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Women in Science, Resource Guide.Agency for Instructional Technology, Bloomington,IN.; Michigan Univ., Ann Arbor. School ofDentistry.Women's Educational Equity Act Program (ED),Washington, D.C.8884p.; For related documents, see SE 051 624-625.Contains some photographs which may not reproducewell.Agency for Instructional Technology, Box A,Bloomington, IN 47402 (video, $180.00, set of eight$995.00, plus postage; free preview with returnpostage).Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)-- Audiovisual Materials (100)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS *Career Awareness; Demand Occupations; Engineering;

*Females; Physical Sciences; *Role Models; *ScienceCareers; Science Education; Secondary Education;*Secondary School Science; Videotape Recordings

IDENTIFIERS *Mathematics Careers

ABSTRACTMany young women must contend with social and

psychological barriers that prevent them from pursuing careers inscjance and mathematics. Because of lack of confidence,misconceptions, lack of preparation, and discrimination, many womenself-select themsel7es out of as many as 75 per cent of all careersbefore they reach college age. This series was designed co inform andencourage women about careers in mathematics and science relatedcareers. This guide provides resources related to the seven 30-minuteand one 40-1,1inute video programs in the series. Each episodeincludes: a program summary, introductory discussion questions, brieffacts and statistics, a brief biography of a significant role modelin the specific area of the episode, an interest assessment form,discussion questions to follow the program, descriptions ofsupplemental activities, lists of supplementary materials forstudents, and lists of resources for users and viewers. Programtopics include: (1) biomedicine; (2) chemistry; (3) computer science;(4) dentistry; (5) engineering; (6) geosciences; (7) physicsandastronomy; and (8) scientific careers for women. (CW)

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Resource Guide

Women in Science

A series of seven 30-minute and one 40-minute video programsdesigned to encourage women to pursue careers in science.

Produced by the University of Michigan School of Dentistry

©1988University of Michigan

andAgency for Instructional Technology

All rights reserved.

This guide, except for the section of Supplementary Materials 'tor Students,may not be reproduced without written permission. Direct all inquiries to

Agency for instructional TechnologyBox A, Bloomington, IN 47402-0120(812) 339-2203 or (800) 457-4509

4

Acknowledgements

ConsultantsSusan McGrathJim NelsonPatricia O'ConnerBarbara F. Stoat

Betty M. VetterBurton VossDouglas WarrenCharles J. Zoet

The Agency for Instructional Technology is grateful to the following people for their professionalassistance: Louise Bacon, Margaret Cavanaugh, Jeanne Harris, Diana Kroll, David Lawler, PolleyMcClure, Chris McFatridge, Dolores Schroeder, Ellen Sekreta, Marilyn Suiter, Neil Sutherland

Funds for the development of Women in Science were provided by a grant from the U.S. Depar-tment of Education, Women's Educational Equity Act Program.

Women In Science was endorsed by the following professional organizations.

American Chemical SocietyAmerican Association of Women DentistsAssociation for Women in ScienceSociety of Women EngineersAssociation for Women Geoscientists

1

5

Contents

Introducflon 1

How to Use the Women in Science Series 3

Program 1. Biomedical Fields 4

Program 2. Chemistry 14

Program 3. Computer Science 23

Program 4. Dentistry 32

Program 5. Engineering 39

Program 6. Geosciences 48

Program 7. Physics and Astronomy 56

Program 8. ScientUic Careers for Women: Doors to the Future 66

Supplementary Materials for Administrators, Counselors, Teachers, and Students 71

Additional Resources 75

6

Introduction

Why Is a Series on Women in Sci-ence Necessary?Although the numbers of oromen entering fieldstraditionally dominated by men are increasing,women are still underrepresented in many areas,including science and engineering. While womentoday comprise 44 percent of all U.S. workers,they comprise only 15 percent of all scientists andengineers (National Science Foundation 1988).

Furthermore, the majority of undergraduatewomen who elect a science major tend to chooselife and social sciences, sometimes referred to asthe "soft" sciences. The supply of graduates withbachelors degrees in these fields far exceeds thenumber of job opportunities.

Many young women must contend with social andpsychological barriers that prevent them from pur-suing careers in mathematics and science. Be-cause of lack of confidence, misconceptions, lackof preparation, and discrimination, many womenself-select themselves out of as many as 75 per-cent of all careers before they reach college age(Vetter 1982).

There is an obvious need for reconsideration andredirection in the academic training and careercounseling of young women. By avoiding essen-tial courses in high school, many young womendeny themselves many exciting opportunities incollege and beyond. Schools often perpetuatethis dilemma by maintaining a passive role in theacademic course selection and career decision-making processes of young women. Schoolsmust help make female students aware of the op-portunities for women in science, and encouragethem to obtain a strong mathematics and sciencef ound ation.

What Are the Objectives of theWomen in Science Series?The series was designed to

encourage women to explore career oppor-tunities in fields of science that are consid-ered nontraditional for women

encourage women to select courses inmathematics and science in preparation forscience-related careers

inform students, parents, V:achers, coun-selors, and administrators about opportuni-ties for women in science

address barriers that discourage womenfrom seeking careers in science

provide specific career information for eachof the featured fields, including sugges-tions for academic preparation, doscriptionsof routine work, career optio,..., and jobopportunities

provide women with role models who repre-sent a variety of career paths in the sci-ences, as well as a variety of personal andprofessional lifestyles, ages, and ethnicbackgrounds

examine the realities cf combining a careerwith family life

What Are the Barriers Encounteredby Women Considering Careers inthe Sciences?Perhaps the most obvious barns for youngwomen considering careers in the sciences is thescarcity of female role models. Because womenare underrepresented in many science careerareas, they are usually not present in typical im-ages of science and scientists, and therefore, notassociated with science. Consequently, manyyