Mar

tin (

1983

) ca

utio

n us

, thi

s id

ea s

houl

d no

t lea

d us

to lo

se s

ight

of th

e en

orm

ous

diff

eren

tial i

n po

wer

that

exi

sts

betw

een

an a

dult

and

a ch

ild,

and

the

pote

ntia

l for

asy

mm

etry

thus

invo

lved

.A

lthou

gh th

e po

int i

s se

ldom

cle

arly

mad

e, s

ocia

lizat

ion

is b

y no

mea

nsal

way

s a

purp

osiv

e en

deav

or. I

t com

pris

es, o

f co

urse

, situ

atio

ns in

whi

ch a

soci

aliz

atio

n ag

ent c

onsc

ious

ly s

eeks

to m

odif

y or

mol

d th

e in

divi

dual

tow

ard

mor

e or

less

cle

arly

env

isio

ned

outc

omes

. But

the

conc

ept a

lso

incl

udes

the

kind

sof

inci

dent

al le

arni

ng, o

t exp

erie

ncin

g, th

at o

ccur

, oft

en u

nwitt

ingl

y, w

hen

one

lives

am

ong

othe

rs. S

ome

dim

ensi

ons

of th

e so

cial

izat

ion

proc

ess

are

inde

ed q

uite

subt

le, a

nd o

nly

with

dif

ficu

lty c

an th

ey b

e br

ough

t int

o aw

aren

ess.

Thi

s ch

arac

-te

rist

ic d

oes

not m

ake

them

insi

gnif

ican

t or

inco

nseq

uent

ial.

On

the

cont

rary

, it i

sju

st b

ecau

se th

ey a

re f

requ

ently

sub

tle a

nd o

utsi

de o

f ou

r im

med

iate

aw

aren

ess

that

the

stud

y of

soc

ializ

atio

n pr

oces

s an

d ou

tcom

es b

ecom

es a

par

ticul

arly

chal

leng

ing

ende

avor

.So

cial

and

beh

avio

ral s

cien

tists

are

not

alo

ne in

thei

r se

nsiti

vity

to th

eim

plic

atio

ns o

f' th

e in

divi

dual

's e

xper

ienc

e fo

r hi

s or

her

dev

elop

men

t and

pub

licbe

havi

or a

s a

mem

ber

of th

e so

ciet

y. P

aren

ts, e

duca

tors

, and

oth

er s

ocia

lizat

ion

agen

ts g

ener

ally

hav

e in

min

d so

me

conc

eptio

n of

wha

t the

chi

ld is

'sup

pose

d to

beco

me'

and

of

the

role

that

any

chi

ld-r

eari

ng o

r ed

ucat

iona

l pra

ctic

e m

ay p

lay

inac

hiev

ing

or h

inde

ring

the

desi

red

outc

ome

(Ink

eles

, 196

8b; L

aosa

, 198

3). T

his

scns

itivi

y is

als

o ev

iden

t in

the

grow

ing

publ

ic c

once

rn o

ver

the

impa

ct o

n th

efu

ture

of

the

soci

ety

of p

ersi

sten

t poo

r ac

adem

ic a

chie

vem

ent b

y an

eve

r ex

pand

-in

g C

hica

no p

opul

atio

n. T

hat i

s, th

ere

is a

n ur

gent

con

cern

with

the

abili

ty o

f th

epr

esen

t gen

erat

ion

of y

oung

chi

ldre

n in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

esan

incr

easi

ngpr

opor

tion

of w

hom

are

Chi

cano

s an

d si

mila

rly

situ

ated

min

oriti

esto

mai

n-ta

in, u

pon

beco

min

g ad

ults

, the

nat

ion'

s te

chno

logi

cal a

nd e

cono

mic

com

peti-

tiven

ess

and

to s

uppo

rt a

dequ

atel

y th

e ag

ing

mai

nstr

eam

pop

ulat

ion.

Thi

s is

aw

ell-

foun

ded

conc

ern,

and

itis

ref

lect

ed p

erha

ps n

owhe

re b

ette

r th

an in

the

rece

nt s

pate

of

repo

rts

by li

ztio

nal a

nd r

egio

nal c

omm

issi

ons

on th

e st

atus

of

yout

h an

d ed

ucat

ion

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

(B

oard

of

Inqu

iry,

198

5; N

atio

nal

Com

mis

sion

on

Exc

elle

nce

in E

duca

tion,

198

3; R

egio

nal P

olic

y C

omm

ittee

on

Min

oriti

es in

Hig

her

Edu

catio

n, 1

987;

You

th a

nd A

mer

ica'

s Fu

ture

, 198

8).

416

5

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

Com

pete

nce

Whe

reas

soc

ializ

atio

n re

fers

to th

e pr

oces

sw

here

by a

ttrib

utes

are

acq

uire

d, th

e

conc

ept o

f co

mpe

tenc

e st

ress

esth

e en

d pr

oduc

t, na

mel

y, th

e pe

rson

as

he o

rsh

e is

afti

r ha

ving

bee

n so

cial

ized

. Soc

ializ

atio

nan

d co

mpe

tenc

e ar

e th

us in

timat

ely

linke

d co

ncep

ts (

Inke

les,

I96

8a; L

aosa

, 197

9/19

89,

1983

). G

ener

ally

, the

goa

l of

soci

aliz

atio

n is

to p

rodu

ce c

ompe

tent

peo

ple.

But

, spe

cifi

cally

, wha

t is

com

pe-

tenc

e? L

ay c

once

ptio

ns o

f co

mpe

tenc

e ar

ege

nera

lly b

road

and

eva

luat

ive.

Thu

s,th

e A

mer

ican

Her

itage

Dic

tiona

ry d

efin

es a

com

pete

ntpe

rson

as

one

who

is '1

.Pr

oper

ly o

r w

ell q

ualif

ied;

cap

able

.... 2

.A

dequ

ate

for

the

purp

ose;

suf

fici

ent'

(198

2, p

. 301

). O

n th

e ot

her

hand

,th

eore

tical

def

initi

ons

of c

ompe

tenc

e va

ryco

nsid

erab

ly, a

s di

ffer

ing

conc

eptio

ns o

f th

e te

rmha

ve b

een

adva

nced

in b

oth

the

psyc

holo

gica

l and

soc

iolo

gica

l lite

ratu

res.

In th

e se

nse

that

Whi

te (

1959

, 197

9)ha

s us

ed th

e te

rm, f

or e

xam

ple,

com

-pe

tenc

e re

fers

to th

e ex

erci

seof

beh

avio

rs th

at le

ad to

a f

eelin

g of

effi

cacy

and

thus

to a

sou

rce

of g

ratif

icat

ion

that

isun

iver

sally

and

spo

ntan

eous

ly s

ough

tby

all

hum

ans.

Thu

s, f

or W

hite

, com

pete

nce

is p

rim

arily

a b

iolo

gica

l con

ccpt

.H

uman

s, h

e ar

gued

, hav

e an

urg

e to

act

effe

ctiv

ely

on th

e en

viro

nmen

t, an

d a

prim

ary

fact

or in

dev

elop

ing

com

pete

nce

is h

ow s

elf-

grat

ifyi

ng o

r in

trin

sica

llyre

war

ding

one

's b

ehav

iora

l ini

tiativ

es a

re to

the

indi

vidu

al. O

n th

e ot

her

hand

, in

lnke

les'

(19

68a,

b)

conc

eptio

n, w

hich

isro

oted

in th

e st

ruct

ural

trad

ition

of

role

-sta

tus

theo

ry, t

he e

mph

asis

is u

pon

acqu

ired

info

rmat

ion,

ski

lls, m

otiv

es,

and

styl

es o

f th

inki

ng a

nd o

f ex

pres

sing

affe

ct. F

or I

nkel

es, t

hen,

com

pete

nce

isla

rgel

y a

mat

ter

of a

cqui

red

capa

citie

s fo

rro

le p

erfo

rman

ce. I

n hi

s vi

ew, c

ompe

-

tent

per

form

ance

is m

easu

red

agai

nst t

he r

ole

requ

irem

ents

of

the

vari

ous

stat

uses

or p

ositi

ons

in th

eso

cial

str

uctu

re th

at a

per

son

may

occ

upy.

From

yet

ano

ther

pers

pect

ive,

whi

ch s

tern

s fr

om th

esy

mbo

lic-i

nter

actio

nist

and

neo

-Fre

udia

ntr

aditi

ons,

the

focu

s is

on

the

inte

ract

iona

l pro

cess

in r

ole

rela

tions

hips

; in

this

form

ulat

ion,

rol

e re

latio

nshi

ps a

rc c

once

ived

prim

arily

in in

terp

erso

nal r

athe

rth

an s

ocia

l-st

ruct

ural

term

s (e

.g.,

Foot

ean

d C

ottr

ell,

1955

; see

als

o St

nith

, 196

8).

Vyg

otsk

y's

wri

tings

, whi

ch h

ave

attr

acte

dco

nsid

erab

le a

ttent

ion

amon

gde

velo

pmen

tal p

sych

olog

ists

in r

ecen

t yea

rs,

prov

ide

still

ano

ther

con

cept

ion

ofco

mpe

tenc

e. A

n at

trac

tive

feat

ure

of th

e V

ygot

skya

n pe

rspe

ctiv

e is

the

atte

mpt

it

repr

esen

ts to

avo

id th

ein

telle

ctua

l iso

latio

n ac

ross

dis

cipl

ines

that

fre

quen

tly

sepa

rate

s st

udie

s of

indi

vidu

alps

ycho

logy

fro

m r

esea

rch

on th

e so

cial

and

cult-

ural

env

iron

men

t in

whi

ch in

divi

dual

sliv

e (W

erts

ch, 1

985)

. For

Vyg

otsk

y,th

e

indi

vidu

al's

dev

elop

men

t is

an in

tegr

al p

art

of th

e so

cioc

ultu

ral s

ettin

g in

whi

ch

the

pers

on f

unct

ions

. Ind

eed,

ace

ntra

l ten

et o

f hi

s fo

rmul

atio

n is

that

men

tal

proc

esse

s ha

ve th

eir

orig

inin

soc

ial p

roce

sses

. Med

iatio

n is

ake

y co

ncep

t in

unde

rsta

ndin

g th

is r

elat

ion.

Spe

cifi

cally

,V

ygot

sky

defi

ned

deve

lopm

ent i

n te

rms

of th

e em

erge

nce

or tr

ansf

orm

atio

nof

for

ms

of m

edia

tion,

and

his

not

ion

of

So(

ial

inte

ract

ion

and

itsre

latio

n to

men

tal p

roce

sses

invo

lves

med

iatio

nal

inec

hani

snis

. He

argu

ed th

at m

enta

l pro

cess

es c

anbe

und

erst

ood

only

if w

eun

ders

tand

the

'tool

s an

d si

gns'

that

med

iate

them

. Too

ls a

nd s

igns

inth

is

form

ulat

ion

refe

r to

hab

its a

nd f

orm

sof

cul

tura

l beh

avio

r, c

ultu

ral

met

hods

of

reas

onin

g, a

nd th

ecu

ltura

l mea

ning

s of

par

ticul

ar s

timul

i.In

sho

rt, f

or V

ygot

sky

the

psyc

holo

gica

l cha

ract

eris

tics

of p

erso

l.s a

rc a

join

t, in

tera

ctiv

efu

nctio

n of

the

biol

ogic

al f

eatu

res

and

pote

ntia

litie

sof

the

hum

an s

peci

es, o

n th

e on

eha

nd, a

nd,

on th

e ot

her,

of

the

form

s of

psy

chol

ogic

al f

unct

ioni

ngan

d po

ssib

le s

ourc

es o

f

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos-

deve

lopm

ent e

xist

ing

in a

giv

en c

ultu

re o

r su

bcul

ture

at a

par

ticul

ar p

oint

in it

shi

stor

y. I

t thu

s fo

llow

s th

at th

e re

pert

oire

of

psyc

holo

gica

l pro

cess

es a

nd o

ut-.

com

es a

vaila

ble

as p

ossi

bilit

ies

for

indi

vidu

alde

velo

pmen

t can

var

y ac

ross

cul

-tu

res

or s

ubcu

lture

s, a

nd th

at a

ltera

tions

in s

ocia

l or

cultu

ral c

ondi

tions

can

bri

ngab

out d

ecis

ive

chan

ges

in f

orm

s of

beh

avio

r an

d m

odes

of

thou

ght (

Vyg

otsk

y,19

29, 1

978;

the

sam

e lin

e of

theo

rizi

ng is

fou

nd in

the

wor

k of

Lur

ia, 1

928,

197

6).

In s

ome

resp

ects

, Vyg

otsk

y's

view

s ar

e si

mila

r to

thc

long

stan

ding

trad

ition

in p

sych

olog

ical

ant

hrop

olog

y th

at a

rgue

s th

at d

iffe

rent

env

iron

men

tal

dem

ands

lead

to th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

diff

eren

t pat

tern

s of

abi

lity

(see

, e.g

., L

abor

ator

y of

Com

para

tive

Hum

an C

ogni

tion,

198

3). T

hese

con

cept

ions

are

com

patib

le w

ithL

aosa

's (

1979

/198

9) d

evel

opm

enta

l, so

cioc

ultu

rally

rel

ativ

istic

par

adig

m. F

rom

the

pers

pect

ive

of L

aosa

's p

arad

igm

, soc

ial c

ompe

tenc

e in

volv

es f

unct

iona

l ada

pta-

tions

to s

peci

fic

envi

ronm

ents

. Eac

h en

viro

nmen

t may

hav

e its

ow

n sp

ecif

icde

man

d ch

arac

teri

stic

s fo

r fu

nctio

nal a

dapt

atio

n, a

nd a

per

son'

s su

cces

s in

two

diff

eren

t env

iron

men

ts m

ay d

epen

d on

the

degr

ee o

f ov

erla

p in

the

dem

and

char

acte

rist

ics

of th

e en

viro

nmen

ts. T

his

para

digm

is p

artic

ular

ly a

ppea

ling

be-

caus

e it

prov

ides

a u

sefu

l way

of

appr

oach

ing

the

prob

lem

s th

at a

rise

in d

efin

ing

com

pete

nce

in c

ompl

ex, c

hang

ing,

and

cul

tura

lly d

iver

se s

ocie

ties

such

as

the

Uni

ted

Stat

esin

whi

ch in

divi

dual

s, a

t vir

tual

ly e

very

pha

se o

f th

eir

life

span

,fi

nd th

emse

lves

in e

nvir

onm

ents

with

ver

y di

ffer

ent d

eman

d ch

arac

teri

stic

s.Fi

nally

, in

cons

ider

ing

our

topi

c, w

e m

ust c

ontin

ually

rem

ind

ours

elve

s of

the

conc

eptu

al d

istin

ctio

n be

twee

n pr

ofic

ienc

y an

d pe

rfor

man

ce. T

his

dist

inct

ion

ackn

owle

dges

the

diff

icul

ty o

f m

akin

g in

fere

nces

abo

ut c

apab

ility

with

out r

egar

dfo

r th

e cu

ltura

l con

text

and

ana

logo

us f

acto

rs th

at c

an p

lay

as la

rge

a ro

le a

sca

pabi

lity

in d

eter

min

ing

the

leve

l of

resp

onse

in a

ny g

iven

situ

atio

n (A

nder

son

and

Mes

sick

, 197

4; L

aosa

, 197

9/19

89).

A c

hild

's p

erfo

rman

ce in

a p

artic

ular

clas

sroo

m s

ettin

g, f

or e

xam

ple,

may

not

alw

ays

be a

sig

n of

his

or

her

pote

ntia

lco

mpe

tenc

e in

an

envi

ronm

ent b

ette

r su

ited

to th

at c

hild

.

The

Env

iron

men

tal E

colo

gy

Part

icip

atio

n in

soc

iety

mea

ns p

artic

ipat

ion

in a

com

plex

soc

ial o

rder

; yet

the

dom

inan

t con

cept

ions

in th

e st

udy

of h

uman

dev

elop

men

t and

edu

catio

n ha

vete

nded

to s

epar

ate

not o

nly

the

indi

vidu

al f

rom

the

fam

ily f

or in

depe

nden

tex

amin

atio

n bu

t als

o th

e fa

mily

fro

m th

e so

cict

y. E

xcep

tions

to th

ese

conc

ep-

tions

incl

ude

the

theo

retic

al f

orm

ulat

ions

of

such

eco

logi

cally

ori

ente

dps

ycho

-lo

gist

s as

Bro

nfen

bren

ner

(197

9), L

aosa

(19

79/1

989)

, and

Sam

erof

f (1

983)

.W

ithin

dev

elop

men

tal p

sych

olog

y, th

e m

ost v

isib

le a

nd s

yste

mat

ic e

mph

asis

on th

e ne

ed to

for

mul

ate

ecol

ogic

alm

odel

s fo

r th

e un

ders

tand

ing

of h

uman

beha

vior

has

bee

n th

e w

ork

of B

ronf

enbr

enne

r (1

977,

197

9, 1

988)

. Bro

nfen

bren

-ne

r em

phas

izes

'the

pro

gres

sive

acco

mm

odat

ion,

thro

ugho

ut th

e lif

e sp

an, b

e-tw

een

the

grow

ing

hum

an o

rgan

ism

and

the

chan

ging

env

iron

men

ts in

whi

ch it

lives

and

gro

ws'

(19

77, p

. 513

). T

his

emph

asis

is f

ound

als

o in

Lao

sa's

(197

91

1989

) de

velo

pmen

tal,

soci

ocul

tura

lly r

elat

ivis

tic p

arad

igm

and

in S

amer

off's

(198

3) g

ener

al s

yste

ms

appr

oach

.B

ronf

enbr

enne

r's (

1979

, 198

8) c

once

ptio

n ha

s m

uch

in c

omm

s.m

with

our

idea

s, a

nd it

con

trib

utes

a u

sefu

l fra

mew

ork

and

voca

bula

ry. H

e co

ncei

ves

ofth

e en

viro

nme»

t as

a se

t of

four

nes

ted

stru

ctur

es, e

ach

insi

deth

e ne

xt. A

t the

616

7

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

inne

rmos

t lev

el (

the

mic

rosy

stem

) is

the

imm

edia

te s

ettin

gan

env

iron

men

t with

part

icul

ar f

eatu

res,

act

iviti

es, a

nd r

oles

cont

aini

ng th

e de

velo

ping

per

son.

Thi

s

can

be th

e ho

me,

the

clas

sroo

m, t

he te

stin

g ro

om, a

nd s

o on

.T

he n

ext l

evel

, or

mes

osys

tem

, com

pris

es th

e re

latio

nsam

ong

one'

s m

ajor

set

tings

at a

part

icul

ar

poin

t in

one'

s de

velo

pmen

t. In

the

pres

entv

iew

, suc

h in

terc

onne

ctio

ns c

an b

e as

deci

sive

for

dev

elop

men

t as

even

ts ta

king

plac

e w

ithin

a g

iven

set

ting.

A c

hild

'sab

ility

to le

arn

to r

ead

in s

choo

l, fo

r i

:anc

e, m

ay d

epen

d as

muc

h on

the

exis

tenc

e an

d na

ture

of

linka

ges

orco

ntin

uity

of

expe

rien

ces

betw

een

the

scho

olan

d th

e ho

me

as o

n a

part

icul

ar te

achi

ngte

chni

que

(Lao

sa, 1

977c

, 198

2b).

The

thir

d le

vel o

f th

e ec

olog

ical

env

iron

men

tev

okes

the

hypo

thes

is th

at th

epe

rson

's d

evel

opm

ent i

s pr

ofou

ndly

affe

cted

by

even

ts o

ccur

ring

in s

ettin

gsin

whi

ch th

e pe

rson

is n

ot e

ven

pres

ent.

Thi

s is

the

exos

yste

in, i

n w

hich

the

mes

osys

tem

is e

mbe

dded

(Bro

nfen

bren

ner,

197

9, 1

988)

. It i

nclu

des,

for

exam

ple,

the

pare

nts'

exp

erie

nces

in th

e w

orld

ofw

ork

as f

acto

rs in

dire

ctly

infl

uenc

ing

the

child

's im

med

iate

con

text

.Fi

nally

, per

tain

ing

to a

ll th

ree

form

er le

vels

, the

reis

the

over

arch

ing

mac

rosy

st-

etn,

whi

ch r

efer

s to

the

'blu

epri

nt' t

hat e

very

soc

iety

, cul

ture

, or

subc

ultu

re h

as

for

the

orga

niza

tion

of e

very

type

of

setti

ng.

Thi

s bl

uepr

int c

an b

e ch

ange

d, w

ith

the

resu

lt th

at th

e st

ruct

ure

of th

e se

tting

sin

a s

ocie

ty c

an b

ecom

e m

arke

dly

alte

red

and

prod

uce

corr

espo

ndin

g ch

ange

s in

hum

an b

ehav

ior

and

deve

lopm

ent

(Bro

nfen

bren

ner,

197

9). F

or e

xam

ple,

an

econ

omic

cris

is o

ccur

ring

in a

soc

iety

can

have

an

impa

ct o

n th

ech

ild's

imm

edia

te s

ettin

gs a

nd th

ence

alo

ngst

andi

ng

infl

uenc

e on

chi

ldre

n's

subs

eque

nt d

evel

opm

ent.

Sim

ilarl

y, a

cha

nge

in a

soc

iety

's

polic

ies

affe

ctin

g th

e re

latio

ns b

etw

een

the

hom

e an

d th

e sc

hool

may

pro

duce

effe

cts

dete

ctab

le in

the

child

yea

rs la

ter.

The

pri

mar

y fo

cus

of th

e re

mai

nder

of

this

cha

pter

is o

n th

e fi

rst l

evel

inB

ronf

enbr

enne

r's c

lass

ific

atio

n, n

amel

y, th

e m

icro

syst

em;

mor

e sp

ecif

ical

ly, t

he

focu

s is

on

the

inne

rmos

t asp

ect o

f th

em

icro

syst

ern

leve

lth

e fa

mily

. Spa

ceco

nsid

erat

ions

pre

clud

e an

exh

aust

ive

revi

ewof

the

rese

arch

lite

ratu

re o

n C

hica

-

no c

hild

ren'

s so

cial

izat

ion

in th

e fa

mily

. We

have

sel

ecte

d fo

rre

view

, the

refo

re,

stud

ies

that

illu

stra

te p

rinc

ipal

str

ands

inth

is li

tera

ture

. Whe

n ne

cess

ary

for

plac

ing

thes

e w

orks

in c

onte

xt, w

e al

sore

fer

to r

esea

rch

on o

ther

eth

nic

grou

ps.

Fam

ily I

nter

actio

n

The

inne

rmos

t lev

el in

the

envi

ronm

enta

lec

olog

y of

the

child

is, a

s w

e ju

st s

aw,

the

hous

ehol

d fa

mily

. Beg

inni

ng a

t thi

sle

vel o

f th

e ec

olog

ical

sys

tem

, one

of th

e

basi

c un

its o

f an

alys

is is

the

dyad

, or

two-

pers

onsy

stem

(B

ronf

enbr

enne

r,19

79).

In k

eepi

ng w

ith th

e tr

aditi

onal

foc

usof

col

lect

ing

rese

arch

inf-

)rm

atio

n on

indi

vidu

als,

beh

avio

ral a

nd s

ocia

l sci

entis

tsty

pica

lly g

athe

r da

ta o

n on

ly o

ne

pers

on a

ta

time.

Par

tly b

ecau

seof

the

diff

icul

ties

and

expe

nse

invo

lved

in

t(m

duct

ing

relia

ble

obse

rvat

ions

of

peop

le in

inte

ract

ion,

res

earc

h on

Chi

cano

s

has

seld

om in

clud

ed o

bser

vatio

nsof

act

ual f

amily

inte

ract

ions

usi

ng s

yste

mat

icsa

mpl

es o

f ad

equa

te s

ize.

Am

ong

the

few

exc

eptio

ns is

Lao

sa's

wor

k on

mat

erna

l

teac

hing

str

ateg

ies.

A p

rinc

ipal

aim

of th

ese

stud

ies

was

to c

ontr

ibut

eem

piri

cal

data

that

mig

ht h

elp

expl

ain,

at

leas

t par

tly, e

thni

c gr

oup

diff

eren

ces

inac

adem

ic

perf

orm

onc

e.A

sI_

aos

a (1

981a

) m

akes

cle

ar, t

hech

oice

of

mat

erna

l beh

avio

r in

thes

e

1 O

S

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos,

stud

ies

does

not

ref

lect

a b

elie

f th

at th

e m

othe

r's b

ehav

ior

is th

e on

ly im

port

ant

sour

ce o

f in

flue

nce

in th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

the

youn

gch

ild o

r th

at o

nly

biol

ogic

al,

mot

hers

, or

wom

en, a

re o

r sh

ould

be

resp

onsi

ble

for

the

care

of

child

ren.

Man

yre

latio

nshi

ps c

an a

nd d

o pl

ay in

flue

ntia

l rol

es in

the

cour

se o

f a

child

's li

fe.

Cer

tain

ly th

e fa

ther

, alth

ough

igno

red

in m

uch

of th

e av

aila

ble

rese

arch

, pla

ys a

subs

tant

ial r

ole

in th

e liv

es o

f m

any

child

ren.

The

sam

e ca

n be

sai

d of

sib

ling

rela

tions

hips

. Nev

erth

eles

s, in

mos

t cul

tura

l set

tings

one

fin

ds th

at, o

f al

l the

rela

tions

hips

dur

ing

the

child

's e

arly

yea

rs, t

he o

rdin

ary

ever

yday

inte

ract

ions

betw

een

mot

her

and

child

con

stitu

te a

par

amou

ntor

at l

east

a v

ery

impo

rtan

tas

pect

of

the

soci

al e

nvir

onm

ent o

f ch

ildho

od. A

fund

amen

tal a

ssum

ptio

n is

that

the

mot

her,

in h

er e

very

day

inte

ract

ioas

with

her

chi

ld, c

ontin

ually

fun

c-tio

ns (

witt

ingl

y or

unw

ittin

gly)

as

a te

ache

r. T

hus,

muc

h of

the

impl

icit

curr

icu-

lum

and

inst

ruct

iona

l met

hod

to w

hich

the

child

is e

xpos

ed in

the

hom

e,es

peci

ally

dur

ing

the

earl

y ye

ars,

is m

edia

ted

by m

ater

nal t

each

ing

stra

tegi

es. A

prim

ary

focu

s of

the

stud

y of

mot

her-

child

rel

atio

nshi

ps is

on

iden

tifyi

ng d

iver

sepa

ttern

s of

mot

her-

child

inte

ract

ion,

how

thes

e di

ffer

ent

styl

es o

f m

othe

r--:

hild

rela

tions

hip

deve

lop,

and

how

they

are

rel

ated

to p

artic

ular

chi

ld b

ehav

iors

outs

ide

of th

e m

ater

nal r

elat

ions

hip

(Lao

sa, 1

981a

).R

esea

rch

on n

on-C

hica

no p

opul

atio

ns h

as s

how

n th

at d

epen

ding

on

the

fam

ily's

soc

ial c

lass

, mot

hers

use

dif

fere

nt s

trat

egie

s to

teac

h th

eir

youn

g ch

ildre

n(f

or a

rev

iew

of

rese

arch

see

Lao

sa, 1

981a

). T

radi

tiona

lly in

suc

h st

udie

s, s

peci

fic

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s va

riab

les

(e.g

., m

othe

r's a

nd f

athe

r's o

ccup

atio

nal s

tatu

san

d ed

ucat

ion)

hav

e be

en e

ither

em

ploy

ed in

terc

hang

eabl

y or

agg

rega

tely

sub

-su

med

und

er a

gen

eral

inde

x of

soc

ial c

lass

or

a gl

obal

mea

sure

of

soci

oeco

nom

icst

atus

. But

Deu

tsch

(19

73)

and

Lao

sa (

1978

, 198

1a, 1

9826

) ar

gue

that

it m

ay b

em

ore

appr

opri

ate

and

usef

ul to

vie

w s

ocia

l cla

ss o

rsoc

ioec

onom

ic s

tatu

s no

t as

aun

itary

dim

ensi

on b

ut a

s a

cong

lom

erat

e of

dif

fere

nt v

aria

bles

, suc

h as

occ

upa-

tion,

edu

catio

n, a

nd in

com

e, th

at m

ust b

e ex

amin

ed s

epar

atel

y. O

ne o

f th

e is

sues

addr

esse

d by

Lao

sa (

1978

), th

eref

ore,

cen

tere

d on

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

par-

ticul

ar s

ocio

econ

omic

sta

tus

vari

able

s, o

n th

e on

e ha

nd, a

nd m

ater

nal t

each

ing

beha

vior

s, o

n th

e ot

her.

Thu

s, o

ne a

im o

f L

aosa

's (

1978

) st

udy

was

to 'u

npac

k-ag

e' d

iffe

rent

com

pone

nts

of w

hat i

s co

mm

only

labe

led

eith

er s

ocia

l cla

ss o

rso

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tus,

an

exos

.iste

in f

acto

r, a

nd th

en to

exa

min

e th

e in

flue

nce

ofth

ese

part

icul

ar c

ompo

nent

s of

the

exos

yste

m u

pon

the

mic

rosy

stem

dim

ensi

ons

of m

othe

r-ch

ild in

tera

ctio

n.In

one

stu

dy, L

aosa

(19

78)

cond

ucte

d di

rect

obs

erva

tions

of

Chi

cano

mot

hers

in th

eir

hom

es w

hile

t'ae

y ta

ught

cog

nitiv

e-pe

rcep

tual

task

s to

thei

r ow

n5-

year

-old

chi

ldre

n. T

he s

ampl

e co

nsis

ted

of f

orty

-thr

ee C

hica

no f

amili

es r

esid

-in

g in

Los

Ang

eles

; the

sam

ple

was

sel

ecte

d to

be

as r

epre

sent

ativ

e as

pos

sibl

e of

Chi

cano

fam

ilies

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

with

reg

ard

to th

e di

stri

butio

ns o

fso

cioe

cono

mic

and

par

enta

l sch

oolin

g le

vels

. Usi

ng th

e M

ater

nal T

each

ing

Obs

erva

tion

Tec

hniq

ue (

Lao

sa, 1

980b

), tr

aine

d ob

serv

ers

reco

rded

the

freq

uenc

yof

occ

urre

nce

of n

ine

cate

gori

es o

f m

ater

nal b

ehav

ior.

Rel

iabi

lity

and

shor

t-te

rmst

abili

ty a

naly

ses

indi

cate

d th

at th

ese

mea

sure

men

ts r

epre

sent

ed a

dequ

atel

y re

-lia

ble

and

mod

erat

ely

stab

le a

ttrib

utes

of

mat

erna

l beh

avio

r (L

aosa

,19

80b)

.L

aosa

's (

1978

) an

alys

es r

evea

led

sign

ific

ant c

orre

latio

ns o

f su

bsta

ntia

l mag

ni-

tude

bet

wee

n th

e m

othe

rs' t

each

ing

beha

vior

s an

d th

eir

own

leve

l of

scho

olin

g(i

.e.,

year

s of

for

mal

sch

oolin

g). I

n co

ntra

st, t

here

was

ver

y lit

tlere

latio

nshi

rbe

twee

n th

ese

mat

erna

l tea

chin

g be

havi

ors

and

eith

er th

e m

othe

rs' o

rth

e fa

ther

s'

/69

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

occu

patio

nal s

tatu

ses.

The

se r

esul

ts in

dica

te th

at th

esc

hool

ing

leve

l atta

ined

by

a

Chi

cana

isa

stro

ng p

redi

ctor

of th

e st

rate

gies

that

she

, onc

e sh

e be

com

es a

mot

her,

will

use

in te

achi

ng h

er o

wn

child

ren.

Spec

ific

ally

, the

cor

rela

tions

obt

aine

d by

Lao

sa (

1978

)be

twee

n th

e m

othe

rs'

scho

olin

g le

vel a

nd th

eir

own

teac

hing

str

ateg

ies

wer

e as

follo

ws.

The

mot

hers

'sc

hool

ing

leve

l was

pos

itive

ly r

elat

ed to

thei

rfr

eque

nt u

se o

f in

quir

y, w

hich

ref

ers

to th

e us

e of

que

stio

ns a

s a

teac

hing

mod

ality

. The

mot

hers

' sch

oolin

g le

vel w

asal

so p

ositi

vely

rel

ated

to th

eir

freq

uent

use

of p

rais

e, n

amel

y, v

erba

l exp

ress

ions

of a

ppro

val o

f th

e ch

ild's

act

ivity

or

prod

uct.

In c

ontr

ast,

the

mot

hers

' sch

oolin

gle

vel w

as in

vers

ely

rela

ted

to th

cir

use

ofm

odel

ing

as a

teac

hing

str

ateg

y;m

odel

* he

re r

efer

s to

the

mot

her's

doi

ng p

arts

of th

e ta

sk f

or th

e ch

ild's

obse

rvat

ion

and

imita

tion.

Thu

s, th

e fr

eque

ncy

of u

se o

f ea

ch o

f th

ese

thre

edi

stin

ct m

ater

nal t

each

ing

stra

tegi

es v

arie

dw

idel

y as

a f

unct

ion

of m

ater

nal

scho

olin

g le

vel.

In s

hort

, the

Chi

cana

mot

hers

with

few

er y

ears

of

educ

atio

nta

ught

mor

e fr

eque

ntly

thro

ugh

a m

odel

ing

orde

mon

stra

tion

appr

oach

. Tha

t is,

they

tend

ed to

dem

onst

rate

the

solu

tions

so

that

the

child

cou

ld le

arn

thro

ugh

obse

rvat

ion.

In

cont

rast

, the

mor

e hi

ghly

sch

oole

dC

hica

na m

othe

rs ta

ught

mor

eof

ten

thro

ugh

a st

yle

char

acte

rize

d by

the

freq

uent

use

of

ques

tions

and

ver

bal

prai

se. In d

iscu

ssin

g th

e re

sults

of

this

stu

dyby

Lao

sa (

1978

), L

eVin

e (1

980)

has

calle

d at

tent

ion

to th

e st

riki

ng s

imila

rity

betw

een

the

appr

oach

to te

achi

ngem

ploy

ed b

y th

e m

ore

high

lylu

cate

d C

hica

na m

othe

rs a

nd th

e ac

adem

ic s

tyle

of s

choo

l cla

ssro

oms.

The

mo

e ed

ucat

edC

hica

na m

othe

rs ta

ught

thro

ugh

am

ore

conv

ersa

tiona

l sty

le (

i.e.,

inqu

iry)

rat

her

than

mot

oric

dem

onst

ratio

n (i

.e.,

mod

elm

), a

nd th

ey e

spec

ially

incl

uded

ver

bal

rein

forc

emen

t (i.e

., pr

aise

). O

ne

mig

ht s

ayhe

mor

e hi

ghly

sch

oole

d C

hica

na m

othe

rs'im

itate

d' th

e ac

adem

icst

yle

of th

e sc

hool

cla

ssro

oms

in w

hich

they

had

spen

t so

muc

h of

thei

r liv

es(L

aosa

, 198

2b).

Alth

ough

thes

e fi

ndin

gs a

re c

orre

latio

nal,

they

sug

gest

that

, at l

east

am

ong

Chi

cano

s, s

choo

ling

has

a m

arke

d im

pact

on

cert

ain

beha

vior

al d

ispo

sitio

ns th

atde

term

ine

the

man

ner

in w

hich

they

, onc

e th

eybe

com

e m

othe

rs, i

nter

act w

ithth

eir

child

ren.

The

se f

indi

ngs

rais

e pr

ovoc

ativ

equ

estio

ns a

bout

the

role

that

scho

olin

g pl

ays

in in

flue

ncin

g th

e ev

olut

ion

ofcu

lture

, and

, spe

cifi

cally

,in

infl

uenc

ing

the

evol

utio

n of

cul

tura

l pat

tern

s of

fam

ily in

tera

ctio

n. (

By

evol

utio

n'is

mea

nt c

hang

e th

roug

h ad

apta

tion

and

not

prog

ress

ion

tow

ard

som

e su

peri

or

stag

e.) So

me

of th

ese

ques

tions

wer

e po

sed

in a

subs

eque

nt s

tudy

, in

whi

ch L

aosa

(198

0a)

com

pare

d th

e te

achi

ng s

trat

egie

s of

Chi

cana

mot

hers

to th

ose

of n

on-

lispa

me

Whi

te m

othe

rs. T

he r

esul

ts s

how

edsi

gnif

ican

t dif

fere

nces

in th

e m

ater

nal

teac

hing

str

ateg

ies

of th

ese

two

grou

ps. I

nge

nera

l, co

mpa

red

to th

e C

hica

nam

othe

rs, t

he te

achi

ng s

trat

egie

s of

the

non-

His

pani

cW

hite

mot

hers

wer

e m

ore

sim

ilar

to th

e ac

aden

m te

achi

ng s

tyle

that

one

exp

ects

tofi

nd in

sch

ool c

lass

-

room

sl'h

ese

ethn

ic g

roup

dif

fere

nces

in m

othe

rs'

teac

hing

str

ateg

ies

virt

ually

disa

ppea

red,

how

ever

, whe

n th

e an

alys

es c

ontr

olle

dst

atis

tical

ly f

or th

e m

othe

rs'

'ear

s of

edu

catio

n.T

aken

toge

ther

, the

res

ults

of

thes

e st

udie

sle

d L

aosa

(19

826)

to p

ropo

se a

hypo

thet

ical

mod

el to

exp

lain

the

high

fre

quen

cyof

sch

olas

tic f

ailu

re a

mon

g(.

hit a

nus

and

othe

r po

pula

tions

in w

hich

par

ents

, on

the

aver

age,

hav

e co

m-

plet

ed r

elat

ivel

y fe

w y

ears

of

scho

olin

g. T

hege

nera

l hyp

othe

tical

mod

el c

an b

e

The

Aca

dem

k D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

sum

mar

ized

as

follo

ws:

the

child

ren

of th

e m

ore

high

lysc

hool

ed p

aren

ts le

arn

tom

aste

r in

thei

r ho

mes

the

form

and

dyna

mic

s of

teac

hing

and

lear

ning

pro

cess

esth

at 't

ake

afte

r' th

ose

of th

e sc

hool

cla

ssro

om. B

ecau

seof

this

rel

ativ

e si

mila

rity

,th

e in

tera

ctio

nal p

roce

sses

that

thes

e ch

ildre

n le

arn

to m

aste

r at

hom

e w

ill h

ave

adap

tive

valu

e in

the

clas

sroo

m. I

nsof

ar a

s th

e ch

ildre

nof

the

mor

e hi

ghly

scho

oled

par

ents

lear

n to

mas

ter

clas

sroo

m-l

ike

inte

ract

iona

l pro

cess

esin

thei

rho

mes

, the

refo

re, t

hey

will

hav

e a

deci

ded

acad

emic

adv

anta

ge o

ver

the

child

ren

of th

e le

ss-s

choo

led

pare

nts

sinc

e th

e la

tter,

by

cont

rast

,le

arn

to m

aste

r in

thei

rho

mes

the

form

and

dyn

amic

s of

teac

hing

and

lear

ning

pro

cess

esth

at h

ave

com

para

tivel

y lit

tle a

dapt

ive

valu

e in

the

clas

sroo

m (

Lao

sa,

1982

b). T

o th

e ex

tent

that

the

rela

tiona

l sys

tem

s of

fam

ily a

nd s

choo

l dif

fer

from

one

anot

her,

the

child

and

the

clas

sroo

m te

ache

rs w

ill b

e un

able

to d

raw

on

ash

ored

pro

cess

of

teac

hing

and

lear

ning

. As

a re

sult

of th

is d

isco

ntin

uity

bet

wee

n th

efa

mily

and

the

scho

ol,

the

child

and

the

teac

hers

will

spe

nd a

gre

at p

ortio

nof

thei

r tim

e si

mpl

yat

tmip

ting

to m

ake

sens

e ou

t of

one

anot

her's

beh

avio

r. H

ence

,sch

ool f

ailu

re f

orrm

aiy

Chi

cano

s pr

obab

ly o

ccur

s, a

tle

ast p

artly

, bec

ause

they

and

thei

r te

ache

rsar

e un

able

to m

ake

sens

e of

eac

hot

her's

rel

atio

nal s

yste

ms.

The

Lao

sa (

1982

b)m

odel

fur

ther

pos

itsan

d hi

s da

ta s

ugge

stth

at th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

the

fam

ily a

nd th

e sc

hool

will

sha

re in

com

mon

a r

elat

iona

l sys

tem

for

teac

hing

and

lear

ning

dep

ends

, at l

east

in p

art,

on th

e le

ngth

of

the

pare

nts'

sch

oolin

g

expe

rien

ce.

Fam

ily C

onst

ella

tion

Ano

ther

fea

ture

of

a ch

ild's

mic

rosy

stem

is th

e fa

mily

'sco

nste

llatio

n, th

at is

, suc

hch

arac

teri

stic

s as

the

child

's f

amily

siz

e an

d si

blin

g st

ruct

ure.

Fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion

is r

elev

ant t

o th

e to

pic

of th

is c

hapt

er f

or tw

o re

late

d re

ason

s.Fi

rst,

dem

ogra

phic

stat

istic

s sh

ow th

at C

hica

nos,

as

a gr

oup,

dif

fer

from

non

-His

pani

cW

hite

s in

fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion

(Bea

n an

d T

iend

a, 1

987)

. Sec

ond,

som

ere

sear

cher

s ha

vesu

gges

ted

that

fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion

infl

uenc

es c

hild

ren'

s co

gniti

vede

velo

pmen

t(e

.g.,

Zaj

onc,

197

6, 1

986)

. Thu

s, th

e qu

estio

n ar

ises

:D

oes

fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion

expl

ain

the

diff

eren

ce in

aca

dem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce b

etw

een

Chi

cano

and

non

-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te s

tude

nts?

Chi

cano

s, o

n th

e av

erag

e, p

rodu

ce a

rel

ativ

ely

larg

enu

mbe

r of

off

spri

ng.

Dem

ogra

phic

stu

dies

dem

onst

rate

cle

arly

and

con

sist

ently

that

the

fert

ility

leve

lof

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans

exce

eds

thos

e of

all

othe

r m

ajor

eth

nic

orra

cial

gro

ups

inth

e U

nite

d St

ates

, inc

ludi

ng o

ther

His

pani

c gr

oups

(B

ean

and

Tie

nda,

198

7).

Mor

eove

r, th

e fe

rtili

ty d

iffe

renc

e be

twee

n M

exic

an A

mer

ican

san

d no

n-H

ispa

nic

Whi

tes

is r

educ

ed, b

ut n

ot e

limin

ated

, whe

n su

ch f

acto

rs a

s ag

e,ed

ucat

ion,

inco

me,

labo

r fo

rce

part

icip

atio

n, a

nd g

ener

atio

nal s

tatu

s ar

ehe

ld c

onst

ant (

Bea

nan

d T

iend

a, 1

987)

. Com

pare

d to

oth

er e

thni

c gr

oups

,th

eref

ore,

Chi

cano

s ha

vem

ore

sibl

ings

and

, con

sequ

ently

., ar

ele

ss li

kely

to b

e th

e fi

rstb

orn

or th

e on

lych

ild. N

ow, j

uxta

pose

thes

e de

mog

raph

ic d

iffe

renc

es to

the

larg

e bo

dy o

f th

eory

and

data

sug

gest

ing

that

sib

ling

stru

ctur

e an

d fa

mily

siz

ein

flue

nce

child

ren'

sco

gniti

ve d

evel

opm

ent,

incl

udin

g ac

adem

ic a

chie

vem

ent

(for

revi

ews

see

Cic

irel

li, 1

978;

Hen

ders

on, 1

981;

Mar

jori

bank

s, 1

979;

Zaj

onc,

1983

, 198

6). I

n-de

ed, n

umer

ous

stud

ies,

incl

udin

g a

few

on

Chi

cano

fam

ilies

, hav

e ex

amin

ed th

ere

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n fa

mily

con

stel

latio

n an

d ch

ildre

n's

deve

lopm

ent.

Seve

ral

171

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion

vari

able

sha

ve b

een

stud

ied,

par

ticul

arly

sib

ship

siz

e (t

heto

tal

num

ber

of s

iblin

gs in

a f

amily

), b

irth

ord

er (

the

rela

tive

rank

of

a ch

ild in

term

s

of th

e ag

e hi

erar

chy

amon

g si

blin

gs),

and

the

pres

ence

or

abse

nce

of a

fat

her

in

the

hous

ehol

d. T

his

liter

atur

e, to

whi

ch w

e no

w tu

rn, p

rovi

des

a co

ntex

tfo

r

exam

inin

g th

e qu

estio

n of

whe

ther

and

how

fam

ily c

onst

ella

tion,

am

ong

Chi

ca-

nos,

mig

ht in

flue

nce

the

foun

datio

ns o

f in

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

that

are

like

ly to

pred

ict a

cade

mic

ach

ieve

men

t.

Sibs

hip

size

Man

y st

udie

s ha

ve s

how

n an

inve

rse

corr

elat

ion

betw

een

sibs

hip

size

and

indi

ces

of c

hild

ren'

s co

gniti

ve d

evel

opm

ent

(e.g

., B

elm

ont a

nd M

arol

la,

1973

; Bla

ke, 1

989;

Bre

land

, 197

4; K

ella

ghan

and

Mac

nam

ara,

197

2). U

nfor

tu-

nate

ly, m

uch

of th

e re

sear

ch o

nth

e ef

fect

s of

fam

ily s

ize

on c

ogni

tive

deve

lop-

men

t has

bee

n su

bjec

t to

conf

ound

ing.

A f

requ

ent c

onfo

undi

ngva

riab

le is

so :i

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s (S

ES)

,be

caus

e th

ere

is g

ener

ally

a c

orre

latio

nbe

twee

n SE

S

and

sibs

hip

size

; tha

t is,

low

er S

ES

fam

ilies

gen

eral

ly te

nd to

hav

e m

ore

child

ren

than

the

mm

affl

uent

and

bet

ter

educ

ated

fam

ilies

(W

esto

ff,

1986

). B

ecau

se

usua

lly th

ere

is a

lso

aco

rrel

atio

n be

twee

n SE

S an

d co

gniti

ve te

st p

erfo

rman

ce(D

euts

ch, 1

973;

Hes

s, 1

970)

, it

is d

iffi

cult

to is

olat

e th

e st

atis

tical

effe

cts

of S

ES

and

fam

ily s

ize,

.res

pect

ivel

y, o

n co

gniti

vesc

ores

. Kel

lagh

an a

ndM

acna

mar

a

(197

2) a

ddre

ssed

this

pro

blem

by

stud

ying

Cat

holic

fam

ilies

inIr

elan

d, w

here

larg

e fa

mili

es te

nd to

be v

alue

d at

all

SES

leve

ls. S

igni

fica

ntly

, eve

nin

this

cultu

ral s

ettin

g, w

here

it w

as p

ossi

ble

tolim

it th

e co

nfou

ndin

g of

sib

ship

siz

ean

d

SES,

ther

e w

as th

e ty

pica

lco

rrel

atio

n be

twee

n si

bshi

p si

ze a

nd c

ogni

tive

test

perf

orm

ance

.-

A n

otab

le e

xcep

tion

to th

e ty

pica

lin

vers

e co

rrel

atio

n be

twee

n si

bshi

psi

zc

and

cogn

itive

per

form

ance

was

rep

orte

dby

Ran

kin,

Gai

tc, a

nd H

eiry

(19

79).

The

se r

esea

rche

rs te

sted

the

hypo

thes

isth

at th

e fr

eque

ntly

obs

erve

dco

rrel

atio

n

betw

een

sibs

hip

size

and

cog

nitiv

e te

stpe

rfor

man

ce c

an b

e ex

plai

ned

onth

e ba

sis

of c

ultu

ral e

xpec

tatio

ns a

ndva

lues

. The

ir s

ampl

e co

nsis

ted

of e

lem

enta

ry-g

rade

child

ren

in A

mer

ican

Sam

oa, a

cultu

ral s

ettin

g w

here

larg

e fa

mili

es a

reth

e no

rm.

An

inst

rum

ent e

spec

ially

des

igne

dfo

r th

is c

ultu

ral p

opul

atio

n w

asus

ed to

" m

easu

re

cogn

itive

abi

lity.

Ran

kin

and

his

asso

ciat

es d

idob

serv

e an

ass

ocia

tion

be-

twee

n si

bshi

p si

zean

d co

gniti

ve p

erfo

rman

ce a

mon

gSa

moa

n ch

ildre

n, b

ut th

is

rela

tions

hip

was

cur

vilin

ear.

Chi

ldre

n fr

om f

amili

es c

lose

st to

the

sibs

hip

size

that

is th

e no

r in

with

inSa

moa

n cu

lture

atta

ined

the

high

est c

ogni

tive

perf

orm

ance

. In

a cu

lture

whe

re la

rge

sibs

hips

are

the

norm

, chi

ldre

nin

fam

ilies

nea

r th

e av

erag

e

size

sho

wed

sup

erio

r co

gniti

vepe

rfor

man

ce th

an th

ose

from

eith

er s

mal

l or

very

larg

e fa

mili

es. T

his

find

ing

sugg

ests

that

cul

tura

l val

ues

med

iate

the

asso

ciat

ion

betw

een

fann

ly s

ize

and

cogn

itive

per

form

ance

.T

his

conc

lusi

on r

aise

s th

e qu

es-

tion

of w

heth

er th

e la

rge

body

of

publ

ishe

dre

sear

ch o

n fa

mily

con

stel

latio

n is

gene

raliz

abk

to C

hica

nos,

sin

ceC

hica

no c

ultu

re is

larg

ely

diff

eren

tfr

om th

at o

f

the

sam

ples

in m

ost o

f th

isre

sear

ch. O

nly

a fe

w s

tudi

es o

f C

hica

nos

have

giv

en

expl

icit

atte

ntio

n to

the

rela

tion

of f

amily

siz

e to

cog

nitiv

epe

rfor

man

ce. T

his

rese

arch

is d

iscu

ssed

bel

ow.

Som

e of

the

earl

y re

sear

ch s

ugge

sted

that

the

inve

rse

asso

ciat

ion

betw

een

sibs

hip

size

and

cog

nitiv

epe

rfor

man

ce o

bser

ved

in n

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te s

ampl

es

may

inde

ed g

ener

aliz

e to

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an f

amili

es.

Hen

ders

on a

nd M

erri

tt

(1%

8), f

or e

xam

ple,

com

pare

dth

e fa

mily

cha

ract

eris

tics

of M

exic

anA

mer

ican

child

ren

who

sco

red

part

icul

arly

hig

h on

two

tcst

s of

cog

nitiv

e ab

ility

with

the

172

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

fam

ilies

of

child

ren

of th

e sa

me

ethn

icity

who

sco

red

part

icul

arly

low

. Bot

hgr

oups

of

child

ren

atte

nded

the

firs

t gra

de in

sch

ools

in T

ucso

n, A

rizo

na. H

en-

ders

on a

nd M

erri

tt (1

968)

fou

nd th

at th

e lo

w-s

cori

ng g

roup

had

sig

nifi

cant

lyla

rger

sib

ship

siz

es th

an d

id th

e hi

gher

-sco

ring

gro

up.

The

abo

ve f

indi

ng m

ust b

e in

terp

rete

d C

autio

usly

, how

ever

, bec

ause

hou

se-

hold

fam

ily s

ize

amon

g C

hica

nos

is h

eavi

ly c

onfo

unde

d w

ith s

ocio

econ

omic

stat

us a

nd h

ome

lang

uage

. Ind

eed,

Hen

ders

on a

nd M

erri

tt's

(196

8) a

naly

ses

reve

aled

that

thei

r tw

o gr

oups

of

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an c

hild

ren

diff

ered

not

onl

y in

the

num

ber

of s

iblin

gs, b

ut a

lso

in m

ater

nal s

choo

ling

leve

l and

soc

ioec

onom

icst

atus

.V

alen

cia,

Hen

ders

on a

nd R

anki

n (1

981)

atte

mpt

ed to

unt

angl

e su

chco

nfou

ndin

g of

var

iabl

es in

a s

tudy

of

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an p

resc

hool

ers

and

foun

dth

at w

hen

stat

istic

al c

ontr

ols

wer

e ap

plie

d to

cop

e w

ith th

e pr

oble

m o

f co

vari

a-tio

n am

ong

pred

icto

r va

riab

les,

the

hypo

thes

is o

f an

ass

ocia

tion

betw

een

sibs

hip

size

and

the

child

ren'

s co

gniti

ve d

evel

opm

ent w

as n

ot s

uppo

rted

. Thi

s fi

ndin

g is

cong

ruen

t with

res

ults

obt

aine

d by

Lao

sa (

1984

a) in

a s

tudy

com

pari

ng C

hica

noan

d no

n-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te to

ddle

rs. L

et u

s ex

amin

e th

ese

two

stud

ies

in s

ome

deta

il. Giv

en th

at th

e M

exic

an A

mer

ican

pop

ulat

ion

is o

ne in

whi

ch c

hild

ren

typi

cally

scor

e be

low

the

norm

s on

mea

sure

s of

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ce(a

lthou

gh th

ere

is s

ubst

antia

l var

iatio

n w

ithin

the

popu

latio

nD

uran

, 198

3;R

amis

t and

Arb

eite

r, 1

986;

Saw

yer,

198

7), a

nd b

ecau

se in

this

pop

ulat

ion

rel-

ativ

ely

larg

e fa

mili

es a

re th

e no

rm (

US

Bur

eau

of th

e C

ensu

s, 1

988)

and

see

m to

be v

alue

d (B

rads

haw

and

Bea

n, 1

972)

, Val

enci

a an

d hi

s co

lleag

ues

(198

1) s

et o

utto

asc

erta

in h

ow m

uch

of th

e va

rian

ce in

Mex

ican

P r

n-ri

can

child

ren'

s co

gniti

vepe

rfor

man

ce th

ey c

ould

exp

lain

(st

atis

tical

ly)

by f

amily

con

stel

latio

n, c

ompa

red

with

oth

er f

amily

cha

ract

eris

tics.

The

ir s

ampl

e co

nsis

ted

of 1

90 M

exic

an A

mer

-ic

an p

resc

hool

enr

olle

es in

var

ious

citi

es a

nd to

wns

in s

outh

ern

Cal

ifor

nia;

onl

yve

ry p

oor

fam

ilies

with

bot

h pa

rent

s pr

esen

t wer

e in

clud

ed. D

ata

wcr

e ga

ther

edon

the

follo

win

g va

riab

les:

the

child

's a

ge, s

ex, s

ibsh

ip s

ize,

and

ord

inal

pos

ition

in th

e si

bshi

p, th

e pa

rent

s' s

choo

ling

atta

inm

ent l

evel

and

cou

ntry

of

scho

olin

g,th

e la

ngua

ge (

Eng

lish

or S

pani

sh)

spok

en in

the

hom

e an

d us

ed in

the

test

adm

inis

trat

ion,

and

the

Hol

lings

head

indi

ces

of s

ocio

econ

omic

sta

tus

and

soci

alcl

ass.

In

orde

r to

cop

e w

ith th

e co

linea

rity

that

is c

omm

on to

suc

h da

ta, t

heva

riab

les

wer

e re

duce

d to

thre

e fa

ctor

s by

mea

ns o

f a

fact

or a

naly

sis.

The

fir

stfa

ctor

had

the

high

est l

oadi

ngs

for

the

lang

uage

and

par

enta

l sch

oolin

g va

riab

les;

the

seco

nd, f

or th

e so

cioe

cono

mic

and

soc

ial c

lass

indi

ces;

and

the

thir

d fa

ctor

was

def

ined

by

the

child

's s

ibsh

ip s

ize

and

ordi

nal p

ositi

on.

Fact

or s

core

s w

ere

used

as

inde

pend

ent v

aria

bles

in m

ultip

le r

egre

ssio

nan

alys

es in

ord

er to

iden

tify

the

mos

t pow

erfu

l one

-, tw

o-, a

nd th

ree-

vari

able

mod

els

for

the

(con

curr

ent)

pre

dict

ion

of th

e M

exic

an A

mer

ican

chi

ldre

n's

scor

eson

the

Gen

eral

Cog

nitiv

e In

dex

of th

e M

cCar

thy

Scal

es o

f C

hild

ren'

s A

bilit

ies.

The

bes

t sin

gle

pred

icto

r(i

t acc

ount

ed f

or 6

.8 p

er c

ent o

f th

e va

rian

ce in

cogn

itive

sco

res)

was

the

fact

or d

efin

ed b

y pa

rent

al e

duca

tion

and

lang

uage

. The

SES

fact

or a

ccou

nted

for

an

addi

tiona

l 3.6

per

cen

t of

the

vari

ance

whe

n ad

ded

toth

e fi

rst f

acto

r to

for

m th

e m

ost p

ower

ful t

wo-

vari

able

mod

el. F

inal

ly, i

n th

ebe

st th

ree-

vari

able

mod

el, t

he s

iblin

g co

nste

llatio

n fa

ctor

exp

lain

ed o

nly

anad

ditio

nal 2

.8 p

er c

ent o

f th

e va

rian

ce in

cog

nitiv

e sc

ores

.T

his

rese

arch

by

Val

enci

a et

al.

(198

1) s

ugge

sts

that

, for

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans,

the

nuni

ber

of c

hild

ren

in th

e ho

useh

old

and

birt

h or

der

acco

unt f

or a

ver

y sm

all

117

.3

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

prop

ortio

n of

the

vari

ance

in y

oung

chi

ldre

n's

cogn

itive

deve

lopm

ent.

The

resu

lts f

urth

er s

ugge

st th

at p

aren

tal

scho

olin

g le

vel a

nd o

ther

soci

oeco

nom

ic

char

acte

rist

ics

toge

ther

acc

ount

for

muc

h m

ore

of th

is v

aria

nce.

The

se f

indi

ngs

are

harm

onio

usw

ith th

ose

obta

ined

by

Lao

sa (

1984

a).

Lao

sa (

1984

a) s

tudi

ed th

e fa

mily

char

acte

rist

ics

and

vari

ous

abili

ties

of y

oung

child

ren

in tw

o di

ffer

ent e

thni

c gr

oups

Chi

cano

and

non

-His

pani

c W

hite

.T

he

purp

ose

of th

is s

tudy

was

to te

st s

ever

al h

ypot

hese

sab

out t

he p

ossi

ble

caus

es a

nd

orig

ins

of th

e fr

eque

ntly

obse

rved

dif

fere

nce

in a

cade

mic

achi

evem

ent b

etw

een

thes

e tw

o po

pula

tions

. One

of th

e hy

poth

eses

cen

tere

d on

whe

ther

eth

nic

grou

p

diff

eren

ces

in f

amily

siz

e an

d si

blin

gst

rUct

ure

expl

ain

the

corr

espo

ndin

g gr

oup

diff

eren

ce in

chi

ldre

n's

cogn

itive

per

form

ance

.Ju

xtap

osin

g (a

) th

e de

mog

raph

icev

iden

ce in

dica

ting

that

Chi

cano

s on

the

aver

age

prod

uce

a re

lativ

ely

larg

enu

mbe

r of

off

spri

ng a

nd a

lso

are

likel

yto

res

ide

in h

ouse

hold

sw

ith m

ore

adul

ts

than

do

mem

bers

of

the

othe

ret

hnic

gro

up (

Bea

n an

d T

ienc

h,19

87; U

S B

urea

u

of th

e C

ensu

s, 1

988)

to (

b)th

e la

rge

body

of

liter

atur

em

entio

ned

abov

e

sugg

estin

g th

at f

amily

size

and

sib

ling

stru

ctur

e in

flue

nce

cogn

itive

deve

lopm

ent,

Lao

sa (

1984

a) s

et o

ut to

ass

ess

the

rela

tive

cont

ribu

tion

ofse

vera

l var

iabl

es,

incl

udin

g fa

mily

con

stel

latio

n, to

vari

ance

in y

oung

chi

ldre

n's

cogn

itive

per

form

-

ance

. Lao

sa's

foc

usin

this

stu

dy w

as o

n ve

ry y

oung

child

ren

(2.5

yea

rs o

ld),

beca

use

an a

dditi

onal

pur

pose

of th

e re

sear

ch w

as to

det

erm

ine

how

ear

ly in

the

life

cour

se a

ny s

uch

effe

cts

on c

ogni

tive

perf

orm

ance

com

men

ce to

show

pal

pabl

y

thei

r im

pact

.L

aosa

's (

1984

a) s

ampl

e co

nsis

ted

of 1

71 C

hica

no a

nd n

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te

fann

lies

with

a to

ddle

r. T

he s

ampl

es w

ere

sele

cted

to b

e re

pres

enta

tive

ofth

eir

resp

ectiv

e et

hnic

pop

ulat

ions

with

reg

ard

to th

e di

stri

butio

nsof

soc

ioec

onom

ic

stat

us a

nd p

aren

tal s

choo

ling

leve

l; in

ord

er to

con

trol

for

the

pote

ntia

lly c

on-

foun

ding

eff

ects

of

sing

le p

aren

ting,

the

sam

ple

only

incl

uded

hous

ehol

ds w

ith

both

par

ents

. Bot

h et

hnic

sam

ples

wer

edr

awn

from

the

sam

e ge

ogra

phic

are

a

a la

rge

urba

n ce

nter

inso

uth-

cent

ral T

exas

. The

var

iabl

esm

easu

red

in th

e st

udy

wer

e: h

ouse

hold

inco

me,

each

par

ent's

sch

oolin

g at

tain

men

tle

vel,

fath

er's

occu

patio

n,ch

ild's

bir

th o

rder

, whe

ther

the

child

was

an

only

chi

ld,

the

num

ber

of c

hild

ren

resi

ding

in th

eho

useh

old,

and

the

num

ber

of a

dults

res

idin

g in

the

hous

ehol

d in

add

ition

to th

e pa

rent

s. L

angu

age

vari

able

s al

so w

ere

mea

sure

d

the

perc

enta

ge o

f ho

useh

old

verb

aliz

atio

ns in

Eng

lish

(v. S

pani

sh o

r a

dial

ect t

hat

mix

es/s

witc

hes

betw

een

the

two

lang

uage

s)fo

r ea

ch o

f th

e fo

llow

ing

dyad

san

d

dire

ctio

nalin

es: m

othe

r to

chi

ld,

child

to m

othe

r, f

athc

r to

chi

ld,

child

to f

athe

r;

and

the

perc

enta

ge o

f E

nglis

hve

rbal

izat

ions

dur

ing

test

ing,

als

o by

thre

ctio

nalit

y,

nam

ely,

exa

min

er to

child

and

chi

ld to

exa

min

er.

The

chi

ld's

per

form

ance

in

each

of

five

abi

lity

area

s w

asm

easu

red,

res

pect

ivel

y, b

y th

e V

erba

l,Pe

rcep

tual

-

Perf

orm

ance

(no

nver

bal r

easo

ning

),Q

uant

itativ

e, M

emor

y,an

d M

otor

sca

les

of

the

McC

arth

y Sc

ales

of

Chi

ldre

n's

Abi

litie

s. E

thni

city

and

sex

of c

hild

wer

e th

e

maj

or in

depe

nden

tva

riab

les.

1 he

7er

o-or

der

,un

cont

rolle

d) in

terc

orre

latio

ns a

mon

gth

e va

riab

les

wer

e si

mila

r fo

r th

e tw

oet

hnic

gro

ups.

Int

eres

tingl

y,fo

r ne

ither

eth

nic

grou

p

was

ther

e a

sign

ific

ant

zero

-ord

er c

orre

latio

n be

twee

n an

yof

the

child

per

form

-

ance

var

iabl

es, o

nth

e on

e ha

nd, a

nd, o

n th

eot

her,

the

num

ber

of c

hild

ren

in th

e

lu,a

seho

ld, t

he c

hild

's b

irth

ord

er, o

rw

heth

er th

e ch

ild w

as a

n on

lych

ild. T

hese

find

ings

str

ongl

y su

gges

tth

at a

ny e

ffec

ts o

f th

ese

sibl

ing

stru

ctur

eva

riab

les

on

174

I 3

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f Chi

cano

s

child

ren'

s de

velo

pmen

t do

not o

ccur

, or

at le

ast d

o no

t bec

ome

visi

ble,

bef

ore

the

thir

d ye

ar o

f lif

e.A

com

pari

son

betw

een

the

abov

e fi

ndin

g by

Lao

sa (

1984

a) a

nd th

e da

tare

port

ed b

y V

alen

cia

et a

i.(1

981)

per

mits

pin

poin

ting

the

spec

ific

age

at w

hich

the

freq

uent

ly o

bser

ved

zero

-ord

er c

orre

latio

n be

tWee

n si

blin

g st

ruct

ure

and

cogn

itive

per

form

ance

can

fir

st b

e ob

serv

ed. T

he a

vera

ge a

ge o

f th

e V

alen

cia

et a

l.'s

(198

1) s

ampl

e w

as 4

.5 y

ears

, and

they

rep

ort z

ero-

orde

r co

rrel

atio

ns o

f -.

24 a

nd-.

21, r

espe

ctiv

ely,

for

the

num

ber

of c

hild

ren

in th

e ho

me

and

the

child

's b

irth

orde

r w

ith th

e ch

ild's

cog

nitiv

e sc

ore

in s

pite

of

the

rest

rict

ed S

ES

rang

e of

thei

r sa

mpl

e. I

n co

ntra

st, t

he a

ge o

f L

aosa

's (

1984

a) s

ampl

es w

as 2

.5ye

ars,

and

he

obta

ined

a m

ean

zero

-ord

er c

orre

latio

n of

onl

y .0

8 be

twee

n th

e fo

ur c

ogni

tive

scal

es in

his

ana

lyse

s an

d th

ese

two

sibl

ing

stru

ctur

e va

riab

les

for

the

Chi

cano

sam

ple.

The

se r

esul

ts a

rc a

ll th

e m

ore

impr

essi

ve w

hen

one

cons

ider

s th

at th

eSE

S ra

nge

in L

aosa

's (

1984

a) s

ampl

e w

as n

ot r

estr

icte

d, w

here

as th

era

nge

of th

eV

alen

cia

et a

l.sa

mpl

e w

as h

ighl

y cu

rtai

led.

Tak

en to

geth

er, t

hese

dif

fere

nces

betw

een

Lao

sa's

(19

84a)

and

the

Val

enci

aet

al.

(198

1) d

ata

sugg

est t

hat t

hefr

eque

ntly

obs

erve

d (z

ero-

orde

r) c

orre

latio

n be

twee

n si

blin

g sr

actu

re a

nd c

ogni

-tiv

e pe

rfor

man

ce e

mer

ges

initi

ally

dur

ing

the

thir

d an

d fo

urth

year

s of

the

child

'slif

e.

By

mea

ns o

f a

prin

cipa

l-co

mpo

nent

s an

alys

is o

f th

e fo

urte

en v

aria

bles

for

the

com

bine

d et

hnic

sam

ple,

Lao

sa (

1984

a) u

ncov

ered

thre

e cl

earl

y de

fine

d fa

c-to

rs. (

Ort

hogo

nal a

nd o

bliq

ue s

olut

ions

wer

e ob

tain

ed, r

evea

ling

no d

iffe

renc

ebe

twee

n ro

tatio

n m

etho

ds.)

Fac

tor

1w

as d

efin

ed b

y th

e la

ngua

ge v

aria

bles

;Fa

ctor

2, b

y th

e fa

mily

con

stel

latio

n va

riab

les;

and

Fac

tor

3 w

as d

efin

ed b

y th

eso

cioe

cono

mic

and

par

enta

l sch

oolin

g m

easu

res.

'L

aosa

's (

1984

a) a

naly

ses

of th

e ch

ildre

n's

test

sco

res

reve

aled

sig

nifi

cant

ethn

ic g

roup

dif

fere

nces

in th

e ch

ildre

n's

verb

al, q

uant

itativ

e, a

ndm

emor

y pe

r-fo

rman

ce (

no d

iffe

renc

es in

non

verb

al r

easo

ning

or

mot

or p

erfo

rman

ce).

Lao

sath

en p

erfo

rmed

a s

erie

s of

ana

lyse

s of

cov

aria

nce

in o

rder

to a

scer

tain

whe

ther

thes

e et

hnic

gro

up d

iffe

renc

es in

chi

ldre

n's

perf

orm

ance

cou

ld b

e ex

plai

ned

(sta

tistic

ally

) by

the

thre

e af

orem

entio

ned

fact

ors,

eith

er in

divi

dual

ly o

r in

com

-bi

natio

n. T

he r

esul

ts s

how

ed th

at th

e fa

mily

con

stel

latio

n fa

ctor

exp

lain

edve

rylit

tle, i

f an

y, o

f th

e et

hnic

gro

up d

iffe

renc

es in

the

child

ren'

s pe

rfor

man

ce o

n th

eab

ility

sca

les.

In

cont

rast

, the

SE

S an

d ho

me

lang

uage

fac

tors

acc

ount

ed f

orsi

gnif

ican

t por

tions

of

the

betw

een-

grou

p va

rian

ce in

this

per

form

ance

; ind

eed,

the

ethn

ic g

roup

dif

fere

nces

in c

hild

ren'

s pe

rfor

man

ce b

ecam

e no

nsig

nifi

cant

whe

n th

e SE

S an

d ho

me

lang

uage

fac

tors

wer

e si

mul

tane

ousl

y co

ntro

lled.

Lao

sa (

1984

a) a

lso

foun

d th

at th

ere

wer

e no

sig

nifi

cant

with

in-g

roup

cor

rela

-tio

ns o

f sc

ores

on

any

of th

e fi

ve a

bilit

y sc

ales

with

the

num

ber

of h

ouse

hold

child

ren,

the

child

's b

irth

ord

er, o

r w

heth

er th

e ch

ild w

as a

n on

ly c

hild

; thi

s w

astr

ue in

bot

h et

hnic

gro

ups.

It s

houl

d be

not

ed, h

owev

er, t

hat L

aosa

(19

84a)

obta

ined

sig

nifi

cant

(po

sitiv

e) c

orre

latio

ns b

etw

een

the

num

ber

of a

dults

(in

addi

tion

to th

e pa

rent

s) r

esid

ing

in th

e C

hica

no h

ouse

hold

s an

d th

e ch

ildre

n's

scor

es o

n tw

o ab

ility

sca

les

Qua

ntita

tive

and

Mot

or. A

s L

aosa

(19

84a)

not

es,

the

latte

r fi

ndin

g be

ars

on th

e co

nflu

ence

theo

ry p

ropo

sed

by Z

ajon

c an

d M

arku

s(1

975)

, a th

eory

dis

cuss

ed in

the

next

sec

tion.

In s

um, b

oth

Lao

sa (

1984

a) a

nd V

alen

cia

et a

l.(1

981)

fou

nd th

at, a

t lea

stdu

ring

ear

ly c

hild

hood

, nei

ther

the

num

ber

of c

hild

ren

in th

e ho

me

nor

the

ES

T C

OP

Y A

VA

ILA

BLE

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

child

's b

irth

ord

er h

as m

uch

of a

nim

pact

on

Chi

cano

chi

ldre

n's

cogn

itive

deve

lopm

ent.

The

res

ults

of

both

stu

dies

are

also

con

grue

nt in

cle

arly

poi

ntin

g to

the

fam

ily's

soc

ioec

onom

ic le

vel a

ndho

me

lang

uage

as

bein

g si

gnif

ican

tlyre

late

d

to C

hica

no c

hild

ren'

spe

rfor

man

ce o

n co

gniti

ve te

sts;

this

rel

atio

nshi

p w

as e

ven

prio

r to

the

thir

d bi

rthd

ay a

nd th

uslo

ng b

efor

e sc

hool

ent

ry.

Con

fluen

ce m

odel

The

conf

luen

ce m

odel

gain

ed m

uch

atte

ntio

n w

hen

itfi

rst

appe

ared

in th

e re

sear

ch li

tera

ture

inth

e m

id 1

970s

. Thi

s th

eore

tical

mod

el w

as

prop

osed

by

Zaj

onc

and

Mar

kus

(197

5)in

an

atte

mpt

to e

xpla

inre

sear

ch d

ata

show

ing

an a

ssoc

iatio

n be

twee

nfa

mily

con

stel

latio

n an

d ch

ildre

n's

cogn

itive

perf

orm

ance

. The

mod

el, a

ccla

imed

for

its p

arsi

mon

y, p

ropo

ses

that

the

inte

llec-

tual

env

iron

men

t of

a fa

mily

has

adi

rect

infl

uenc

e on

the

inte

llect

ual

deve

lop-

men

t of

the

child

ren

born

into

it.

As

defi

ned

by th

e m

odel

, the

inte

llect

ual

envi

ronm

ent c

onsi

sts

ofth

e av

erag

e in

telle

ctua

l abi

lity

of a

ll fa

mily

mem

bers

.

(The

inte

llige

nce

cons

truc

t em

ploy

edin

this

theo

retic

al m

odel

is m

ore

akin

toth

e

conc

ept o

f m

enta

l age

than

to I

Q.)

Adu

lts a

re c

ogni

tivel

y m

ore

adva

nced

than

child

ren,

and

ther

efor

e th

ey c

ontr

ibut

e m

ore

inte

llect

ual s

timul

atio

n to

the

fam

ily

envi

ronm

ent b

y vi

rtue

of

thei

r gr

eate

rex

peri

ence

s an

d ac

cum

ulat

edle

arni

ng

oppo

rtun

ities

; con

vers

ely,

the

arri

val

of a

n in

fant

can

wor

sen

the

inte

llect

ual

envi

ronm

ent b

y lo

wer

ing

the

aver

age

inte

llect

ual a

bilit

y of

its

mem

bers

.T

hus,

acco

rdm

g to

thie

con

flue

nce

mod

el, a

child

's in

telle

ctua

l env

iron

men

t is

'dilu

ted'

by th

e pr

esen

ce o

f yo

unge

r si

blin

gs.

The

mod

el, h

owev

er, a

lso

prop

oses

that

child

ren

with

you

nger

sib

lings

are

able

to e

ngag

e in

teac

hing

them

and

ther

eby

perh

aps

to im

prov

e th

eir

own

inte

llect

ual a

bilit

y. R

esea

rch

on f

amily

inte

ract

ion

does

sug

gest

that

old

er s

iblin

gs c

an s

erve

as,

effe

ctiv

e in

telle

ctua

l res

ourc

es f

or

thei

r yo

unge

r si

blin

gs (

Lao

sa,

1982

a; N

orm

an-J

acks

on, 1

982;

Ste

war

t,19

83);

it

also

sug

gest

s th

at te

achi

ngits

elf

can

bene

fit t

each

ers

as m

uch

aale

arne

rs (

Bar

gh

and

Schu

l, 19

80; C

ohen

, Kul

ikan

d K

ulik

, 198

2).

In p

art,

the

extr

aord

inar

y in

tere

stge

nera

ted

by th

e co

nflu

ence

mod

el w

as

stim

ulat

ed b

y Z

ajon

c's

(197

6) s

ugge

stio

nth

at th

e ob

serv

ed d

eclin

es in

natio

nal

Scho

last

ic A

ptitu

de T

est (

SAT

) sc

ores

mer

ely

refl

ecte

d a

popu

latio

n bu

lge

of

child

ren

from

larg

e fa

mili

es w

ho w

ere

heav

ily r

epre

sent

ed in

the

pool

of te

st

take

rs. Z

ajon

c (1

976,

198

6)pr

edic

ted

that

the

aver

age

scor

es w

ould

begi

n to

ris

e

as c

hild

ren

from

age

nera

tion

of s

mal

ler

fam

ilies

appr

oach

ed c

olle

ge a

ge a

nd

ente

red

the

pool

. Alth

ough

the

pred

icte

d ri

se in

SA

T s

core

s di

din

deed

occ

ur

(Zaj

onc,

1)8(

), th

e co

ntin

ence

mod

el is

the

subj

ect o

f co

nsid

erab

lesc

ient

ific

cont

rove

rsy.

I'est

s of

the

mod

el o

n ot

her

type

sof

dat

a ha

ve b

een

atte

mpt

ed w

ith g

reat

er

lkrb

anin

and

Mor

elan

d, 1

985)

and

less

er s

ucce

ss (

Mel

ican

and

Fel

dt, 1

980;

Page

and

(;r

ando

n, 1

979;

Vel

andi

a, G

rand

on a

nd P

age,

197

8),

and

the

mod

el h

as

been

cri

ncir

ed o

n se

vera

l gro

unds

.C

ritic

s of

the

mod

el r

aise

que

stio

nsab

out t

he

appr

)pri

aten

ess

of th

e po

pula

tions

stud

ied,

the

leve

ls o

f da

ta a

ggre

gatio

n,th

e

deta

ils o

f th

e (

alcu

latio

nsin

dth

e lo

gica

l bas

is o

f th

e m

odel

(Hen

ders

on, 1

981;

Scot

t-Jo

nes,

198

4; S

teel

man

, 198

5),

whi

le p

ropo

nent

s of

the

mod

elre

fute

cri

tic-

ism

s an

d qu

estio

nth

e su

itabi

lity

of th

e st

atis

tical

anal

yses

tech

niqu

es a

nd th

e

omis

sion

of

cert

ain

vari

able

s(Z

ajon

c, 1

983)

.M

ost s

tudi

es o

f th

e co

nflu

ence

mod

el a

re b

ased

on

sam

ples

of

non-

min

ority

popu

latio

ns in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es a

nd W

este

rnE

urop

e. G

iven

the

rest

rict

ed

cultu

ral

vari

abili

ty r

epre

sent

ed in

suc

hst

udie

s,it

is im

port

ant t

o es

tabl

ish

1-6

10

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

whe

ther

the

empi

rica

l fin

ding

s ap

ply

to o

ther

cul

tura

l gro

ups.

The

que

stio

n (s

fw

heth

er th

e m

odel

is g

ener

aliz

able

to o

ther

pop

ulat

ions

was

add

ress

ed in

a s

tudy

,of

a la

rge

sam

ple

of c

olle

ge a

pplic

ants

in C

olom

bia,

Sou

th A

mer

ica

(Vel

andi

aet

al.,

1978

). N

eith

er th

e pr

edic

ted

asso

ciat

ions

bet

wee

n bi

rth

orde

r an

d in

telli

genc

eno

r th

e re

latio

n of

inte

llige

nce

to f

amily

siz

e w

ere

uphe

ld. I

n a

follo

w-u

p st

udy

with

a la

rge

natio

nal s

ampl

e in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es, P

age

and

Gra

ndon

(19

79)

foun

dth

at th

e ap

pare

nt e

ffec

ts o

f fa

mily

siz

e w

ere

best

exp

lain

ed b

y et

hnic

gro

up a

ndso

cial

cla

ss v

aria

bles

. The

se r

esul

ts a

re c

onsi

sten

t with

thos

e ob

tain

ed b

y L

aosa

(198

4a)

and

Val

enci

a et

al.

(198

1) f

or M

exic

an A

mer

ican

you

ng c

hild

ren.

The

little

res

earc

h th

at e

xist

s on

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an s

ampl

es s

how

s no

sig

nifi

cant

effe

cts

of s

ibsh

ip s

ize

or b

irth

ord

er o

n in

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

t onc

e pr

oper

cont

rols

for

oth

er b

ackg

roun

d va

riab

les

are

take

n in

to a

ccou

nt (

Lao

sa, 1

984a

;V

alen

cia

et a

l., 1

981)

mor

e pr

ecis

ely,

if a

ny s

uch

effe

cts

occu

r, th

ey a

re n

otev

iden

t in

earl

y ch

ildho

od.

Sing

le P

aren

ting

The

afo

rem

entio

ned

stud

ies

of C

hica

no f

amili

es b

y L

aosa

(19

84a)

and

Val

enci

a et

al. (

1981

) fo

cuse

d on

two-

pare

nt f

amili

esth

at is

, on

hous

ehol

ds in

whi

ch th

ech

ild r

esid

ed w

ith b

oth

mot

her

and

fath

er. B

y de

sign

ing

thei

r sa

mpl

ing

plan

s in

this

man

ner,

thes

e in

vest

igat

ors

succ

essf

ully

avo

ided

con

foun

ding

thei

r re

sults

with

pos

sibl

e ef

fect

s du

e to

dif

fere

nces

bet

wee

n on

e- a

nd tw

o-pa

rent

fam

ilies

.A

lthou

gh a

larg

e m

ajor

ity o

f C

hica

no c

hild

ren

resi

de w

ith tw

o pa

rent

s, s

ome

ofth

em li

ve in

sol

o-pa

rent

hou

seho

lds;

in 1

988,

18.

5 pe

r ce

nt o

f th

e M

exic

an-o

rigi

nfa

mili

es in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es w

ere

head

ed b

y a

wom

an w

ith n

o hu

sban

d pr

esen

t(U

S B

urea

u of

the

Cen

sus,

198

8; s

ee a

lso

Lao

sa, 1

988a

).3

The

issu

e is

impo

rtan

t bec

ause

the

rese

arch

lite

ratu

re s

ugge

sts

that

com

pare

dw

ith c

hild

ren

in tw

o-pa

rent

hou

seho

lds,

thos

e in

sin

gle-

pare

nt h

omes

are

mor

elik

ely

to d

evel

op a

cade

mic

and

con

duct

pro

blem

s in

sch

ool (

for

a re

sear

ch r

evie

wse

e H

ethe

ring

ton,

Cam

ara

and

Feat

herm

an, 1

983)

. Bec

ause

alm

ost a

ll of

this

rese

arch

is b

ased

on

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

or

Bla

ck s

ampl

es, t

he q

uest

ion

aris

es a

sto

whe

ther

thes

e fi

ndin

gs g

ener

aliz

e to

Chi

cano

s. D

o C

hica

no c

hild

ren

in s

olo-

pare

nt f

amili

es d

evel

op d

iffe

rent

ly f

rom

thos

e in

two-

pare

nt h

ouse

hold

s? I

s th

esc

hola

stic

per

form

ance

of

Chi

cano

chi

ldre

n af

fect

ed b

y w

heth

er th

ey li

ve w

ithon

e or

two

pare

nts?

Are

ther

e fe

atur

es o

f C

hica

no c

ultu

re th

at s

erve

to b

uffe

r or

mod

erat

e th

e ef

fect

s of

sol

o pa

rent

ing

obse

rved

in c

hild

ren

from

oth

er c

ultu

ral

grou

ps?

The

se q

uest

ions

wer

e ad

dres

sed

by L

eCor

gne

and

Lao

sa (

1976

) in

a s

tudy

desi

gned

to te

st th

e nu

ll hy

poth

esis

of

no e

ffec

ts d

ue to

sol

o m

othe

ring

on

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an c

hild

ren'

s co

gniti

ve a

nd p

sych

osoc

ial d

evel

opm

ent.

The

sam

-pl

e co

nsis

ted

of 2

48 f

ourt

h-gr

ade

stud

ents

in a

pre

dom

inan

tly M

exic

an A

mer

-ic

an, u

rban

are

a in

sou

th-c

entr

al T

exas

. Abo

ut h

alf

of th

e ch

ildre

n w

ere

sele

cted

for

the

sam

ple

beca

use

they

did

not

hav

e a

fath

er o

r m

ale

fath

er s

urro

gate

(ot

her

than

an

olde

r si

blin

g) li

ving

at h

ome,

whe

reas

the

othe

r ha

lf w

ere

rand

omly

sele

cted

fro

m a

mon

g th

ose

livin

g in

two-

pare

nt h

ouse

hold

s. O

nly

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an f

amili

es a

t or

belo

w th

c po

vert

y le

vel w

ere

incl

uded

. The

dat

a w

ere

anal

yzed

usi

ng a

2 x

2 (

fath

er p

rese

nce/

abse

nce

by c

hild

's s

ex)

anal

ysis

of

co-

vari

ance

(ch

ild's

chr

onol

ogic

al a

ge c

ovar

ied)

. LeC

orgn

e an

d L

aosa

's a

naly

ses

i617

7

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

unco

vere

d im

port

ant d

iffe

renc

es b

etw

een

Mex

ican

Am

eric

anch

ildre

n of

the

two

fam

ily ty

pes.

Am

ong

the

depe

nden

t var

iabl

es e

xam

ined

by

LeC

orgn

e an

dL

aosa

wer

ecl

assr

oom

teac

hers

' rat

ings

of

the

stud

ents

' psy

chos

ocia

l adj

ustm

ent.

The

teac

hers

wer

e in

stru

cted

that

sch

ool a

chie

vem

ent w

as n

ot to

be a

con

side

ratio

n in

mak

ing

the

pers

onal

adj

ustm

ent r

atin

gs, b

ut th

at th

e ch

ild's

'sel

f-co

ncep

tand

rel

atio

nshi

pto

oth

ers'

(p.

470

) sh

ould

be

the

maj

orco

nsid

erat

ion.

The

ana

lyse

s re

veal

ed th

atbo

th th

e m

ain

effe

ct o

f fa

mily

type

and

the

inte

ract

ion

with

child

's s

ex w

ere

sign

ific

ant f

or th

is v

aria

ble.

Spe

cifi

cally

, the

teac

hers

' rat

ings

show

ed m

ore

sign

sof

sch

ool m

alad

just

men

t in

boys

of

solo

mot

hers

than

inbo

ys o

f tw

o-pa

rent

hom

es o

r in

gir

ls o

f ei

ther

fam

ily ty

pe. T

his

find

ing

sugg

ests

adi

ffer

entia

l eff

ec:

of f

athe

r ab

senc

e on

boy

s an

d gi

rls.

LeC

orgn

e an

d L

aosa

's (

1976

) fi

ndin

g of

a s

igni

fica

ntfa

mily

-typ

e-by

-chi

ld's

-se

x in

tera

ctio

n fo

r te

ache

rs' r

atin

gsof

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an c

hild

ren'

s sc

hool

adju

stm

ent i

s co

nson

ant w

ith d

ata

on o

ther

pop

ulat

ions

sug

gest

ing

that

boy

s ar

em

ore

susc

eptib

le to

cer

tain

form

s of

str

ess

than

gir

ls(e

.g.,

Rut

ter,

1979

).

'Alth

ough

littl

e is

kno

wn

abou

t the

rea

sons

1-s

r th

is s

exdi

ffer

ence

, rec

ent r

evie

ws

of th

e re

sear

ch li

tera

ture

do

inde

ed p

oint

rc

conc

lusi

on th

at b

oys

may

resp

ond

mor

e ne

gativ

ely

than

gir

ls to

som

efo

rms

of p

sych

osoc

ial s

tres

s, in

clud

ing

the

stre

sses

fro

m d

ivor

ce (

He:

heri

ngto

n et

al.,

1983

; Zas

low

, 198

7; Z

aslo

w a

ndH

ayes

, 198

6). L

eCor

gne

and

Lao

sa's

(19

76)

find

ings

add

conf

irm

ator

y ev

iden

cefo

r th

is g

ener

al h

ypot

hesi

s an

d ex

tend

it b

y sh

owin

gth

at th

e se

x di

ffer

ence

invu

lner

abili

ty to

cer

tain

for

ms

of p

sych

osoc

ial s

tres

s, a

vuln

erab

ility

that

has

bee

nob

serv

ed in

res

earc

h on

oth

er e

thni

c po

pula

tions

, is

gene

raliz

able

to M

exic

anA

mer

ican

s. S

peci

fica

lly, L

eCor

gne

and

Lao

sa's

dat

a sh

owth

at s

olo

mot

heri

ngap

pear

s to

hav

e no

del

eter

ious

effe

ct o

n M

exic

an A

mer

ican

gir

ls' p

sych

osoc

ial

adju

stm

ent t

o sc

hool

(at

leas

t dur

ing

mid

dle

child

hood

),w

here

as s

omet

hing

as

yet u

ndet

erm

ined

abo

ut th

e ex

peri

ence

sas

soci

ated

with

sol

o m

othe

ring

see

ms

toaf

fect

neg

ativ

ely

the

scho

ol a

djus

tmen

t of

Mex

ican

Am

eric

anbo

ys.

A p

laus

ible

exp

lana

tion

for

this

sex

dif

fere

nce,

offe

red

by H

ethe

ring

ton

et a

l.(1

)83)

, is

that

sep

arat

ion

from

the

fath

er m

ay r

epre

sent

a m

ore

impo

rtan

t los

s fo

r

a m

ale

than

for

a f

emal

e,bo

th a

s a

figu

re o

f id

entif

icat

ion

and

as a

dis

cipl

inar

ian.

Res

earc

h in

deed

sug

gest

s th

at g

irls

in f

athe

r-cu

stod

yfa

mili

es e

xhib

it so

nic

of th

esa

me

diff

icul

ties

in s

ocia

l beh

avio

r as

do b

oys

in m

othe

r-he

aded

, one

-par

ent

fam

ilies

(C

amar

a an

d R

esni

ck, 1

988;

San

troc

kan

d W

arsh

ak, 1

979;

San

troc

k.W

arsh

ak a

nd E

lliot

t, 19

82).

Thi

s fi

ndin

g su

gges

ts th

at s

epar

atio

nfr

om th

e sa

me-

sex

pare

nt m

ac; b

e pa

rtic

ular

lydi

ffic

ult f

or c

hild

ren.

Giv

en th

e pr

esen

t, m

ost

( on

unon

cus

todi

al a

rran

gem

ents

(Mac

coby

, Dep

ner

and

Mno

okin

. 198

8), t

here

-fo

re, b

oys

may

be

at h

ighe

r ri

sk f

or d

elet

erio

us o

utco

mes

from

fam

ily d

isru

ptio

nan

d di

vorc

e th

an a

re g

irls

.L

eCor

gne

and

l.aos

a's

(197

6) s

tudy

als

oin

clud

ed th

ree

mea

sure

s of

the

child

ren'

s co

gniti

ve-p

erce

ptua

l dev

elop

men

tth

e R

aven

Col

oure

d Pr

ogre

ssiv

eM

atri

ces,

the

Goo

deno

ugh-

Har

ris

Dra

win

g T

est,

and

the

Ben

der-

Ges

talt

Tes

t.I

here

wer

e no

sig

nifi

cant

dif

fere

nces

bet

wee

nfa

mily

type

s (a

nd n

o in

tera

ctio

nsw

ith s

ex)

for

eith

er R

aven

or

Ben

der-

Ges

talt

deve

lopm

enta

l sco

res.

The

re w

as,

how

ever

, a s

igni

fica

nt d

iffe

renc

e in

Goo

deno

ugh-

Har

ris

scor

es, s

ugge

stin

g a

high

er le

vel o

f co

ncep

tual

dev

elop

men

t for

the

grou

pof

two-

pare

nt c

hild

ren.

In

inte

rpre

ting

this

res

ult,

LeC

orgn

ean

d L

aosa

poi

nt o

ut th

at, a

lthou

gh th

e sa

mpl

ein

clud

ed o

nly

poor

fam

ilies

, thi

s di

ffer

ence

in c

ogni

tive

perf

orm

ance

cou

ld b

e th

e

178

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

outc

ome

of v

ery

smal

l dif

fere

nces

in s

ocio

econ

omic

leve

l bet

wee

n th

e tw

o fa

mily

type

s. N

atio

nal s

tatis

tics

show

low

er a

vera

ge in

com

es f

or s

olo-

mot

her

than

for

two-

pare

nt h

ouse

hold

s (L

aosa

, 198

8a);

and

the

low

er a

fam

ily's

eco

nom

ic s

tatu

s,th

e m

ore

impo

rtan

t sm

all d

olla

r di

ffer

ence

s m

ay b

ecom

e. I

ndee

d, H

arri

s an

dR

ober

ts (

1972

) fo

und

a no

ticea

ble

incr

ease

in m

ean

Goo

deno

ugh-

Har

ris

scor

esbe

twee

n ch

ildre

n fr

om f

amili

es w

ith in

com

es o

f le

ss th

an $

3,00

0 an

d th

ose

of$3

,000

to $

4,99

9.T

he la

tter

obse

rvat

ion

brin

gs f

orw

ard

yet a

noth

er e

ffec

t of

dive

rsity

infa

mily

str

uctu

re, n

amel

y, f

amily

inco

me.

Lao

sa (

1988

a) r

ecen

tly e

xam

ined

the

econ

omic

impl

icat

ions

of

sing

le p

aren

ting.

His

ana

lyse

s, a

s m

entio

ned

abov

e,cl

earl

y sh

ow th

at s

olo

mot

hers

and

the

child

ren

livin

g w

ith th

em a

re, o

n th

eav

erag

e, e

cono

mic

ally

dis

adva

ntag

ed c

ompa

red

with

thos

e in

two-

pare

nt f

ami-

lies;

this

is tr

ue ir

resp

ectiv

e of

eth

nici

ty o

r ra

ce. T

his

situ

atio

n is

par

tly th

e re

sult

of s

ex in

equa

litie

s in

inco

me,

as

the

aver

age

wom

an e

arns

low

er w

ages

per

hou

rth

an d

oes

the

aver

age

man

(Fu

chs,

198

6). E

ven

whe

n al

l of

the

vari

ance

pre

dict

edby

fam

ily s

truc

ture

can

be

expl

aine

d by

the

soci

oeco

nom

ic le

vel o

f th

e fa

mily

,ho

wev

er, w

e sh

ould

not

igno

re th

e ca

usal

link

s in

the

proc

ess

(Het

heri

ngto

net

al.,

1983

). D

ivor

ce, s

epar

atio

n, o

r de

ath

of a

spo

use

may

cre

ate

low

soc

io-

econ

omic

con

ditio

ns in

the

hom

e, a

nd s

uch

cond

ition

s in

turn

can

infl

uenc

e th

ech

ild's

aca

dem

ic a

ttain

men

t.

Env

iron

men

tal P

roce

sses

in th

e H

ome

Whe

reas

som

e st

udie

s of

soc

ializ

atio

n, s

uch

as th

ose

disc

usse

d in

the

prec

edin

gse

ctio

n, f

ocus

on

the

infl

uenc

e of

'mol

ar-l

evel

' soc

iode

mog

raph

ic v

aria

bles

on

child

ren'

s de

velo

pmen

tsu

ch a

s ho

useh

old

inco

me,

par

enta

l edu

catio

n an

doc

cupa

tion,

fam

ily s

ize

and

stru

ctur

eot

her

stud

ies

atte

mpt

to e

xam

ine

the

effe

cts

of 'm

icro

-lev

el' p

roce

sses

. Suc

h m

icro

-lev

el p

roce

sses

are

oft

en h

ypot

he-

size

d to

act

as

inte

rven

ing

or m

edia

ting

vari

able

s th

at m

ay e

xpla

in th

e as

soci

atio

nbe

twee

n th

e m

olar

-lev

el f

acto

rs a

nd th

e ch

ild's

dev

elop

men

t. A

goo

d ex

ampl

e of

mic

ro-l

evel

pro

cess

es a

re th

e da

ta o

n te

achi

ng s

trat

egie

s th

at L

aosa

(19

78, 1

980a

,19

826)

obt

aine

d th

roug

h di

rect

obs

erva

tions

of

the

inte

ract

ions

bet

wee

n C

hica

nam

othe

rs a

nd th

eir

own

child

ren,

dis

cuss

ed e

lsew

here

in th

is c

hapt

er. I

n th

isse

ctio

n th

e fo

cus

is o

n re

sear

ch in

whi

ch in

terv

iew

sra

ther

than

dir

ect o

bser

va-

tions

are

used

to o

btai

n da

ta o

n m

icro

-lev

el p

roce

sses

in th

e ho

me.

Am

ong

the

earl

y re

sear

ch o

n en

viro

nmen

tal p

roce

ss v

aria

bles

is th

e w

ork

stim

ulat

ed b

y B

enja

min

Blo

om, w

ho r

ecog

nize

d th

e ne

ed f

or k

oow

ledg

e ab

out

the

lear

ning

pro

cess

es th

at o

ccur

in th

e ho

me

and

othe

r fe

atur

es o

f th

e ho

me

envi

ronm

ent t

hat f

acili

tate

inte

llect

ual d

evel

opm

ent.

Tw

o of

Blo

om's

doc

tora

lst

uden

tsD

ave

(196

3) a

nd W

olf

(196

4)hy

poth

esiz

ed s

ever

al h

ome

effe

cts

onin

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

on

the

basi

s of

an

exte

nsiv

e lit

erat

ure

revi

ew, a

nd th

eyde

vise

d a

focu

sed

inte

rvie

w a

ppro

ach

to m

easu

re th

em. D

ave

and

Wol

f fo

und

that

the

hom

e en

viro

nmen

tal p

roce

ss v

aria

bles

that

they

mea

sure

d th

roug

h in

ter-

view

s w

ith (

non-

His

pani

c) p

aren

ts o

f el

emen

tary

-gra

de c

hild

ren

wer

e re

mar

kabl

ygo

od c

oncu

rren

t pre

dict

ors

of b

oth

acad

emic

ach

ieve

men

t (m

ultip

le R

= .8

0) a

ndIQ

(m

ultip

le R

= .7

0). T

hese

ass

ocia

tions

hav

e be

en r

eplic

ated

in d

iffe

rent

coun

trie

s (M

arjo

riba

nks,

197

9) a

nd w

ith d

iffe

rent

cul

tura

l gro

ups,

incl

udin

gM

exic

an A

mer

ican

s (H

ende

rson

, 196

6; H

ende

rson

and

Mer

ritt,

196

8).

1817

9

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ssI

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f Chi

cano

s

The

pri

ncip

al e

nvir

onm

enta

l pro

cess

var

iabl

es in

thes

e st

udie

s ar

e re

pre-

sent

ed b

y th

ose

empl

oyed

in D

ave'

s (1

963)

res

earc

h; a

mon

g th

em a

re 'a

chie

ve-

men

t pre

ss',

'lang

uage

mod

els'

, 'ac

adem

ic g

uida

nce'

, 'ac

tiven

ess

of f

amily

', an

d'in

telle

ctua

lity

in th

e ho

me'

. The

mea

sure

men

t pro

cedu

res

are

inte

nded

to id

en-

tify

spec

ific

par

enta

l beh

avio

rs r

athe

r th

an s

tate

men

ts o

f at

titud

es o

r in

tent

ions

.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, p

aren

ts' g

oals

and

asp

irat

ions

for

thei

r ch

ildre

n ar

e su

bsum

ed u

nder

the

'ach

ieve

men

t pre

ss' v

aria

ble.

Int

ervi

ew it

ems

and

prob

es r

elev

ant t

o th

isva

riab

le a

re d

esig

ned

to id

entif

y an

d qu

antif

y su

ch p

aren

tal b

ehav

iors

as

the

rein

forc

emen

t pra

ctic

es f

or th

e ch

ild's

aca

dem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce a

nd th

e ac

hiev

emen

tst

anda

rds

on w

hich

thes

e pr

actic

es a

re b

ased

. Add

ition

al in

dice

s of

this

var

iabl

ear

e de

rive

d fr

om in

terv

iew

que

stio

ns ta

ppin

g in

to p

aren

ts'.

conc

rete

kno

wle

dge

ofth

e de

velo

pmen

tal a

nd e

duca

tiona

l pro

gres

s of

thei

r ch

ildre

n an

d in

to th

e sp

ecif

icpl

ans

and

prep

arat

ions

they

hav

e m

ade

to a

ccom

plis

h th

e ed

ucat

iona

l goa

ls th

eycl

aim

to h

old

for

thei

r ch

ildre

n. T

he in

flue

nce

of r

olem

odel

s, to

o, is

take

n in

toac

coun

t in

com

posi

ng th

e 'a

chie

vem

ent p

ress

' var

iabl

e; th

is is

don

e by

inco

rpor

-at

ing

info

rmat

ion

on th

e ed

ucat

iona

l and

occ

upat

iona

l atta

inm

ents

of

fam

ilym

embe

rs a

nd f

rien

ds. F

urth

er e

xem

plif

ying

Dav

e's

and

Wol

f's m

easu

rem

ent

proc

edur

es, t

he 'l

angu

age

mod

el' v

aria

ble

is b

ased

on

ratin

gs o

f th

e pa

rent

's o

wn

lang

uage

dur

ing

the

inte

rvie

w, i

nclu

ding

suc

h la

ngua

ge c

hara

cter

istic

s as

ric

hnes

san

d va

riet

y of

voc

abul

ary,

flu

ency

of

expr

essi

on, a

nd th

e or

gani

zatio

n of

thou

ght

as e

xpre

ssed

thro

ugh

spee

ch. T

his

vari

able

als

o co

mpr

ises

info

rmat

ion

on th

epa

rent

's a

war

enes

s of

spe

cifi

c fe

atur

es o

f th

e ch

ild's

use

of

lang

uage

and

on

the

natu

re o

f th

e pa

rent

's d

irec

t eff

orts

to in

flue

nce

the

child

's la

ngua

ge d

evel

opm

ent.

Bui

ldin

g on

the

wor

k of

Dav

e an

d W

olf,

Hen

ders

on a

nd M

erri

tt (1

968)

dem

onst

rate

d th

at th

e af

orem

entio

ned

kind

s of

env

iron

men

tal p

roce

ss v

aria

bles

can

dist

ingu

ish

the

fam

ilies

of

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an c

hild

ren

who

per

form

wel

l on

cogn

itive

mea

sure

s fr

om th

ose

who

do

poor

ly. H

ende

rson

(19

72)

late

r sh

owed

that

,fo

r th

e sa

me

child

ren,

thes

e en

viro

nmen

tal p

roce

ss v

aria

bles

pre

dict

edac

adem

ic a

chie

vem

ent o

ver

a th

ree-

year

per

iod.

Spe

cifi

cally

, Hen

ders

on a

ndM

erri

tt (1

968)

stu

died

eig

hty

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an S

pani

sh-s

peak

ing

firs

t-gr

ade

child

ren

in T

ucso

n, A

rizo

na. T

wo

grou

ps c

ompr

ised

the

sam

ple:

hal

f of

the

child

ren

wer

e se

lect

ed b

ecau

se o

f th

eir

very

hig

h sc

ores

on

the

Goo

deno

ugh-

Har

ris

Dra

win

g T

est

a m

easu

re o

f ge

nera

l con

cept

ual d

evel

opm

ent

and

the

Van

Als

tyne

Pic

ture

Voc

abul

ary

Tes

t; th

e ot

her

half

wer

e ch

osen

bec

ause

of

thei

rve

ry lo

w s

core

s. F

rom

indi

vidu

al in

terv

iew

s w

ith th

e m

othe

rs, t

he r

esea

rche

rsob

tain

ed r

atin

gs o

n th

irty

-thr

ee c

hara

cter

istic

s of

the

hom

e th

at d

efin

ed n

ine

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

var

iabl

es g

ener

ally

sim

ilar

to th

ose

that

Dav

e an

d W

olf

had

iden

tifie

d ea

rlie

r. T

he a

naly

ses

reve

aled

sig

nifi

cant

ly h

ighe

r m

eans

on

the

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

var

iabl

es f

or th

e gr

oup

scor

ing

high

er o

n th

e co

gniti

vete

sts.

Thu

s, th

e pr

oces

ses

taki

ng p

lace

in th

e ho

mes

of

the

Mex

ican

Am

eric

anch

ildre

n w

ho s

core

d hi

gh o

n th

ese

cogn

itive

test

s ap

pare

ntly

dif

fere

d in

spe

cifi

cw

ays

from

the

hom

es o

f th

ose

who

sco

red

low

. It s

houl

d be

poi

nted

out

, too

,th

at th

e an

alys

es a

lso

reve

aled

that

the

mot

hers

of

the

high

-sco

ring

chi

ldre

n ha

d,on

the

aver

age,

mor

e fo

rmal

edu

catio

n an

d a

high

er s

ocio

econ

omic

sta

tus

than

did

the

mot

hers

of

the

low

-sco

ring

chi

ldre

n.In

a f

ollo

w-u

p st

udy,

Hen

ders

on (

1972

) ad

min

iste

red

the

Cal

ifor

nia

Rea

ding

lest

to th

irty

-fiv

e ch

ildre

n of

the

orig

inal

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an s

ampl

e w

hen

they

wer

e in

the

thir

d gr

ade

and

corr

elat

ed th

ese

thir

d-gr

ade

read

ing

achi

evem

ent

scor

es w

ith th

e !i

onic

env

iron

men

tal p

roce

ss m

easu

res

obta

ined

two

year

s ea

rlie

r.

ISO

Hen

ders

on (

1972

) re

port

s a

pred

ictiv

e bi

vari

ate

corr

elat

ion

of .5

5 be

twee

n th

ere

adin

g ac

hiev

emen

t sco

res

and

the

com

bine

d sc

ore

for

the

vari

ous

hom

e en

-vi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

var

iabl

es. T

his

find

ing

is c

ongr

uent

with

that

obt

aine

dby

Wol

f (c

ited

in H

ende

rson

, 198

1), w

ho f

ollo

wed

his

afo

rem

entio

ned

(non

-H

ispa

nic)

sam

ple

over

a f

our-

year

per

iod

and

foun

d th

at th

e m

ultip

le c

orre

latio

nbe

twee

n IQ

at t

his

time

and

the

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

var

iabl

es m

easu

red

earl

ier

was

onl

y sl

ight

ly lo

wer

than

the

orig

inal

, con

curr

ent

coef

fici

ent.

The

se f

indi

ngs

do n

ot e

stab

lish

caus

e, b

ut th

ey d

o de

mon

stra

te r

easo

nabl

y lo

ng-t

erm

pre

dict

ive

stab

ility

for

the

mea

sure

s of

env

iron

men

tal p

roce

sses

in th

e ho

me.

The

app

roac

h th

at D

ave

(196

3) a

nd W

olf

(196

4) d

evel

oped

for

the

mea

sure

-m

ent o

f en

viro

nmen

tal p

roce

sses

in th

e ho

me

thus

pro

ved

tobe

an

exce

ptio

nally

good

pre

dict

or o

f in

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

, but

the

met

hod

is ti

me

cons

umin

gan

d re

quir

es th

e se

rvic

es o

f sk

illed

inte

rvie

wer

s. F

or th

is r

easo

n, H

ende

rson

,B

erga

n an

d H

urt (

1972

) se

t out

to d

evel

op a

n in

terv

iew

sch

edul

e, a

dapt

ed f

rom

Dav

e's

(196

3) a

nd W

olf's

(19

64)

met

hod,

that

cou

ld b

e m

ore

easi

ly a

dmin

iste

red

and

code

d. T

he r

esul

ting

inst

rum

ent

the

Hen

ders

on E

nvir

onm

enta

l Lea

rnin

gPr

oces

s Sc

ale

(HE

LPS

)is

a s

truc

ture

d qu

estio

nnai

re u

sing

a L

iker

t-ty

pe r

e-sp

onse

for

mat

.It

is d

esig

ned

to p

rovi

de m

easu

res

of e

duca

tiona

lly r

elev

ant

proc

esse

s in

the

hom

e th

at c

an b

e su

bjec

t to

chan

geth

roug

h in

terv

entio

n pr

o-gr

ams

in th

e sc

hool

and

in th

e ho

me.

The

item

s co

mpo

sing

this

inst

rum

ent f

ocus

prim

arily

on

spec

ific

exp

erie

nces

pro

vide

d fo

r th

e ch

ild in

the

hom

e an

d on

patte

rns

of in

tera

ctio

n ai

dong

fam

ily m

embe

rs, b

ut th

eyal

so ta

p pa

rent

al a

tti-

tude

s an

d su

ch f

acto

rs a

s th

e pa

rent

's a

spir

atio

ns a

nd e

xpec

tatio

ns f

or th

e ch

ild.

Alth

ough

the

info

rmat

ion

yiel

ded

by th

e H

EL

PS is

less

det

aile

d th

an th

atpr

ovid

ed b

y fo

cuse

d in

terv

iew

pro

cedu

res,

it h

as th

e ad

vant

age

of r

equi

ring

less

than

twen

ty m

inut

es to

adm

inis

ter,

and

littl

e tr

aini

ng is

req

uire

d fo

r its

adm

inis

trat

ion.

In o

rder

to a

sses

s th

e pr

edic

tive

valid

ity a

nd o

ther

psy

chom

etri

c pr

oper

ties

of th

e m

easu

res

obta

ined

by

the

HE

LPS

, Hen

ders

on e

t al.

(197

2) a

dmin

iste

red

the

Stan

ford

Ear

ly A

chie

vem

ent T

est a

nd th

e B

oehm

Tes

t of

Bas

ic C

once

pts

to s

ixty

low

-inc

ome

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an a

nd s

ixty

-six

mid

dle-

SES

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

firs

t-gr

ade

child

ren

in T

ucso

n, a

nd th

e H

EL

PS to

thei

r m

othe

rs. T

he a

naly

ses

in th

is s

tudy

wer

e pe

rfor

med

on

the

com

bine

d et

hnic

sam

ple.

A p

rinc

ipal

-co

mpo

nent

s an

alys

is o

f th

e tw

enty

-fiv

e H

EL

PS it

cms

yiel

ded

five

fac

tors

. The

HE

LPS

item

s lo

adin

g on

the

firs

t fac

tor

refl

ecte

d op

port

uniti

es ta

ken

by p

aren

tsto

exp

and

thei

r ow

n an

d th

eir

child

's s

ocia

l and

inte

llect

ual i

nter

ests

and

expe

ri-

ence

s. S

peci

fic

item

s ta

pped

suc

h pa

rent

al b

ehav

iors

as

havi

ng d

iscu

ssio

ns w

ithth

e ch

ild a

bout

pro

gram

s vi

ewed

on

tele

visi

on, s

eeki

ng a

nsw

ers

to th

e ch

ild's

ques

tions

by

cons

ultin

g a

book

(in

the

child

's p

rese

nce)

, enc

oura

ging

the

child

tore

ad, a

nd e

xten

ding

inte

rper

sona

l con

tact

s vi

a pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in c

lubs

or

orga

niza

-tio

ns a

nd v

isits

with

fri

ends

in n

eigh

borh

oods

oth

cr th

an o

ne's

ow

n. T

he s

econ

dfa

ctor

was

cha

ract

eriz

ed b

y th

e la

bel,

'Val

uing

Lan

guag

e an

d Sc

hool

Rel

ated

Beh

avio

r'. S

peci

fic

pare

ntal

beh

avio

rs id

entif

ied

by it

ems

load

ing

on th

is f

acto

rin

clud

ed s

uch

inte

ract

ions

as

expl

aini

ng th

e se

quen

ce o

f st

eps

for

perf

orm

ing

part

icul

ar ta

sks,

pra

isin

g th

e ch

ild f

or a

ppro

ved

beha

vior

at s

choo

l, an

d ta

lkin

gw

ith th

e ch

ild a

t mea

ltim

es. T

he th

ird

fact

or, l

abel

ed 'I

ntel

lect

ual G

uida

ncc'

, was

defi

ned

by s

uch

item

s as

hel

ping

the

child

with

hom

ewor

k, p

oint

ing

out f

eatu

res

of in

telle

ctua

l int

eres

t dur

ing

outin

gs, a

nd r

eadi

ng to

the

child

dur

ing

the

pre-

scho

ol y

ears

. The

item

s lo

adin

g on

Fac

tor

4 ap

pear

ed to

invo

lve

atte

mpt

s to 18

1

Chi

cano

Sth

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

wce

ss

prep

are

the

child

to f

unct

ion

wel

l in

scho

ol w

ithou

t atte

mpt

ing

todu

plic

ate

dire

ctly

the

func

tions

of

a sc

hool

teac

her.

Incl

uded

her

e w

ere

oppo

rtun

ities

to

obta

in s

choo

l-re

late

d in

form

atio

nth

roug

h su

ch c

omm

unity

res

ourc

es a

slib

rari

es

and

mus

eum

s, p

rovi

ding

an

inte

llect

ual

atm

osph

ere

by m

odel

ing

the

use

of

prin

ted

mat

eria

ls, c

omm

unic

atin

gve

rbal

ly w

ith th

e ch

ild, a

nd b

eing

aw

are

of

spec

ific

fea

ture

s of

the

child

's la

ngua

gede

velo

pmen

t. T

he f

inal

fac

tor,

labe

led

'Atte

ntio

n', r

efle

cted

a v

arie

ty o

f w

ays

inw

hich

par

ents

atte

nd to

beh

avio

rs th

at

seem

like

ly to

stim

ulat

ein

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

t. M

othe

rs w

hosc

ored

hig

h on

the

item

s lo

adin

g on

this

fac

tor

wer

elik

ely

to p

rovi

de a

ttent

ion

by s

how

ing

inte

rest

in th

e ch

ild's

lear

ning

and

by c

allin

g at

tent

ion

to th

e ch

ild's

use

of

lang

uage

.In

ord

er to

asc

erta

in w

heth

er th

e ho

me

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

ccss

var

iabl

es a

s

mea

sure

d by

the

HE

LPS

cor

rela

te w

ithac

adem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce, H

ende

rson

et a

l.

(197

2) p

erfo

rmed

ste

pwis

e re

gres

sion

s(f

or th

e co

mbi

ned

ethn

ic s

ampl

e), u

sing

HE

LPS

fac

tor

scor

es a

s pr

edic

tors

(con

curr

ent)

and

the

test

sco

res

as c

rite

ria.

The

res

ults

sho

wed

that

toge

ther

the

HE

LPS

fac

tors

acc

ount

ed f

or th

e m

ajor

ityof

the

vari

ance

in c

ogni

tive

test

sco

res

(e.g

., a

mul

tiple

R o

f .7

2 fo

r th

e B

oehm

).T

he H

ende

rson

et a

l. (1

972)

HE

LPS

is,

then

, a p

ract

ical

que

stio

nnai

re th

at c

an b

ead

min

iste

red

to la

rge

sam

ples

and

sco

red

with

rel

ativ

e ea

se a

nd th

at id

entif

ies

vari

able

s re

flec

ting

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

esin

the

hom

e th

at c

orre

late

hig

hly

with

mea

sure

s of

chi

ldre

n's

acad

emic

ach

ieve

men

tan

d co

ncep

tual

dev

elop

men

t.T

he m

easu

re h

as d

emon

stra

ted

good

qual

ities

of

relia

bilit

y an

d pr

edic

tive

valid

ityw

hen

adap

ted

for

use

with

var

ied

popu

latio

nsin

dif

fere

nt c

omm

unity

set

tings

(e.g

., K

itony

i, 19

80; P

rior

,19

74; V

alen

cia,

Hen

ders

on a

nd R

anki

n,19

85).

The

HE

LPS

was

use

d in

a s

tudy

by

Val

enci

aan

d as

soci

ates

(19

85)

to a

sses

s

the

rela

tive

cont

ribu

tions

of

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s,pa

rent

al s

choo

ling

leve

l, ho

me

lang

uage

. sib

ship

siz

e, a

nd h

ome

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

es to

the

cogn

itive

perf

orm

ance

of

Mex

ican

Am

eric

anpr

esch

ool e

nrol

lees

fro

m lo

w-i

ncom

e,tw

o-pa

rent

hou

seho

lds.

Mul

tiple

regr

essi

on a

naly

ses

reve

aled

that

the

hom

e

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

cess

es, a

s m

easu

red

by th

eH

EL

PS to

tal s

core

, acc

ount

ed f

or

mor

e un

ique

var

ianc

e in

perf

orm

ance

on

the

Gen

eral

Cog

nitiv

eIn

dex

of th

e

McC

arth

y Sc

ales

of

Chi

ldre

n's

Abi

litie

s th

andi

d an

y of

' the

se o

ther

var

iabl

es.

I he

nex

t lar

gest

por

tion

of u

niqu

e va

rian

cein

cog

nitiv

e sc

ores

was

exp

lain

ed(s

tatis

tical

ly)

by a

com

posi

te v

aria

ble

com

pris

ing

pare

ntal

sch

oolin

g le

vel a

nd u

se

of E

nghs

h ov

er S

pani

sh in

the

hom

e.Fi

nally

, par

enta

l occ

upat

iona

l sta

tus

and

sibs

hip

size

did

not

add

sig

nifi

cant

ly to

the

pred

ictio

n (c

oncu

rren

t) o

f co

gniti

ve

scor

es. T

hese

fin

ding

spr

ovid

e su

ppor

t for

Lao

sa's

theo

retic

alm

odel

(L

aosa

,

1)82

b; M

ario

riba

nks,

198

4), a

ccor

ding

tow

hich

par

enta

l sch

oolin

g le

vel e

xert

s

an in

dire

ct in

flue

nce

onch

ildre

n's

deve

lopm

enta

l tra

ject

orie

s by

affe

ctin

g ho

w

pare

nts

inte

ract

with

thei

rch

ildre

n.A

noth

er in

flue

ntia

l app

roac

h to

the

mea

sure

men

tof

hom

e en

viro

nmen

ts w

asde

velo

ped

by B

etty

e C

aldw

ell a

nd h

er a

ssoc

iate

s.C

aldw

ell's

Hom

e O

bser

vatio

nlo

t Mea

sure

men

t of

the

Env

iron

men

t(H

OM

E)

Inve

ntor

y ha

s be

en u

sed

innu

mer

ous

stud

ies

ot th

ere

latio

n of

hom

e en

viro

nmen

ts to

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f

com

pete

nce,

and

it h

as p

rove

n to

be a

goo

d pr

edic

tor

of (

non-

His

pani

c)ch

il-

dren

's in

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

(e.

g.,

Bra

dley

et a

l., 1

989;

Bra

dley

, Cal

dwel

lan

d

Roc

k, 1

988;

Ela

rdo,

Bra

dley

and

Cal

dwel

l, 19

77).

Thi

s in

stru

men

t is

desi

gned

to

asse

ss th

e st

imul

atio

nan

d su

ppor

t ava

ilabl

e to

a c

hild

in th

e ho

me

envi

ronm

ent.

Info

rmat

ton

need

ed to

sco

re th

e In

vent

ory

is o

btai

ned

thro

ugh

obse

rvat

ion

and

21

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos.

inte

rvie

w d

one

in th

e ho

me

with

the

child

and

the

child

's p

rim

ary

care

give

r(C

aldw

ell a

nd B

radl

ey, 1

984)

. As

is th

e ca

se w

ith v

aria

bles

bas

edon

the

mea

sure

-.m

ent a

pprc

ach

deve

lope

d by

Dav

e (1

963)

and

Wol

f (1

964)

, the

HO

ME

Inv

ento

ryha

s be

en f

ound

to b

e a

mor

c ef

fect

ive

pred

icto

r of

men

tal

test

per

form

ance

than

have

glo

bal i

ndic

cs o

f SE

S (e

.g.,

Bra

dley

et a

l., 1

989)

. The

HO

ME

Inv

ento

ryis

not,

how

ever

, an

equa

lly e

ffec

tive

mea

sure

for

all

ethn

ic g

roup

s.In

one

stu

dy (

Ela

rdo

et a

l., 1

977)

, the

pre

dict

ions

of

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ceat

age

3 y

ears

fro

m H

OM

E s

core

s ob

tain

ed a

yea

r ea

rlie

r he

ld u

p fo

r sa

mpl

es o

fbo

th B

lack

and

non

-His

pani

c W

hite

fam

ilies

. Alth

ough

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

cesc

ores

wer

e si

gnif

ican

tly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith H

OM

E s

core

s in

bot

h et

hnic

gro

ups,

the

rela

tion

was

not

as

stro

ng f

or B

lack

as

for

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

fam

ilies

. The

inve

stig

ator

s sp

ecul

ated

that

the

atte

nuat

ed a

ssoc

iatio

n be

twee

n H

OM

E a

ndin

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

sco

res

for

Bla

ck f

amili

es m

ight

hav

e be

en th

e re

sult

ofa

rang

e re

stri

ctio

n in

the

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ce s

core

s fo

r th

e B

lack

sam

ple

or o

fa

low

er v

alid

ity o

f H

OM

E s

core

s fo

r B

lack

s th

an f

or n

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

tes.

Mor

ere

cent

ly, B

radl

ey e

t al.

(198

9) e

xam

ined

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

HO

ME

scor

esan

d m

easu

res

of c

hild

ren'

s in

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

t in

Bla

ck, M

exic

an A

mer

ican

,an

d no

n-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te s

ampl

es; t

he s

ampl

es w

ere

mat

ched

on H

OM

E s

core

s.Im

port

antly

, the

res

ults

of

this

maj

or s

tudy

sho

wed

that

, whe

reas

the

HO

ME

scor

es s

igni

fica

ntly

pre

dict

ed in

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

for

the

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

and

Bla

ck s

ampl

es, t

he c

orre

spon

ding

coe

ffic

ient

s fo

r th

e M

exic

an A

mer

ican

sam

ple

wer

e no

nsig

nifi

cant

and

nea

r ze

ro. T

hese

fin

ding

s ad

d su

ppor

tto

Lao

sa's

argu

men

t tha

t the

re is

a ne

ed to

ass

ess

the

mea

sure

men

t pro

pert

ies

of d

ata

sepa

rate

ly b

y et

hnic

gro

up (

Lao

sa, 1

9776

, I98

2c).

The

fin

ding

s al

so c

ontr

ibut

eto

the

grow

ing

evid

ence

just

ifyi

ng L

aosa

's e

xhor

tatio

ns to

pra

ctiti

oner

s an

d po

licy-

mak

ers

caut

ioni

ng th

em a

gain

st g

ener

aliz

ing

rese

arch

res

ults

acro

ss d

iffe

rent

ethn

ic p

opul

atio

ns in

the

abse

nce

of s

uppo

rtin

g em

piri

cal e

vide

nce

(Lao

sa, 1

981b

,19

886,

199

0).

In s

um, s

tudi

es o

f re

latio

ns b

etw

een

hom

e en

viro

nmen

tal p

roce

sses

and

inte

llect

ual d

evel

opm

ent s

how

that

mea

sure

s of

spe

cifi

c ch

arac

teri

stic

s of

hom

een

viro

nmen

ts a

ccou

nt f

or a

sta

tistic

ally

and

edu

catio

nally

sig

nifi

cant

por

tion

ofth

e va

rian

ce in

chi

ldre

n's

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ce, a

nd th

at th

ey p

rovi

de s

tabl

epr

edic

tions

ove

r tim

e. W

ith c

hild

ren

of v

arie

d ag

es, a

nd s

pann

ing

a nu

mbe

r of

cultu

ral g

roup

s an

d so

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tuse

s, it

has

bee

n sh

own

that

exp

erie

nces

and

expe

ctat

ions

in th

e fa

mily

set

ting

are

asso

ciat

ed w

ith c

hild

ren'

s in

telle

ctua

lde

velo

pmen

t. M

easu

res

of h

ome

envi

ronm

ents

can

pro

vide

info

rmat

ion

ofa

spec

ific

nat

ure

abou

t the

act

ual e

xper

ienc

es th

at d

iffe

rent

iate

bet

wee

n in

telle

ctua

l-ly

hig

her

and

low

er p

erfo

rmin

g ch

ildre

n. A

t the

sam

e tim

e,a

smal

l but

gro

win

gnu

mbe

r of

stu

dies

und

ersc

ore

the

need

for

cau

tion

in a

ssum

ing

in th

e ab

senc

eof

app

ropr

iate

evi

denc

eth

at r

esea

rch

find

ings

obt

aine

d fo

r a

part

icul

ar c

ultu

ral

popu

latio

n ge

nera

lize

to d

iffe

rent

eth

nic

grou

ps.

The

stu

dies

dis

cuss

ed th

us f

ar in

this

cha

pter

off

er c

orre

latio

nal i

nfor

mat

ion

and

are

ther

efor

e su

gges

tive

of -

- bu

t not

def

initi

ve a

bout

caus

atio

n. A

few

stud

ies

have

bee

n co

nduc

ted

to id

entif

y ca

usal

con

nect

ions

bet

wee

n ho

me

envi

ronm

ent v

aria

bles

and

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ce, e

ither

by

test

ing

caus

al h

y-po

thes

es u

sing

spe

cial

sta

tistic

al p

roce

dure

s (e

.g.,

Bra

dley

, Cal

dwel

l and

Ela

rdo,

1979

; Lao

sa, 1

982a

) or

by

expe

rim

enta

lly m

anip

ulat

ing

pare

ntin

g be

havi

ors.

An

exam

ple

of th

e la

tter

is a

stu

dy b

y H

ende

rson

and

Gar

cia

(197

3), d

iscu

ssed

belo

w.

22

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

Inte

rven

tion

Exp

erim

ents

For

obvi

ous

reas

ons,

it is

impo

ssib

le to

ass

ign

child

ren

rand

omly

to d

iffe

rent

kind

s of

hom

e en

viro

nmen

ts a

t bir

th a

nd o

bser

veth

e re

sults

.It

is p

ossi

ble,

how

ever

, to

man

ipul

ate

sele

cted

asp

ects

of

pare

ntal

beha

vior

on

the

basi

s of

caus

al h

ypot

hese

s de

rive

d fr

om c

orre

latio

nal f

indi

ngs.

It

then

bec

omes

pos

sibl

e to

dete

rmin

e if

the

man

ipul

ated

hom

e pr

actic

es in

flue

nce

the

child

ren'

s de

velo

pmen

tin

the

pred

icte

d di

rect

ion.

Thi

s ap

proa

ch d

iffe

rsfr

om la

rge-

scal

e pa

rent

trai

ning

prog

ram

s of

the

type

that

wer

epo

pula

r in

the

1970

s (f

or r

evie

ws

see

Goo

dson

and

Hes

s, 1

975;

Has

kins

and

Ada

ms,

198

3; Z

ig le

r an

dW

eiss

, 198

5), b

ecau

seth

ose

inte

rven

tion

prog

ram

s co

mm

only

man

ipul

ate

seve

ral a

spec

ts o

f pa

rent

alpr

actic

e si

mul

tane

ousl

y, in

way

s th

at m

ake

itim

poss

ible

to c

ompa

re s

yste

mat

-ic

ally

the

part

icul

ar o

utco

mes

of

spec

ific

pra

ctic

es. I

n co

ntra

st to

such

inte

rven

-tio

ns w

ith g

loba

l obj

ectiv

es, a

few

stu

dies

hav

em

anip

ulat

ed a

nd a

sses

sed

the

etT

ects

of

a na

rrow

ran

ge o

f sp

ecif

ic v

aria

bles

sug

gest

ed b

yth

e re

sear

ch o

n fa

mily

envi

ronm

ents

.In

one

suc

h st

udy,

Hen

ders

on a

nd G

arci

a (1

973)

test

ed th

e hy

poth

esis

that

pare

nts

can

be tr

aine

d to

ado

pt th

eki

nds

of b

ehav

ior

that

may

fac

ilita

te th

eir

child

ren'

s ac

adem

ic p

erfo

rman

ce. M

exic

an A

mer

ican

mot

hers

of

firs

t-gr

ade

chil-

dren

in a

low

-inc

ome

neig

hbor

hood

in T

ucso

n, A

rizo

na w

ere

sele

cted

to p

artic

i-

pate

in th

e ex

peri

men

t. H

alf

ofth

e m

othe

rs in

a s

ampl

e of

six

ty f

amili

es w

ere

rand

omly

ass

igne

d to

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up; t

here

mai

nder

ser

ved

as c

ontr

ols

and

rece

ived

no

trea

tmen

t. T

he m

othe

rs in

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up w

ere

trai

ned

5y th

e ex

peri

men

ter

to m

odel

, cue

, and

rei

nfor

ceth

eir

child

ren'

s in

quir

y sk

ills

inqu

iry

skill

s be

ing

defi

ned

as a

skin

g ca

usal

que

stio

ns.

The

se m

othe

rs r

ecei

ved

inst

ruct

ion

in s

mal

l gro

ups,

whi

ch c

onsi

sted

of

part

icip

atin

g in

dis

cuss

ions

of

the

ratio

nale

for

the

expe

rim

ent,

view

ing

dcm

onst

ratio

nsin

whi

ch p

roje

ct s

taff

mod

eled

par

ent a

nd c

hild

beh

avio

r, le

arni

ng to

cod

equ

estio

n-as

king

beh

avio

r,an

d en

gagi

ng in

rol

e pl

ayin

g ac

tiviti

es to

lear

n te

chni

ques

desi

gned

to p

rom

ote

thei

r ch

ildre

n's

prod

uctio

n of

cau

sal q

uest

ions

.E

ach

mot

her

part

icip

ated

in a

tota

l of

five

wee

kly

sess

ions

. Fol

low

ing

each

trai

ning

sess

ion,

thc

mot

her

spen

t at

leas

t tw

o br

ief

(ten

min

ute)

per

iods

with

her

child

in th

e ho

me,

atte

mpt

ing

toap

ply

the

proc

edur

es th

at s

he h

ad le

arne

d du

ring

the

trai

ning

.B

efor

e an

d af

ter

this

inte

rven

tion,

dat

a on

the

child

ren'

s qu

estio

n-as

king

wer

e co

llect

ed f

or th

e ex

peri

men

tal

and

cont

rol g

roup

s un

der

thre

e co

nditi

ons,

as

follo

ws.

In

the

base

line

cond

ition

, the

exp

erim

ente

rsh

owed

the

child

a s

et o

fpi

ctur

es a

nd p

rom

pted

hnn

or

her

to a

sk q

uest

ions

abo

ut th

em. T

his

was

follo

wed

by

an in

stru

ctio

nal c

ondi

tion,

in w

hich

the

expe

rim

ente

r us

ed m

odel

ing

proc

edur

es in

ui a

ttem

pt to

fos

ter

the

child

's te

nden

cy to

ask

cau

sal q

uest

ions

..lih

nied

iate

ly f

ollo

win

g th

is in

stru

ctio

nal s

essi

on, t

heex

peri

men

ter

agai

n m

ea-

sure

d th

e ch

ild's

tend

ency

to a

sk c

ausa

l que

stio

ns, u

sing

the

sam

e pi

ctor

ial s

timul

iem

ploy

ed in

the

base

line

cond

itit

In th

e fi

nal d

ata-

colle

ctio

n co

nditi

on, g

ener

-al

izat

ion

was

test

ed a

s th

e ex

peri

men

ter

prom

pted

the

child

ren

to a

pply

thei

rqu

estio

n-as

king

ski

lls to

ano

ther

, unf

amili

ar, s

et o

fpi

ctor

ial s

timul

i.I

lend

erso

n

and

Gar

eia'

s (l

t)73

)re

sults

sho

wed

that

com

pare

d to

the

cont

rol g

roup

,th

e

elul

dren

who

se m

othe

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

inte

rven

tion

disp

laye

d si

gnif

ican

tlysu

peno

r pe

rfor

man

ce o

n ev

ery

one

of th

ese

mea

sure

s at

pos

ttest

.I

he d

iffe

renc

es in

per

form

ance

bet

wee

nth

e ch

ildre

n in

the

two

grou

ps

1S.1

2 3

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

no;

rese

mbl

ed th

e di

ffer

ence

s on

e w

ould

exp

ect t

o fi

nd b

etw

een

two

grou

ps d

iffe

ring

in a

ptitu

des

for

ques

tion-

aski

ng s

kills

. Tha

t is,

in th

e po

stte

st d

ata,

not

onl

y di

dth

e pe

rfor

man

ce o

f th

e ch

ildre

n in

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up e

xcee

d th

at o

f th

eco

ntro

ls o

n th

e ba

selin

e co

nditi

on, b

ut a

lso

the

perf

orm

ance

impr

ovem

ent i

nre

spon

se to

the

inst

ruct

ion

cond

ition

was

gre

ater

for

the

expe

rim

enta

l chi

ldre

nth

an f

or th

e co

ntro

ls. M

oreo

ver,

this

adv

anta

ge w

as m

aint

aine

d du

ring

the

gene

raliz

atio

n co

nditi

on. T

hese

res

ults

, obt

aine

d w

ith M

exic

an A

mer

ican

fam

i-lie

s, h

ave

been

rep

licat

ed, w

ith a

slig

htly

mod

ifie

d de

sign

, in

a st

udy

with

Pap

ago

fam

ilies

(H

ende

rson

and

Sw

anso

n; 1

974)

.T

he r

elev

ance

of

the

abov

e fi

ndin

gs b

y H

ende

rson

and

Gar

cia

(197

3) is

mag

nifi

ed w

hen

cons

ider

ed in

ligh

t of

Lao

sa's

(19

82b)

theo

retic

al m

odel

whi

chhe

sup

port

s w

ith e

mpi

rica

l dat

are

gard

ing

the

use

of q

uest

ions

as

a te

achi

ngst

rate

gy b

y C

hica

no m

othe

rs w

ith th

eir

own

child

ren.

To

illus

trat

e th

e im

plic

a-tio

ns o

f th

eir

find

ings

for

edu

catio

n, H

ende

rson

and

Gar

cia

offe

r th

e fo

llow

ing

anal

ogy.

The

exp

erim

enta

l and

con

trol

chi

ldre

n, d

raw

n ra

ndom

ly f

rom

a s

ingl

epo

pula

tion,

app

ear

in th

e po

stte

sts

to r

epre

sent

two

diff

eren

t pop

ulat

ions

: hig

hac

hiev

ers

and

low

ach

ieve

rs o

n th

e st

)eci

fic

task

s of

the

stud

y. T

his

diff

eren

ce,

how

ever

, is

not a

ttrib

utab

le to

a c

orre

spon

ding

dif

fere

nce

in th

e ap

titud

es o

f th

ech

ildre

n. R

athe

r, it

is a

ttrib

utab

le to

the

fact

that

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up o

fch

ildre

n re

ceiv

ed a

par

ticul

ar k

ind

of in

stru

ctio

n an

d su

ppor

t at h

ome,

whe

reas

the

cont

rols

did

not

. Thi

s si

tuat

ion

may

be

para

llel t

o th

e na

tura

l cir

cum

stan

ces

inw

hich

chi

ldre

n's

scho

ol p

erfo

rman

ce is

fac

ilita

ted

by th

e ty

pes

of in

tera

ctio

n th

atta

ke p

lace

in th

eir

hom

es.

Fiel

d ex

peri

men

ts h

ave

dem

onst

rate

d al

so th

at e

nvir

onm

enta

l pro

cess

esm

odel

ed o

n th

ose

inve

stig

ated

in c

orre

latio

nal s

tudi

es o

f ho

me

envi

ronm

ents

can

infl

uenc

e sp

ecif

ic c

ompo

nent

s of

aca

dem

ic m

otiv

atio

n. S

wan

son

and

Hen

ders

on(1

976)

, for

exa

mpl

e, c

ondu

cted

suc

h a

stud

y in

res

pons

e to

a r

eque

st f

rom

Papa

go p

aren

ts. T

hese

par

ents

wer

e in

tere

sted

in le

arni

ng to

infl

uenc

e th

eir

child

ren

to b

ecom

e m

ore

inte

rest

ed in

, and

suc

cess

ful a

t, re

adin

g. S

wan

son

and

Hen

ders

on, t

here

fore

, des

igne

d a

fiel

d ex

peri

men

t to

test

the

hypo

thes

is th

atch

ildre

n w

ould

cho

ose

activ

ities

of

the

sort

that

wer

e re

info

rced

thro

ugh

the

over

t app

rova

l or

atte

ntio

n of

a s

igni

fica

nt p

erso

n in

the

hom

e en

viro

nmen

t.Sp

ecif

ical

ly, t

hese

inve

stig

ator

s hy

poth

esiz

ed th

at s

tude

nts

who

se m

othe

rs w

ere

trai

ned

in p

roce

dure

s to

infl

uenc

e ch

ildre

n's

pref

eren

ces

for

read

ing

activ

ities

wou

ld (

a) s

hc w

an

incr

ease

in th

eir

sele

ctio

n of

rea

ding

mat

eria

ls o

ver

attr

activ

eal

tern

ativ

es, a

nd (

b) d

ispl

ay g

ener

aliz

atio

n of

this

pre

fere

nce

to th

e cl

assr

oom

.T

he p

artic

ipan

ts in

the

expe

rim

ent w

ere

fam

ilies

with

a s

econ

d-gr

ader

on

the

Papa

go I

ndia

n R

eser

vatio

n in

Ari

zona

. Dur

ing

a se

ries

of

trai

ning

ses

sion

s, th

em

othe

rs in

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up w

ere

taug

ht a

ser

ies

of b

ehav

ior

sequ

ence

s fo

rin

tera

ctin

g w

ith th

eir

child

ren.

Aft

er e

ach

sess

ion,

they

pra

ctic

ed a

t hom

e, in

-te

ract

ing

ina

war

m, s

uppo

rtiv

e w

ay w

ith th

eir

own

child

ren

in s

ituat

ions

focu

sed

on e

hild

ren'

s bo

oks,

as

follo

ws.

At d

esig

nate

d in

terv

als,

the

mot

her

laid

out r

eadi

ng m

ater

ials

, tog

ethe

r w

ith o

ther

toys

and

gam

es th

at w

ere

attr

activ

eto

chi

ldre

n. S

he p

rovi

ded

diff

erem

ial r

einf

orce

men

t by

expr

essi

ng h

er a

ppro

val

and

enga

ging

in a

ffec

tiona

te in

tera

ctio

ns w

hene

ver

her

child

app

roac

hed

and

exam

ined

the

read

ing

mat

eria

ls; t

he m

othe

r m

erel

y co

ntin

ued

her

hous

ehol

dro

utin

es w

hen

the

child

cho

se o

ther

mat

eria

ls.

Tw

o di

ffer

ent t

ests

of

the

effe

cts

of th

e in

terv

entio

n w

ere

cond

ucte

d. A 18

5

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

pre-

post

situ

atio

nal m

easu

re in

volv

ed b

ring

ing

each

chi

ld to

a r

oom

whe

rem

ater

ials

wer

e at

trac

tivel

y di

spla

yed

in th

ree

dist

inct

inte

rest

are

as; o

ne c

onta

in-

ing

hook

s, o

ne w

ith p

uzzl

es, a

nd o

ne w

ith v

ario

us k

inds

of

bloc

ks. O

bser

vatio

n-al

rec

ords

wer

e ke

pt o

f th

e am

ount

of

timc

the

child

spe

nt e

ngag

ed w

ith e

ach

type

of

activ

ity. S

wan

son

and

Hen

ders

on's

(19

76)

anal

yses

of

thes

e ob

serv

atio

nssh

owed

that

the

child

ren

in th

e ex

peri

men

tal g

roup

dis

play

ed s

igni

fica

nt p

re-t

o-po

st in

crea

ses

in th

e am

ount

of

time

spen

t int

erac

ting

with

the

read

ing

mat

eria

ls,

whe

reas

the

cont

rol g

roup

chi

ldre

n di

d no

t. T

he s

econ

d te

st w

as c

ondu

cted

in th

ere

gula

r cl

assr

oom

, to

dete

rmin

e if

trea

tmen

t eff

ects

gen

eral

ized

bey

ond

the

situ

atio

nal t

asks

. Tea

cher

s se

t up

a fr

ee c

hoic

e si

tuat

ion

in w

hich

chi

ldre

n co

uld

sele

ct f

rom

a r

ange

of

norm

al c

lass

room

act

iviti

es. O

bser

vatio

nal d

ata

dem

on-

stra

ted

that

the

expe

rim

enta

l gro

up c

hild

ren

sele

cted

rea

ding

mat

eria

ls m

ore

ofte

nth

an d

id th

e co

ntro

l chi

ldre

n, w

hose

par

ents

had

not

par

ticip

ated

in th

e tr

aini

ngor

hom

e in

terv

entio

n. W

e an

ticip

ate

that

fin

ding

s su

ch a

s th

ese

gene

raliz

e to

Chi

cano

s, s

ince

the

expe

rim

enta

l pro

cedu

res

wer

e ba

sed

on d

ata

and

theo

ry o

nth

e na

ture

of

inte

llect

ually

stim

ulat

ing

hom

e en

viro

nmen

ts, w

hich

ava

ilabl

e da

tasu

gges

t are

app

licab

le to

Chi

cano

fam

ilies

(e.

g., H

ende

rson

et a

l., 1

972;

Hen

der-

son

and

Mer

ritt,

196

8; V

alen

cia

ei a

l., 1

985)

; mor

eove

r, th

e ex

peri

men

tal m

an-

ipul

atio

n w

as a

n ex

tens

ion

and

elab

orat

ion

of a

des

ign

that

pro

ved

effe

ctiv

e w

ithM

exic

.m A

mer

ican

chi

ldre

n (i

.e..

Hen

ders

on a

nd G

arci

a,19

73; S

wan

son

and

Hen

ders

on, 1

97(i

). T

he r

esul

ts o

f th

e ex

peri

men

ts r

evie

wed

in th

is s

ectio

n of

the

chap

ter

show

that

par

ents

can

be

trai

ned

effe

ctiv

ely

to te

ach

spec

ific

inte

llect

ual

skill

sto

thei

r ch

ildre

n an

d to

infl

uenc

e th

eir

mot

ivat

ion

tow

ard

acad

emic

activ

ities

.A

s w

e co

nclu

de th

is s

ectio

n, r

ecal

l tha

t in

a pr

evio

us s

ectio

n of

the

chap

ter

we

revi

ewed

cor

rela

tiona

l res

earc

h sh

owin

g su

bsta

ntia

l and

sta

ble

rela

tions

hips

betw

een

expe

rien

ces

prov

ided

nat

ural

istic

ally

to c

hild

ren

in th

e ho

me

envi

ron-

men

t and

the

child

ren'

s in

telle

ctua

l per

form

ance

. Fie

ld e

xper

imen

ts s

uch

as th

ose

cond

ucte

d by

Hen

ders

on a

nd h

is c

olle

ague

s (H

ende

rson

and

Gar

cia,

197

3; H

en-

ders

on a

nd S

wan

son,

197

4; S

wan

son

and

Hen

ders

on, 1

976)

, on

the

othe

r ha

nd.

are

inte

nded

to e

xam

ine

the

mec

hani

sms

hypo

thes

ized

to m

edia

te th

e re

latio

nsid

entif

ied

in c

orre

latio

nal s

tudi

es.

ln th

is m

anne

r, f

ield

exp

erim

ents

can

hel

pIl

lum

inat

e th

e w

ays

in w

hich

par

ticul

ar s

kills

and

mot

ives

acq

uire

d in

thc

hom

een

viro

nmen

t int

erac

t with

the

dem

and

char

acte

rist

ics

of in

stru

ctio

nal s

ettin

gs.

Furt

her

insi

ghts

into

the

natu

re o

f re

latio

ns b

etw

een

the

fam

ily e

nvir

onm

ent

and

scho

last

ic a

chie

vem

ent c

an b

e gl

eane

d fr

om r

esea

rch

on p

aren

tal b

elie

fs a

ndex

pect

atio

ns, t

o w

hich

wc

now

tu7n

.

()at

onal

Bel

ufal

lath

omtii

a A

chie

vem

ent,

and

Sex

Dif

fere

nces

Soni

c in

vest

igat

ors

are

focu

sit,g

thei

r re

sear

ch o

n pa

rent

al b

elie

f sy

stem

s (e

.g.,

1985

). A

mon

g th

e qu

estio

ns b

eing

ask

ed is

whe

ther

par

ents

' bel

iefs

abo

utth

eir

child

ren'

sin

flue

nce

inte

llect

ual p

erfo

rman

ce. E

vide

nce

is a

ccum

u-la

ting

that

par

ents

' ide

as a

bout

thei

r ch

ildre

n's

abili

ty m

ay b

e a

pote

nt f

orce

inde

term

inin

g th

e ch

ildre

n's

idea

s of

them

selv

es a

s ac

adem

ic p

erfo

rmer

s (A

lexa

nder

and

Ent

wis

le, 1

988:

Par

sons

, Adl

er a

nd K

acza

la, 1

982;

Phi

llips

, 198

7), a

nd th

atch

ildre

n's

idea

s of

tlw

mse

lves

may

, in

turn

,af

fi:c

tth

eir

achi

evem

ent l

evel

(Ste

vens

on a

nd N

ewm

an, 1

986)

. Thi

s in

flue

nce

may

be

espe

cial

ly s

alie

nt in

;7- J

186

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

mat

hem

atic

s, a

dom

ain

in w

hich

par

enta

l bel

ief

syst

ems

are

likel

y to

infl

uenc

ech

ildre

n's

self

-con

cept

s of

abi

lity

and

expe

ctan

cies

of

succ

ess,

thei

rfu

ture

achi

evem

ent i

n th

is s

ubje

ct, a

nd th

eir

cour

se e

nrol

lmen

t pla

ns (

Ecc

les,

198

3).

Publ

ic c

once

rn a

bout

the

scho

ol a

chie

vem

ent o

f C

hica

nos

has

tend

ed to

focu

s la

rgel

y on

lite

racy

and

lite

racy

-rel

ated

ski

lls, p

erha

ps b

ecau

se o

f a

gene

ral

belie

f th

at th

e ac

adem

ic o

bsta

cles

fac

ing

this

eth

nic

grou

p st

em o

nly

from

ling

uis-

tic f

acto

rs. B

ecau

se th

e sy

mbo

ls a

nd o

pera

tions

ass

ocia

ted

with

mat

hem

atic

s ar

eas

sum

ed to

be

com

mon

acr

oss

lang

uage

s, m

athe

mat

ics

lear

ning

may

rec

eive

less

atte

ntio

n th

an o

ther

sub

ject

s. W

hate

ver

the

caus

e fo

r th

is n

egle

ct, t

he f

act i

s th

atC

hica

no s

tude

nts

are

as m

uch

'at

risk

'fo

r lo

w a

chie

vem

ent o

r fa

ilure

inm

athe

mat

ics

as th

ey a

re in

oth

er s

ubje

cts

(Dur

in, 1

983;

Edu

catio

nal T

estin

gSe

rvic

e, 1

989;

Lao

sa, 1

985;

Saw

yer,

198

7).

Com

pete

nce

in m

athe

mat

ics

is e

spec

ially

impo

rtan

t for

ach

ieve

men

t in

scie

n-tit

le a

nd e

ngin

eeri

ng f

ield

s an

d, in

crea

sing

ly s

o, f

or a

dequ

ate

func

tioni

ng in

oth

erpr

ofes

sion

s as

wel

l. N

ever

thel

ess,

Mex

ican

Am

eric

an p

upils

per

form

bel

owno

rm in

mat

hem

atic

s, a

s a

grou

p, a

nd a

rc le

ss li

kely

than

thc

aver

age

stud

cnt t

oen

roll

in m

athe

mat

ics

cour

ses

(as

they

are

in a

cade

mic

cou

rses

gen

eral

ly)

that

prep

are

them

for

col

lege

stu

dy to

war

d th

ese

care

ers

(Ram

ist a

nd A

rbei

ter,

198

6).

The

Hig

h Sc

hool

and

Bey

ond

stud

y of

hig

h sc

hool

sop

hom

ores

and

sen

iors

isa

valu

able

sou

rce

of in

form

atio

n on

this

poi

nt, b

ecau

se it

incl

uded

a s

ampl

e of

4,01

6 M

exic

an A

mer

ican

s w

ho w

ere

over

sam

pled

ran

dom

ly f

rom

the

gene

ral

popu

latio

n of

hig

h sc

hool

stu

dent

s. A

naly

ses

of th

ese

data

by

Nie

lsen

and

Fern

ande

z (1

981)

reve

aled

that

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans

perf

orm

ed lo

wer

than

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

s in

eve

ry a

chie

vem

ent a

rea

that

was

ass

esse

d, in

clud

ing

mat

hem

atic

s. N

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

tes

show

ed a

bout

a o

ne s

tand

ard

devi

atio

nad

vant

age

over

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans

in te

sted

mat

hem

atic

s, r

eadi

ng. a

nd v

ocab

u-la

ry. O

ther

rel

evan

t, an

d m

ore

rece

nt, d

ata

com

e fr

ont c

olle

ge-b

ound

sen

iors

who

cake

the

Scho

last

ic A

ptitu

de T

est (

SAT

) fo

r co

llege

adm

issi

ons,

whi

ch is

inte

nded

to m

easu

re d

evel

oped

abi

lity

in th

e us

e of

lang

uage

and

in s

impl

e m

athe

mat

ics

reas

onin

g as

mig

ht b

e ex

pect

ed o

f st

uden

ts in

und

ergr

adua

te c

olle

ge c

ours

ewor

k.A

naly

ses

of S

AT

sco

res

in 1

989

reve

al a

six

ty-f

ive-

poin

t adv

anta

ge f

or n

on-

His

pani

c W

hite

s ov

er M

exic

an A

mer

ican

s on

the

verb

al s

ectio

n, a

nd a

six

ty-o

ne-

poin

t adv

anta

ge in

mat

hem

atic

s (E

duca

tiona

l Tes

ting

Serv

ice,

198

9)th

ese

are

diff

eren

ces

of a

bout

two

thir

ds o

f a

stan

dard

dev

iatio

n (R

amis

t and

Arb

eite

r,19

86).

The

Am

eric

an C

olle

ge T

estin

g Pr

ogra

m (

AC

T)

colle

ge-a

dmis

sion

s te

stsh

ows

the

sam

e pa

ttern

of

ethn

ic-g

roup

dif

fere

nces

for

fir

st-y

ear

colle

ge s

tude

nts

non-

His

pani

c W

hite

s ou

tper

form

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans

by a

bout

one

sta

ndar

dde

viat

ion

on e

very

AC

T s

ubte

st (

i.e.,

Eng

lish,

mat

hem

atic

s, n

atur

al s

cien

ces,

and

soci

al s

tudi

es; S

awye

r, 1

987)

. The

se v

ario

us d

ata

sets

like

ly u

nder

estim

ate

the

true

ach

ieve

men

t dif

fere

nces

, bec

ause

they

exc

lude

sch

ool d

ropo

uts

who

are

usua

lly a

mon

g th

e lo

wes

t ach

ieve

rs (

Stei

nber

g, B

linde

and

Cha

n, 1

984)

and

the

drop

out r

ate

is h

ighe

r fo

r M

exic

an A

mer

ican

s th

an f

or n

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

tes

(Oru

m, 1

986;

Rum

berg

er, t

his

volu

me)

.N

ot o

nly

do M

exic

an A

mer

ican

stu

dent

s as

a g

roup

sco

re lo

wer

than

the

norm

on

achi

evem

ent t

ests

of

quan

titat

ive

skill

s, b

ut th

ey a

lso

take

few

er c

ours

esin

mat

hem

atic

s th

an th

e av

erag

e pu

pil;

this

is tr

ue e

ven

cons

ider

ing

only

sen

iors

who

see

m to

be

plan

ning

to e

nter

col

lege

(M

acC

orqu

odal

e, 1

988;

Ram

ist a

ndA

rbei

ter,

198

6). T

he r

elat

ivel

y lo

w p

artic

ipat

ion

of M

exic

an A

mer

ican

stu

dent

sm

adv

ance

d hi

gh s

choo

l ele

ciiv

es in

mat

hem

atic

s is

trou

bles

ome,

bec

ause

it

218

7

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ssI

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f Chi

cano

s*

cons

titut

es a

pat

tern

of

choi

ce th

at c

lose

s of

f op

tions

to p

artic

ipat

e in

sci

ence

-re

late

d oc

cupa

tions

and

in m

any

of th

e so

cial

sci

ence

or

busi

ness

col

lege

cou

rses

that

req

uire

qua

ntita

tive

back

grou

nds

as w

ell.

Dir

ect e

vide

nce

on th

e na

ture

of

the

proc

esse

s th

at c

ontr

ibut

e to

the

obse

rved

poo

r ac

hiev

emen

t in

mat

hem

atic

s an

d lo

w p

artic

ipat

ion

in e

lect

ive

mat

hem

atic

s co

urse

s am

ong

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans

issc

ant,

but o

ne w

onde

rsw

heth

er s

tudi

es o

f fl

icto

rs th

at c

ontr

ibut

e to

sex

dif

fere

nces

in in

telle

ctua

l per

-fo

rman

ce in

oth

er p

opul

atio

ns m

ight

yie

ld s

ome

insi

ghts

into

the

kind

s of

proc

esse

s re

spon

sibl

e fo

r th

e et

hnic

gro

up d

iffe

renc

es a

s w

ell.

The

stu

dy o

f se

xdi

ffer

ence

s ha

s a

long

his

tory

in p

sych

olog

y, a

nd g

ende

r is

a w

idel

y us

ed v

aria

ble

in p

sych

olog

ical

res

earc

h. B

ecau

se m

ost r

esea

rch

with

chi

ldre

n in

volv

es b

oth

boys

and

gir

lsin

d in

vest

igat

ors

typi

cally

car

ry o

ut a

t lea

st p

erfu

ncto

ry te

sts

for

sex

dift

l-re

nces

, the

bod

y of

res

earc

h on

sex

dif

fere

nces

is la

rge

(Jac

k lin

, 198

9).

The

ear

lier

rese

arch

com

pari

ng m

ale

and

fem

ale

perf

orm

ance

ave

rage

s on

inte

l-le

ctua

l tas

ks s

how

ed s

ex d

iffe

renc

es in

ver

bal,

mat

hem

atic

al, a

nd o

ther

abi

litie

s,bu

t tre

nd d

ata

poin

t to

a gr

adua

l nar

row

ing

or c

losi

ng o

f th

ese

gaps

dur

ing

the

last

t W

O d

ecad

es (

for

a 'e

cent

rev

iew

of

rese

arch

see

Wild

er a

nd P

owel

l, 19

89).

The

his

tori

cal a

dvan

tage

of

fem

ales

in th

e ve

rbal

dom

ain

appe

ars

to h

ave

been

virt

ually

ehm

mat

edin

d th

e su

peri

ority

of

mal

es in

cer

tain

mat

hem

atic

al a

reas

SeC

'INS

less

sub

stan

tial n

ow th

an in

the

past

. A n

otab

le e

xcep

tion

to th

is c

onve

rg-

ing

tren

d is

in th

e up

per

rang

es o

f te

sted

mat

hem

atic

s pe

rfor

man

ce, w

here

the

ratio

of

boys

out

scor

ing

girl

s ha

s re

mai

ned

fair

ly c

onst

ant o

ver

thc

year

s (F

ein-

gold

.19

)8;

we

also

Edu

catio

nal T

estin

g Se

rvic

e,19

89).

Thi

s se

x di

ffer

ence

emer

ges

arou

nd th

e tim

e of

ado

lesc

ence

(cf

. Lao

sa a

nd 1

3rop

hy, 1

970,

197

2;W

ilder

and

Pow

ell,

1989

), a

s ex

empl

ifie

d by

the

high

er a

vera

ge s

core

s of

mal

esth

an o

f fe

mal

es o

n th

e m

athe

mat

ics

sect

ions

of

colle

ge-a

dmis

sion

s te

sts.

Am

ong

high

sch

ool s

enio

rs in

19W

) (c

ombi

ned

ethn

ic g

roup

s), t

he m

ean

SAT

mat

he-

mat

ics

scor

e of

mal

es w

as f

orty

-six

poi

nts

high

er th

an th

at o

f fe

mal

esa

diff

eren

ce o

f m

ore

than

one

-thi

rd o

f a

stan

dard

dev

iatio

nw

hich

con

tras

ts w

itha

sex

diff

eren

ce o

f on

ly th

irte

en p

oint

s on

the

test

's v

erba

l sec

tion

(Edu

catio

nal

Tes

ting

Serv

ice,

198

9). C

ours

e-ta

king

pat

tern

s al

so d

iffe

r by

sex

. Mal

es ta

ke a

grea

ter

num

ber

of a

dvan

ced

mat

hem

atic

s co

urse

s on

the

aver

age

than

fem

ales

,ev

en in

hig

h sc

hool

(B

alto

n, 1

989)

. Sig

nifi

cant

ly, t

his

patte

rn o

f se

x di

ffer

ence

s in

stan

dard

ized

test

sco

res

and

in c

ours

e-ta

king

, whi

ch w

e se

e am

ong

non-

His

pani

cW

hite

s, is

als

o pr

esen

t am

ong

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans,

alth

ough

Mex

ican

Am

er-

ican

s, w

heth

er m

ale

or f

emal

e, s

core

lov-

!r a

nd ta

ke f

ewer

mat

h co

urse

s on

the

aver

age

than

non

-His

pani

c W

hite

s of

eith

er s

ex (

Mac

Cor

quod

ale,

198

8; R

amis

tan

d A

rbei

tcr,

198

6; S

awye

r, 1

987)

.Se

vera

l hyp

othe

ses

have

bee

n ad

vanc

ed in

atte

mpt

s to

exp

lain

the

obse

rzed

sex

diff

eren

ces

in m

athe

mat

ics

perf

orm

ance

and

cou

rse

part

icip

atio

n (f

or r

evie

ws

see

Ecc

lean

d I

loff

inan

, 198

4; W

ilder

and

Pow

ell,

1989

). A

mon

g th

ese

hypo

-th

eses

is a

pla

usib

le e

xpla

natio

n th

at f

ocus

es o

n th

e cu

mul

ativ

e ef

fect

s of

ear

lyso

cial

izat

ion

patte

rns

and

that

impl

icat

es p

aren

ts a

nd te

ache

rs a

s ex

pect

ancy

soci

aliz

ers.

A g

row

ing

body

of

rese

arch

is a

ccum

ulat

ing

on th

e ro

le o

f at

titud

esan

d ex

pect

atio

ns in

cre

atin

g or

pro

mot

ing

sex

diff

eren

ces

in m

athe

mat

ical

atta

in-

men

tilth

ough

thes

e st

udie

s ar

e la

rgel

y on

non

-His

pani

c sa

mpl

es. T

he e

xist

ence

of a

sex

dif

fere

nce

in e

xpec

tant

y f

or s

ucce

ss in

mat

hem

atic

s an

d in

sel

f-co

ncep

t of

mat

hem

atic

al a

bilit

y fr

ont m

iddl

e ch

ildho

od o

n is

now

wel

l doc

umen

ted

(Dos

-se

v, M

ullis

, Lin

dqui

st a

nd (

'ham

bers

, 198

8; E

ccle

s, 1

983;

Ent

wis

le a

nd B

aker

,

188

21

1983

; Ste

vens

on a

nd N

ewm

an, 1

986)

, but

the

deve

lopm

enta

l ori

gins

of

this

diff

eren

ce r

emai

n un

clea

r. E

ccle

s (f

orm

erly

Par

sons

)an

d he

r co

lleag

ues

argu

e th

atpa

rent

s (P

arso

ns, A

dler

and

Kac

zala

,19

82)

and

teac

hers

(Pa

rson

s, K

acza

la a

ndM

eece

, 198

2) m

ay b

e pe

rpet

uatin

g, if

not

cre

atin

g,th

ese'

sex

diff

eren

ces.

The

sein

vest

igat

ors

desi

gned

a s

tudy

to te

st th

e hy

poth

esis

that

par

ents

con

trib

ute

to th

ese

x di

ffer

ence

s in

ach

ieve

men

t exp

ecta

ncy

and

self

-con

cept

of

mat

hem

atic

al a

bil-

ity th

roug

h th

eir

belie

fs a

bout

thei

r ch

ildre

n's

abili

ties,

the

diff

icul

ty o

f m

ath

itsel

f, a

nd th

e im

port

ance

of

taki

ng m

ath

cour

ses

(Par

sons

, Adl

er a

nd K

acza

la,

1982

). T

he d

ata

prov

ided

con

firm

ator

y ev

iden

cefo

r th

e hy

poth

esis

. The

res

ults

show

ed th

at b

oth

mot

hers

and

fat

hers

hel

dse

x-di

ffer

entia

ted

perc

eptio

ns o

f th

eir

child

ren'

s m

athe

mat

ics

aptit

ude

desp

ite th

e si

mila

rity

of th

e ac

tual

per

form

ance

of b

oys

and

girl

s (n

on-H

ispa

nic

fift

h to

ele

vent

hgr

ader

s fr

om m

iddl

e- to

upp

er-

clas

s ho

mes

). P

aren

ts o

f da

ught

ers

belie

ved

thei

r ch

ildha

d to

wor

k ha

rder

to d

ow

ell i

n m

ath

than

did

par

ents

of

sons

, whe

reas

par

ents

of s

ons

thou

ght a

dvan

ced

mat

h w

as m

ore

impo

rtan

t for

thei

r ch

ild th

andi

d pa

rent

s of

dau

ghte

rs. M

ore-

over

, par

ents

' per

cept

ions

of

and

expe

ctat

ions

for

thei

r ch

ildre

n w

ere

rela

ted

toth

e ch

ildre

n's

self

- an

d ta

sk-p

erce

ptio

ns. S

imila

rre

sults

hav

e be

en r

epor

ted

for

youn

ger

child

ren

(Ale

xand

er a

ndE

ntw

isle

, 198

8; E

ntw

isle

and

Bak

er, 1

983)

.T

hese

fin

ding

s po

int t

o th

e po

tent

ial i

mpo

rtan

ce o

fpa

rent

s' r

oles

as

expe

ctan

cyso

cial

izer

s. R

esea

rch

furt

her

sugg

ests

that

chi

ldre

n's

self

-con

cept

s of

mat

hem

ati-

cal a

bilit

y m

ay, i

n tu

rn, i

nflu

ence

thei

r ac

tual

perf

orm

ance

(St

even

son

and

New

-m

an, 1

986)

. Oth

er s

tudi

es s

ugge

st a

sim

ilar,

thou

gh le

ss s

ubst

antia

l, in

flue

nce

byte

ache

rs (

Ecc

les,

198

3; P

arso

ns, K

acza

la a

nd M

eece

, 198

2).

In s

um, a

num

ber

ofst

udie

s su

gges

t an

infl

uenc

e on

chi

ldre

n's

attit

udes

tow

ard

mat

hem

atic

s an

d he

nce

on th

eir

mat

hem

atic

al a

ttain

men

tby

par

ents

' and

teac

hers

' gen

der-

ster

eoty

ped

belie

fs a

nd e

xpec

tatio

ns. S

uch

infl

uenc

es a

ppea

r to

be

atth

e ro

ot o

f se

x di

ffer

-en

ces

in m

athe

mat

ics

atta

inm

ent.

The

se f

indi

ngs

are

base

d on

non

-His

pani

csa

mpl

es, a

nd o

ne m

ay h

ypot

hesi

ze s

imila

r pr

oces

ses

for

Mex

ican

Am

eric

ans;

how

ever

, thi

s re

mai

ns a

n em

piri

cal q

uest

ion.

It i

s fo

rfu

ture

res

earc

h to

asc

erta

inw

heth

er o

r no

t the

pro

cess

es th

at a

ccou

nt f

or s

exdi

ffer

ence

s in

non

-His

pani

cW

hite

s al

so e

xpla

in th

e se

x di

ffer

ence

s am

ong

Mex

,can

Am

eric

ans.

A d

iffe

rent

gen

eral

izab

ility

que

stio

n is

whe

ther

or

not t

he p

roce

sses

that

acco

unt f

or s

ex d

iffe

renc

es a

lso

expl

ain

the

ethn

ic g

roup

dif

fere

nces

. Ber

rym

an's

(198

3) s

tudy

sug

gest

s a

nega

tive

answ

er. S

hest

udie

d th

e ca

uses

of

repr

esen

tatio

nof

wom

en a

nd o

f ce

rtai

n et

hnic

gro

ups

incl

udin

g C

hic.

nos

amon

g ho

lder

sof

BA

, MA

, and

PhD

deg

rees

in th

e qu

antit

ativ

ely

base

d di

scip

lines

. Ber

rym

an's

anal

yses

sug

gest

'fun

dam

enta

lly d

iffe

rent

cau

ses

of w

omen

's a

nd m

inor

ities

'un

derr

epre

sent

atio

n' a

mon

g re

cipi

ents

of

quan

titat

ive

degr

ees.

For

wom

en, t

heca

uses

'see

m to

be

the

fam

iliar

mot

ivat

iona

l fac

tors

that

shi

ft g

irls

' int

eres

ts a

way

from

the

sex

atyp

ical

car

eers

and

the

high

scho

ol m

athe

mat

ical

seq

uenc

e as

soci

-at

ed w

ith q

uant

itativ

e po

stse

cond

ary

trai

ning

'. Fo

rC

hica

nos,

on

the

othe

r ha

nd,

'the

maj

or f

acto

rs s

eem

to b

e fa

mily

soc

ioec

onom

ic s

tatu

s,es

peci

ally

par

enta

l

educ

atio

n, w

ith it

s:(1

)...

effe

cts

on e

duca

tiona

l asp

irat

ions

and

hig

hsc

hool

mat

hem

atic

al a

nd s

cien

ce a

chie

vem

ents

, and

(2)

...

effe

cts

on c

aree

r in

form

atio

nan

d ca

reer

pre

fere

nces

' (19

83, p

p. 1

05-6

).B

erry

man

's f

indi

ngs

seem

con

sist

ent

with

Mac

Cor

quod

ale'

s (1

988)

hyp

othe

ses

rega

rdin

gpa

rent

al in

flue

nces

on

Mex

-

ican

Am

cric

an c

hild

ren'

s m

athe

mat

ics

achi

evem

ent a

nd g

ener

al e

duca

tiona

lat

tain

men

t. A

lso

germ

ane

to th

e is

sue

ofge

nera

lizab

ility

are

the

find

ings

of

anu

mbe

r of

stu

dies

sug

gest

ing

that

teac

hers

res

pond

' mor

e to

ast

uden

t's r

acia

l and 18

9

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

ethn

ic c

hara

cter

istic

s an

d so

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tus

than

to g

ende

r an

d th

at te

ache

rsal

ter

thei

r ex

pect

atio

ns o

f st

uden

t ach

ieve

men

t acc

ordi

ngly

(fo

r a

revi

ew o

fre

sear

ch s

ee D

usek

and

Jos

eph,

198

3).

In a

n at

tem

pt to

unc

over

the

dete

rmin

ants

of

scho

ol s

ucce

ss a

mon

g C

hica

-rm

s. G

inda

ra (

1982

) in

terv

iew

ed s

even

teen

Chi

cana

s an

d tw

enty

-eig

ht C

hica

nos

who

had

atta

ined

the

PhD

, MD

, or

JD d

egre

e. G

inda

ra r

easo

ned

that

muc

h of

the

rese

arch

on

Chi

cano

s ha

s fo

cuse

d on

low

aca

dem

ic a

chie

vem

ent,

thus

yie

ld-

ing

num

erou

s hy

poth

eses

abo

ut e

duca

tiona

l fai

lure

but

con

trib

utin

g fe

w in

sigh

tsin

to th

e pr

oces

ses

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

ucce

ss; t

here

fore

, kno

wle

dge

of th

e ki

nds

offa

mily

exp

erie

nce

that

con

trib

ute

to s

ucce

ss w

ould

be

espe

cial

ly im

port

ant.

The

hig

h-ac

hiev

ing

Chi

carl

as s

tudi

ed b

y G

inda

ra r

epor

ted

that

thei

r m

othe

rspl

ayed

an

espe

cial

ly im

port

ant r

ole

in f

oste

ring

thei

r m

otiv

atio

n to

ach

ieve

acad

emic

ally

. Con

trar

y to

Gin

dara

's p

redi

ctio

ns, t

he m

ajor

ity o

f th

e w

omen

inth

e st

udy

repo

rted

that

thei

r m

othe

rs h

ad in

flue

nced

thei

r ed

ucat

iona

l asp

irat

ions

and

atta

inm

ent a

t lea

st a

s m

uch

as h

ad th

cir

fath

ers;

this

was

true

als

o of

the

men

.Fu

rthe

r, m

ost o

f th

ese

high

-ach

ievi

ng C

hica

nas

and

Chi

cano

s de

scri

bed

thei

rpa

rent

s as

non

auth

orita

rian

in d

isci

plin

e st

yles

and

as

plac

ing

emph

asis

on

inde

-pe

nden

t beh

avio

r. I

ndee

d, o

ne o

f th

e su

rpri

sing

res

ults

was

how

sim

ilarl

y pa

rent

sha

d tr

eate

d th

e m

ales

and

fem

ales

in th

e sa

mpl

e. T

his

find

ing,

too,

is c

ontr

ary

toth

e w

idel

y he

ld s

tere

otyp

e of

mal

e au

thor

itari

anis

m a

nd f

emal

e su

bmis

sion

infa

mili

es o

f M

exic

an d

esce

nt. E

ven

thou

gh m

ost o

f th

em h

ad r

ecei

ved

stro

ngsu

ppor

t fro

m th

eir

fam

ilies

, par

ticul

arly

thei

r m

othe

rs, a

bout

25

per

cent

of

the

wom

en r

epor

ted

they

did

not

kno

w w

hat e

duca

tiona

l asp

irat

ions

thci

r pa

rent

she

ld f

or th

em; i

n co

ntra

st, t

he m

en g

ener

ally

fel

t tha

t par

enta

l asp

irat

ions

had

been

con

veye

d cl

earl

y to

them

. It i

s al

so w

orth

not

ing

that

whe

reas

Chi

cano

ste

nded

to c

redi

t the

ir o

wn

inne

r st

reng

th a

nd a

bilit

ies

for

thei

r ed

ucat

iona

lsu

cces

ses,

Chi

cana

s m

ost o

fien

attr

ibut

ed th

eir

acco

mpl

ishm

ents

to th

e su

ppor

tof

then

- fa

mili

es. F

inal

ly, i

t is

also

sig

nifi

cant

that

at t

he a

ge w

hen

mos

t Chi

cana

sha

ve m

arri

ed a

nd b

egun

to ta

ke o

n ne

w f

amili

al r

oles

, all

the

high

-ach

ievi

ngC

hica

nas

stud

ied

by G

inda

ra r

emai

ned

unm

arri

ed a

nd c

hild

less

; the

re w

ere

nom

arri

age

or p

aren

thoo

d re

spon

sibi

litie

s th

at m

ight

hav

e im

pede

d th

eir

educ

atio

n-al

atta

inm

ent.

(:on

sist

ent w

ith G

.inda

ra's

fin

ding

s, a

sur

vey

by C

hac6

n, C

ohen

, and

Str

ov-

er (

1)86

) re

veal

ed a

hig

h de

gree

of

pare

ntal

sup

port

for

atte

ndin

g co

llege

am

ong

both

mal

e an

d fe

mal

e M

exic

an A

mer

ican

col

lege

stu

dent

s. T

hese

res

earc

hers

adm

inis

tere

d m

ad q

uest

ionn

aire

s to

508

wom

en a

nd 1

60 m

en o

f M

exic

an d

esce

nten

rolle

d in

fiv

e C

alif

orni

a co

llege

s. O

ver

60 p

er c

ent o

f ea

ch s

ex s

ampl

e ra

ted

thei

r pa

rent

s as

ver

y su

ppor

tive

of th

eir

atte

ndin

g co

llege

, and

onl

y a

smal

lfr

actio

n re

port

ed a

ny k

ind

of p

aren

tal o

ppos

ition

. Als

o co

nsis

tent

with

Gin

dara

'sda

ta, b

oth

the

men

and

the

wom

en in

the

Cha

dm e

t al.

stud

y re

port

ed a

t lea

st a

sm

uch

supp

ort f

or c

olle

ge a

ttend

ance

fro

m th

eir

mot

hers

as

from

thei

r fa

ther

s.A

lthou

gh th

e de

gree

of

pare

ntal

sup

port

was

thus

goo

d fo

r bo

th s

exes

, slig

htly

mor

e e

()lie

ge m

en th

an w

omen

rat

ed th

eir

pare

nts

as v

ery

supp

ortiv

e.O

f th

e va

riou

s co

mpo

nent

s of

soc

ioec

onom

ic s

tatu

s, th

e le

vel o

f fo

rmal

educ

atio

n at

tain

ed b

y pa

rent

s w

as id

entif

ied

earl

ier

in th

is c

hapt

er a

s a

sign

ific

ant

fact

or a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith th

eir

child

ren'

s in

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

t. T

he p

aren

ts'

educ

atio

nal a

spir

atio

ns a

nd e

xpec

tatio

ns f

or th

eir

child

ren,

too,

hav

e be

en f

ound

to b

e as

soci

ated

with

the

pare

nts'

ow

n ed

ucat

iona

l lev

el (

Lao

sa, 1

982b

). T

hese

11,0

23

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

thre

e va

riab

les

may

be

espe

cial

ly in

flue

ntia

l in

rega

rd to

chi

ldre

n's

deve

lopm

ent

in q

uant

itativ

e-re

late

d ar

eas

(e.g

., B

erry

man

, 198

3; M

arjo

riba

nks,

197

9). F

orex

ampl

e, B

erry

man

(19

83)

poin

ts to

par

enta

l edu

catio

n le

vel '

as a

maj

or in

flue

nce.

on C

hica

no s

tude

nts'

cur

ricu

lar

choi

ces.

Ber

rym

an's

ana

lyse

ssh

owed

that

Chi

ca-

nos

wer

e in

deed

gen

eral

ly u

nder

repr

esen

ted

inco

llege

mat

hem

atic

s, s

cien

ce, a

nden

gine

erin

g co

urse

s, b

ut th

ose

Chi

cano

s w

ith a

col

lege

-edu

cate

d pa

rent

wer

eal

mos

t as

wel

l rep

rese

nted

in th

ese

cour

ses

as n

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

tes

in c

ontr

ast

to th

e pa

ttern

for

Chi

cano

s w

ho w

ere

the

firs

t in

thei

r fa

mili

es to

atte

ndco

llege

.In

sum

, res

earc

h on

the

soci

aliz

atio

npr

oces

ses

infl

uenc

ing

Chi

cano

s'ac

hiev

emen

t in

mat

hem

atic

s or

thei

r pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in th

is s

ubje

ct is

sca

nt. I

t doe

sse

em c

lear

, how

ever

, tha

t the

leve

l of

form

al e

duca

tion

atta

ined

by

pare

nts

cons

titut

es a

n im

port

ant i

nflu

ence

on

thei

r at

titud

es to

war

d an

d ex

pect

atio

ns f

orth

eir

child

ren'

s pa

rtic

ipat

ion

and

perf

orm

ance

in m

athe

mat

ics.

At t

he s

ame

time,

the

liter

atur

e on

sex

dif

fere

nces

in o

ther

eth

nic

popu

latio

ns in

dica

tes

that

wom

en's

rel

ativ

ely

low

par

ticip

atio

n an

d ac

hiev

emen

t in

mat

hem

atic

s is

rel

ated

to th

e ex

pect

atio

ns a

nd p

erce

ptio

ns th

at th

eir

pare

nts

held

abo

utth

e w

omen

'sea

rly

mat

hem

atic

al a

bilit

y, w

ith p

aren

ts o

f gi

rls

gene

rally

exp

ress

ing

low

er e

x-pe

ctat

ions

and

mak

ing

low

er a

bilit

y es

timat

es th

an th

ose

of b

oys.

Bey

ond

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f th

is k

now

ledg

e in

its

own

righ

t, it

has

been

sug

gest

ed th

at a

naw

aren

ess

of th

e re

sear

ch o

n th

e pr

oces

ses

that

aff

ect t

hepa

rtic

ipat

ion

and

achi

evem

ent o

f w

omen

in m

athe

mat

ics

and

quan

titat

ive-

rela

ted

fiel

ds m

ight

cont

ribu

te to

our

und

erst

andi

ng o

f th

e ki

nds

of in

flue

nces

invo

lved

in o

peni

ng o

rcl

osin

g av

enue

s of

opp

ortu

nity

for

Chi

cano

stu

dent

s. A

lthou

gh th

ey d

o ha

ve a

nin

tuiti

ve a

ppea

l, w

e st

rong

ly c

autio

n ag

ains

t mak

ing

such

gen

eral

izat

ions

, giv

enth

e re

sear

ch e

vide

nce

(e.g

., B

erry

man

, 198

3) s

ugge

stin

g th

at th

e va

riab

les

and

mec

hani

sms

acco

untin

g fo

r se

x di

ffer

ence

s ar

c fu

ndam

enta

lly d

iffe

rent

fro

mth

ose

dete

rmin

ing

ethn

ic g

roup

ineq

ualit

ies.

Con

clud

ing

Com

men

ts

The

foc

us o

f th

is c

hapt

er is

pri

mar

ily o

n th

e in

nerm

ost l

evel

in 1

3ron

fenb

renn

er's

(197

9, 1

988)

fou

r-le

vel c

once

ptio

n of

the

hum

an e

nvir

onm

enta

l eco

logy

, nam

ely,

the

mic

rosy

stem

and,

mor

e sp

ecif

ical

ly, t

he c

hild

's s

ocia

lizat

ion

in th

e fa

mily

.W

e re

view

ed a

nd d

iscu

ssed

sel

ecte

d re

sear

ch s

tudi

es a

ttem

ptin

g to

illu

min

ate

vari

ous

fact

ors

with

in th

e fa

mily

set

ting

that

may

infl

uenc

e C

hica

no c

hild

ren'

sac

adem

ic d

evel

opm

ent.

In a

dditi

on to

the

fam

ily, t

he m

icro

syst

em c

onta

ins

setti

ngs

that

, too

, can

be

impo

rtan

t soc

ializ

ers

and

dete

rmin

ants

of

acad

emic

deve

lopm

ent

incl

udin

g th

e sc

hool

itse

lf, t

he p

eer

grou

p, a

nd th

e m

edia

.Si

mila

rly,

the

othe

r le

vels

of

the

envi

ronm

enta

l eco

logy

the

mes

osys

tem

, the

exos

yste

m, a

nd th

e m

acro

syst

emex

ert t

heir

ow

n im

port

ant,

alth

ough

in-

dire

ct, i

nflu

ence

s on

thc

child

. The

se o

ther

soc

ializ

atio

n se

tting

s an

d ec

olog

ical

leve

ls m

ust b

e ex

amin

ed a

long

with

the

fam

ily in

any

atte

mpt

at a

com

preh

ensi

vean

alys

is o

f C

hica

no c

hild

ren'

s ac

adem

ic d

evel

opm

ent

if s

uch

a ta

sk w

ere

poss

ible

. The

poi

nt is

that

the

fam

ily is

impo

rtan

t, bu

t the

oth

er s

ettin

gs a

ndle

vels

of

the

hum

an e

colo

gy s

houl

d no

t be

igno

red.

Inde

ed, t

hc r

esul

ts o

f th

e re

sear

ch r

evie

wed

and

dis

cuss

ed in

this

cha

pter

impl

icat

e al

l fou

r le

vels

of

13ro

nfen

bren

ner's

eco

logi

cal s

yste

m. A

s an

illu

stra

tion,

3019

1

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

cons

ider

Lao

sa's

res

earc

h on

mat

erna

l tea

chin

g st

rate

gies

. It w

ill b

e re

calle

d th

atL

aosa

(19

78, 1

980a

, 198

2b)

cond

ucte

d di

rect

obs

erva

tions

of

Chi

cana

mot

hers

inth

eir

hom

es w

hile

they

taug

ht th

eir

own

child

ren.

Am

ong

Lao

sa's

fin

ding

s w

as a

subs

tant

ial r

elat

ions

hip

betw

een

the

kind

s of

teac

hing

str

ateg

y em

ploy

ed b

y th

em

othe

rs a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of

yea

rs o

f fo

rmal

sch

oolin

g th

at th

ey th

emse

lves

had

atta

ined

. Alth

ough

cor

rela

tiona

l, th

ese

data

sug

gest

that

a m

othe

r's c

hoic

e of

stra

tegi

es f

or te

achi

ng h

er c

hild

ren

in th

e ho

me

is d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e m

othe

r'sow

n sc

hool

ing

leve

l. L

aosa

's d

ata

reve

aled

that

the

high

er a

mot

her's

sch

oolin

gle

vel,

the

mor

e he

r te

achi

ng s

trat

egie

s re

sem

ble

thos

e th

at o

ne g

ener

ally

exp

ects

to f

ind

in s

choo

l cla

ssro

oms,

ther

eby

likel

y fa

cilit

atin

g he

r ch

ild's

ada

ptat

ion

tosc

hool

. Thi

s fi

ndin

g th

us im

plic

ates

all

four

leve

ls o

f B

ronf

enbr

enne

r's e

colo

gica

lfr

amew

ork

in th

e ac

adem

ic d

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos,

as

follo

ws.

The

mot

her's

year

s of

sch

oolin

g co

rres

pond

to a

nex

osys

tem

vari

able

; tha

t is

to s

ay, t

he e

vent

sth

at in

the

past

the

mot

her

had

hers

elf

expe

rien

ced

as a

stu

dent

in s

choo

l are

now

indi

rect

ly a

ffec

ting

her

child

's im

med

iate

env

iron

men

t, or

mic

rosy

stem

.Fu

rthe

r,th

e fi

ndin

gs b

eari

ng o

n ho

me-

scho

ol s

imila

ritie

s in

teac

hing

str

ateg

ies

sugg

est

a

tnes

osys

tern

rela

tion

betw

een

hom

e an

d sc

hool

.Fi

nally

, any

pol

icy

impl

icat

ions

that

one

mig

ht d

raw

fro

m th

ese

find

ings

poin

t to

rnac

rosy

stet

nco

nsid

erat

ions

. On

the

leve

l of

Bro

nfen

bren

ner's

mac

rosy

s-te

m b

elon

g a

soci

ety'

s po

licie

s. M

any

aspe

cts

of th

e pr

esen

t-da

y so

cial

and

educ

atio

nal i

nequ

aliti

es a

ffec

ting

Chi

cano

s ca

n be

und

erst

ood

only

in li

ght o

f th

eca

ste-

like

stru

ctur

es th

at h

ave

evol

ved

out o

f th

e ea

rlie

st c

onta

cts

and

inte

r-re

latio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

this

pop

ulat

ion

and

othe

r U

S et

hnic

gro

ups

(Car

ter

and

Segu

ra, 1

979;

Lao

sa, 1

984b

). A

s B

ronf

enbr

enne

r (1

979,

198

8) r

emin

ds u

s, th

em

acro

syst

em c

an b

e al

tere

d th

roug

h po

licy

chan

ge, w

ith th

e re

sult

that

ther

e w

illbe

cha

nge

bear

ing

on th

e so

ciet

y's

exos

yste

m, m

esos

yste

m, a

nd m

icro

syst

emst

ruct

ures

.T

he s

tudy

of

Chi

cano

chi

ldre

n's

soci

aliz

atio

n is

Stil

l in

its in

fanc

yso

muc

hso

that

no

atte

mpt

is m

ade

here

to li

st th

e m

yria

d re

sear

ch q

uest

ions

that

nee

d to

be a

ddre

ssed

in f

utur

e re

sear

ch. M

any

of th

ese

ques

tions

are

rai

sed,

how

ever

,l'i

lioug

hout

the

chap

ter

impl

icitl

y or

exp

licitl

y. A

s sh

oWn

here

, the

res

earc

hlit

erat

ure

has

mov

ed s

ome

dist

ance

both

em

piri

cally

and

theo

retic

ally

tow

ard

spec

ifyi

ng th

e va

riab

les

and

mec

hani

sms

in th

e so

cial

izat

ion

proc

ess

that

seem

to m

edia

te, a

t lea

st p

artly

, Chi

cano

chi

ldre

n's

inte

llect

ual d

evel

opm

ent a

ndac

aden

iic a

tiain

men

t; bu

t muc

h re

mai

ns to

be

done

. We

requ

ire

mor

e st

udie

s th

atill

uniin

ate

how

the

soci

aliz

atio

n pr

oces

s in

tera

cts

with

oth

er le

vels

of

the

envi

ron-

men

tal e

colo

gy to

cre

ate

and

mai

ntai

n pa

ttern

s of

eth

nic

grou

p di

fTei

ence

s in

acad

eini

c le

arni

ng, s

chol

astic

mot

ivat

ion,

and

mov

emen

t thr

ough

the

scho

olin

gpr

oces

s. I

t is

hope

d th

at th

is c

hapt

er w

ill p

oint

res

earc

hers

in in

tere

stin

g di

rec-

tions

tow

ard

wor

k th

at f

urth

er s

peci

fies

thes

e m

echa

nism

s an

d th

at tr

aces

thei

rpr

ecis

e ef

fect

s on

Chi

cano

chi

ldre

n's

acad

emic

dev

elop

men

t.A

larg

e pr

opor

tion

of th

e ac

adem

ic a

chie

vem

ent e

ffec

ts o

f et

hnic

gro

upm

embe

rshi

p ap

pear

s to

be

tran

smitt

ed b

y m

echa

nism

s th

at in

pri

ncip

le a

resu

scep

tible

to c

ontr

ol b

y ed

ucat

ors

and

polic

y m

aker

s. B

y br

oade

ning

and

deep

enin

g ou

r un

ders

tand

ing

of th

e na

ture

and

act

ion

of th

ese

mec

hani

sms,

rese

arch

pro

gram

s su

ch a

s th

ose

revi

ewed

in th

is c

hapt

er c

an in

crea

se o

ur c

apac

-ity

'to

mak

e w

ise,

eff

ectiv

e po

licy

in p

ursu

it of

an

equi

tabl

e di

stri

butio

n of

life

chan

ces

(Bid

wel

l and

Fri

edki

n, 1

988,

p. 4

68).

1 92

3i

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f Chi

cano

s

Not

es

1In

this

cha

pter

, we

inte

rcha

ngea

bly

use

the

term

sC

hica

noan

dM

exic

an A

mer

ican

to r

efer

to p

erso

ns o

f M

exic

an o

rigi

n or

des

cent

inth

e U

nite

d St

atcs

. In

the

Span

ish

lang

uage

,

Chi

cana

corr

espo

nds

to a

fem

ale

refe

rent

, and

Chi

cano

, the

mal

e; C

hica

nois

als

o th

eap

prop

riat

e te

rm f

or th

e ge

nder

agg

rega

te. I

nde

scri

bing

and

dis

cuss

ing

part

icul

arst

udie

s, w

e ge

nera

lly u

se th

e te

rms

chos

en b

y th

eir

auth

ors

in r

efer

ence

to th

eir

resp

ectiv

e sa

mpl

es.

2 T

he d

iffe

renc

e in

fac

tori

al s

truc

ture

bet

wee

nL

aosa

's (

1984

a) a

nd th

e V

alen

cia

et a

l.

(198

1) d

ata

is li

kely

the

resu

lt of

the

diff

eren

ce in

the

sam

plin

g de

sign

s of

the

two

stud

ies.

3O

nly

a ve

ry s

mal

l pro

port

ion

of f

amili

es a

re h

eade

d by

a m

anw

ith n

o w

ife

pres

ent:

asco

unte

d in

the

1980

US

cens

us, o

nly

3.1

per

cent

of

the

Mex

ican

-ori

gin

fam

ilies

with

own

child

ren

unde

r 18

yea

rs o

f ag

e w

ere

head

ed b

y a

man

with

no

wif

e pr

esen

t (L

aosa

,

1988

a). R

efer

ence

s

ALE

XA

ND

ER

,K

.L. a

ndE

NT

WIS

LE,

D.R

. (19

88)

'Ach

ieve

men

t in

the

firs

t 2 y

ears

of

scho

ol:

Patte

rns

and

proc

esse

s'.

Mon

ogra

phs

of th

e S

ocie

ty fo

rR

esea

rch

in C

hild

Dev

elop

men

t, 53

.

(2, S

eria

l No.

218

).A

mer

ican

Her

itage

Dic

tiona

ry(1

982)

, 2nd

col

lege

ed.

, Bos

ton,

Hou

ghto

n M

iffl

in.

AN

DE

RS

ON

,S.

and

ME

SS

ICK

,S.

(19

74)

'Soc

ial c

ompe

tenc

y in

you

ng c

hild

ren'

,D

evel

opm

en.

tal P

sych

olog

y, 1

0,pp

. 282

-93.

BA

RC

H,

J.A

. and

Som

a, Y

. (19

80)

'On

the

cogn

itive

ben

efits

of te

achi

ng',

Jour

nal o

Edu

catio

nal P

sych

olog

y,72

, pp.

593

-604

.B

AR

TO

N, P

.E. (

1989

)W

hat A

mer

ican

s S

tudy

,Pr

ince

ton,

NJ,

Pol

icy

Info

rmat

ion

Cen

ter.

Edu

catio

nal T

estin

g Se

rvic

e.B

EA

N,

F.D

. and

TIE

ND

A,

M. (

1987

)T

he H

ispa

nic

Pop

ulat

ion

of th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s,N

ew Y

ork

Rus

sell

Sage

Fou

ndat

ion.

BE

LMO

NT

,L

. and

MA

RO

LL

A, F

.A. (

1973

) 'B

irth

ord

er, f

amily

siz

e, a

ndin

telli

genc

e',

Sci

ence

182,

pp.

109

6-10

1.B

ER

BA

UM

,M

.L. a

ndM

OR

ELA

ND

,R

.L. (

1985

) 'In

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

t with

in tr

ansr

acia

adop

tive

fam

ilies

: Ret

estin

g th

c co

nflu

ence

mod

el',

Chi

ld D

evel

opm

ent,

56, p

p. 2

07-1

6

BE

RR

YM

AN

,S.

E. (

1983

)W

ho W

ill D

o S

cien

ce?

New

Yor

k, R

ocke

felle

r Fo

unda

tion.

BID

WE

LL,

C.E

. and

FR

IED

KIN

,N

.E. (

1988

) 'T

he s

ocio

logy

of

educ

atio

n', i

n N

.J.

SM

ELS

EI

(Ed.

)H

andb

ook

of S

ocio

logy

,N

ewbu

ry P

ark,

CA

, Sag

e, p

p. 4

49-7

1.B

LAK

E,

J. (

1989

) 'N

umbe

r of

sib

lings

and

edu

catio

nal a

ttain

men

t',S

cien

ce,

245,

pp.

32-

6B

OA

RD

OF

INQ

UIR

Y(1

985)

Bar

riers

to E

xcel

lenc

e:O

urC

hild

ren

atR

isk,

Bos

ton,

MA

, Nat

iona

Coa

litio

n of

Adv

ocat

es f

or S

tude

nts.

BR

AD

LEY

,R

.H.,

et a

l. (1

989)

'Hom

e en

viro

nmen

t and

cog

nitiv

e de

velo

pmen

tin

the

firs

tye

ars

of li

fe: A

col

labo

rativ

e st

udy

invo

lvin

gsi

x si

tes

and

thre

e ct

hnic

gro

ups

in N

ortl

Am

eric

a',

Dev

elop

men

tal P

sych

olog

y,25

, pp.

217

-35.

BR

AD

LEY

,11

.11.

,C

ALD

WE

LL,

B.M

. and

ELA

RD

O,

R. (

1979

) 'H

ome

envi

ronm

ent a

nd c

ogni

tive

deve

lopm

ent i

n th

e fi

rst 2

yca

rs: A

cro

ss-l

agge

d pa

nel

anal

ysis

',D

evel

opm

ent,

Psy

chol

ogy,

15,

pp. 2

46-5

0.B

RA

DL

EY

, R.H

.,C

ALD

WE

LL,

B.M

. and

RO

CK

,S.

L. (

1988

) 'H

ome

envi

ronm

ent a

nd s

chot

perf

orm

ance

: A te

n-ye

ar f

ollo

w-u

p an

d ex

amin

atio

n of

thre

em

odel

s of

env

iron

men

t;ac

tion'

, Chi

ld D

evel

opm

ent,

59, p

p. 8

52-6

7.B

RA

DS

HA

W,

B.S

. and

BE

AN

,F.

D. (

1972

) 'S

ome

aspe

cts

of th

e fe

rtili

ty o

f M

exic

anA

mcr

ican

s', i

n C

.F. V

iES

I OH

and

R.

PA

RK

E,

JR. (

Eds

) D

emog

raph

ic a

ndS

ocia

l Asp

ects

3219

Chi

cano

Sch

ool F

ailu

re a

nd S

ucce

ss

Popu

latio

n G

row

th (

Rep

orts

of

the.

US

Com

mis

sion

on

Popu

latio

n G

row

th a

nd th

eA

mer

ican

Fut

ure,

Vol

.I)

Was

hing

ton,

DC

, US

Gov

ernm

ent P

rint

ing

Off

ice,

- pp

. 139

-64.

BR

EL

AN

D, H

.M. (

1974

) 'B

irth

ord

er, f

amily

con

figu

ratio

n, a

nd v

erba

l ach

ieve

men

t', C

hild

Dev

elop

men

t, 45

, pp.

101

1-19

.B

RO

NFE

NB

RE

NN

ER

, U. (

1977

) 'T

owar

d an

d ex

peri

men

tal e

colo

gy o

f hu

man

dev

elop

men

t',A

mer

ican

Psy

chol

ogis

t, 32

, pp.

513

-31.

BR

ON

FEN

BR

EN

NE

R, U

. (19

79)

The

Eco

logy

of

Hum

an D

evel

opm

ent:

Exp

erim

ents

by

Nat

ure

and

Des

ign,

Caa

ibri

dge,

MA

, Har

vard

Uni

vers

ity P

ress

.B

RO

NFE

NB

RE

NN

ER

, U. (

1988

) 'E

colo

gica

l Sys

tem

s T

heor

y', u

npub

lishe

d m

anus

crip

t.B

RO

PHY

, J.E

. and

GO

OD

, T.L

. (19

74)

Tea

cher

-Stu

dent

Rel

atio

nshi

ps: C

ause

s an

d C

onse

-qu

ence

s, N

ew Y

ork,

Hol

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stud

y of

mat

erna

l tea

chin

g st

rate

gics

', A

pplie

dps

ycho

logi

cal M

easu

rem

ent.

4, p

p. 3

55-6

6.J.

.AO

SA, L

.M. (

1981

a) 'M

ater

nal b

ehav

ior:

Soc

iocu

ltura

l div

ersi

ty in

mod

es o

f fa

mily

inte

ract

ion'

. in

R.W

. HE

ND

ER

SON

(E

d.)

Pare

nt-c

hild

Int

erac

tion:

The

ory,

Res

earc

h, a

ndPr

ospe

cts,

New

Yor

k, A

cade

mic

Pre

ss, p

p. 1

25-6

7.L

Aus

A. L

. M. (

1981

b) 'S

tatis

tical

Exp

lora

tions

of

the

Stru

ctur

al O

rgan

izat

ion

of M

ater

nal

Tea

chin

g B

ehav

iors

in C

hica

no a

nd N

on-H

ispa

nic

Whi

te F

amili

es',

invi

ted

pape

rpr

esen

ted

at th

e C

onfe

renc

e on

the

Infl

uenc

es o

f H

ome

Env

iron

men

ts o

n Sc

hool

Ach

ieve

men

t.W

isco

nsin

Res

earc

h an

d D

evel

opm

ent C

ente

r fo

rIn

divi

dual

ized

Scho

olin

g. S

choo

l of

Edu

catio

n, U

nive

rsity

of

Wis

cons

in, M

adis

on, O

ctob

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1.A

osei

, L. M

. (19

82a)

Fam

ilies

as

faci

litat

ors

of c

hild

ren'

s in

telle

ctua

l dev

elop

men

tat

3 y

ears

of a

ge: A

cau

sal a

naly

sis'

, in

L.M

. Lno

sn a

nd I

.E. S

IGE

L (

Eds

) Fa

mili

esas

Lea

rnin

gE

nvir

onm

ents

.ftir

Chi

ldre

n, N

ew Y

ork,

Ple

num

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1-4

5.L

m)s

A, L

.NI

(198

2b)

Scho

ol. o

ccup

atio

n, c

ultu

re, a

nd f

amily

: The

impa

ct o

f pa

rent

alsc

hool

ing

on th

e pa

rent

-chi

ld r

elat

ions

hip'

, Jou

rnal

of

Edu

catio

nal P

sych

olog

y, 7

4,pp

791

-827

LA

MA

, L. M

(19

82c)

'The

soc

iocu

ltura

l con

tcxt

of

eval

uatio

n', i

n B

. SPO

DE

K (

Ed.

) H

and-

book

of

Res

eari

h in

Ear

ly C

hild

hood

Edu

catio

n, N

ew Y

ork,

The

Fre

e Pr

ess,

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L.N

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83)

'Par

ent e

duca

tion,

cul

tura

l plu

ralis

m, a

nd p

ublic

pol

icy:

Thc

unc

erta

inco

nnec

tion'

, in

R. H

ASK

INS

and

D. A

DA

MS

(Eds

) Pa

rent

Edu

catio

n an

d Pu

blic

Pol

icy,

Nor

woo

d, N

J. A

blex

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331

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IA(

ISA

, L N

I (1

9845

) 'E

thni

c. s

ocio

econ

omic

, and

hom

e la

ngua

ge in

flue

nces

upo

n ea

rly

per-

tori

isan

se o

n m

easu

res

of a

bilit

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, Jou

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of

Edu

catio

nal P

sych

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6, p

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178-

98.

AuS

A, L

M. (

1984

b) 'S

ocia

l pol

icie

s to

war

d ch

ildre

n of

div

erse

cth

nic,

rac

ial,

and

lang

uage

grou

ps in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es',

in H

.W. S

TE

VE

NSO

N a

nd A

.E. S

IEG

EL

(E

ds)

Chi

ldD

evel

opm

ent R

eiea

rili

and

Soci

al P

olic

y (V

ol. 1

) C

hica

go, U

nive

rsity

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Chi

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Pre

ss,

pp 1

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NI

(198

5) 'E

thni

c, R

acia

l, an

d L

angu

age

Gro

up D

iffe

renc

es in

the

Exp

erie

nces

of

Ado

lesc

ents

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

', in

vite

d pa

per

pres

ente

d at

the

Wor

ksho

p on

Ado

les-

I 96

33

The

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent o

f C

hica

nos

cenc

e an

d A

dole

scen

t Dev

elop

men

t, co

nven

ed b

y th

e C

omm

ittee

on C

hild

Dev

elop

-m

ent R

esea

rch

and

Publ

ic P

olic

y of

the

Nat

iona

l Aca

dem

y of

Sci

ence

s, W

oods

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e.M

A, J

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sA L

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thni

city

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sin

gle

pare

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gin

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Uni

ted

St.-

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,in

E.M

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ET

HE

RIN

GT

ON

and

J.D

. AR

AST

EH

(E

ds)

Impa

ct o

f D

ivor

ce, S

ingl

ePa

rent

ing,

and

Ste

p-pa

rent

ing

on C

hild

ren,

Hill

sdal

e, N

J, E

rlba

um, p

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3-49

.L

AO

SA, L

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1988

b) P

opul

atio

n G

ener

aliz

abili

ty a

nd E

thic

al D

ilem

mas

in R

esea

rch,

Pol

icy,

ano

Prac

tice:

Pre

limin

ary

Con

side

ratio

ns (

ET

S R

esea

rch

Rep

ort N

o.88

-18)

, Pri

ncet

on, N

J,E

duca

tiona

l Tes

ting

Serv

ice.

L.M

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90)

'Pop

ulat

ion

gene

raliz

abili

ty, c

ultu

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ensi

tivity

, and

eth

ical

dile

mm

as',

in C

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ISH

ER

and

W.W

. TR

YO

N (

Eds

) E

thic

s in

App

lied

Dev

elop

men

tal P

sych

olog

y,N

orw

ood,

NJ,

Abl

ex, p

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27-5

1.L

itosn

, L.M

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BR

OPH

Y, J

.E. (

1970

) 'S

exx

birt

h or

der

inte

ract

ion

in m

easu

res

ofse

x ty

ping

and

aff

iliat

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in k

inde

rgar

ten

child

ren'

, Pro

ceed

ings

of

the

78th

Ann

ual

Con

vent

ion

of th

e A

mer

ican

Psy

chol

ogic

al A

ssoc

iatio

n, 5

, Was

hing

ton,

DC

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anPs

ycho

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ssoc

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63-4

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AO

SA, L

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RO

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'Eff

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birt

h or

der

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ole

deve

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men

t and

inte

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nce

amon

g ki

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gart

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hild

ren'

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men

tal P

sych

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5.L

EC

OR

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mer

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soci

al a

djus

tmen

t and

con

cept

ual

diff

eren

tiatio

n of

sex

role

attr

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Dev

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men

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EV

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80)

'Infl

uenc

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mat

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ompa

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e E

duca

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Rev

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5.L

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1928

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he p

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Psyc

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5, p

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93-5

06.

LU

RIA

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76)

Cog

nitiv

e D

evel

opm

ent:

Its

Cul

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lan

d So

cial

Fou

ndat

ions

, Cam

brid

ge,

MA

, Har

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Uni

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CO

BY

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'Cus

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win

gdi

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n E

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ET

HE

RIN

GT

ON

and

J.D

. AR

AST

EH

(Eds

) Im

pact

of

Div

orce

, Sin

gle

Pare

ntin

g, a

nd S

tepp

aren

ting

on C

hild

ren,

Hill

sdal

e,N

J, E

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4.M

AC

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e co

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Pare

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ract

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E.M

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TH

ER

ING

TO

N (

Ed.

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ook

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Psy

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Vol

. 4: S

ocia

lizat

ion,

Per

sona

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Soc

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evel

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New

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01.

MA

CC

OR

QU

OD

AL

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88)

'Mex

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eric

anw

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mat

hem

atic

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artic

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aspi

ratio

ns, a

nd a

chie

vem

ent',

in R

.R. C

OC

KIN

G a

nd J

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ME

STR

E (

Eds

) L

ingu

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and

Cul

tura

l Inf

luen

ces

on L

earn

ing

Mat

hem

atic

s, H

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NJ,

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MA

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AN

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K. (

1979

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gE

nvir

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: An

Em

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Lon

don,

UK

, Rou

tledg

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d K

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Pau

l.M

AR

JOR

IBA

NK

S, K

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84; '

Occ

upat

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lst

atus

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ily e

nvir

onm

ents

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ado

lesc

ents

'as

pira

tions

: The

Lao

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l of

Edu

catio

nal P

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690

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N, G

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80)

'An

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rica

lst

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e Z

ajon

c-M

arku

s hy

po-

thes

is f

or a

chie

vem

ent t

est s

core

dec

lines

', A

mer

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Edu

catio

nal R

esea

rch

Jour

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17,

pp. 5

-19.

NA

TIO

NA

L C

OM

MIS

SIO

N O

N E

XC

EL

LE

NC

EIN

ED

UC

AT

ION

(19

83)

A N

atio

n at

Ris

k: T

heIm

pera

tive

for

Edu

catio

nal R

efor

m, W

ashi

ngto

n, D

C, U

SG

over

nmen

t Pri

ntin

g O

ffic

e,N

IEL

SEN

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nd F

ER

NA

ND

EZ

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81)

His

pani

cSt

uden

ts in

Am

eric

an H

igh

Scho

ols:

Bac

kgro

und

Cha

raae

rist

ics

and

Ach

ieve

men

t, W

ashi

ngto

n,D

C, U

S G

over

nmen

t Pri

ntin

gO

ffic

e.N

OR

MA

N-J

AC

KSO

N, J

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982)

'Fam

ily in

tera

ctio

ns, l

angu

age

deve

lopm

ent,

and

prim

ary

read

ing

achi

evem

ent o

f B

lack

chi

ldre

n in

fam

ilies

of

low

inco

me'

, Chi

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evel

opm

ent,

53, p

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49-5

8.O

RU

M, L

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1986

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he E

duca

tion

of H

ispa

nics

:St

atus

and

Im

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atio

ns, W

ashi

ngto

n, D

C,

Nat

iona

l Cou

ncil

of L

a R

aza.

'319

7

Chi

cano

Sch

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ailu

re a

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ucce

ss

PAG

E, E

B. a

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RA

ND

ON

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79)

'Fam

ily c

onfi

gura

tion

and

men

tal a

bilit

y:T

wo

theo

ries

con

tras

ted

with

US

data

',A

mer

ican

Edu

catio

nal R

esea

rch

Jour

nal,

16, p

p.25

7-

72.

PAR

SON

S, J

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AD

LE

R, T

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1982

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chie

vem

ent

attit

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: Par

enta

l inf

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,C

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Dev

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men

t, 53

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310

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PAR

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S, J

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KA

CL

AL

A, C

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E, J

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1982

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ocia

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chie

vem

ent

attit

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bel

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: Cla

ssro

om in

flue

nces

',C

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Dev

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men

t, 53

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322

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PET

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RO

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INS,

B.C

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87)

'Par

ent-

child

soc

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in M

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USS

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EIN

ME

TZ

(E

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Han

dboo

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8-20

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'Inne

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d

Env

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Proc

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blis

hed

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ultu

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f

fam

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sych

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Rep

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pp.

391

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RE

GIO

NA

L P

OL

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CO

MM

ITT

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DU

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TIO

N (

1987

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Bou

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79)

'Pro

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sadv

anta

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in

M.W

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NT

and

J.E

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even

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Vol

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l

Com

pete

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ook

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Psy

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Vol

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isto

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heor

y,an

d M

etho

ds, N

cw Y

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Wile

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37-9

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athe

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'Soc

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ract

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athe

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othe

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M.E

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MB

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ontr

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,

Iow

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3819

9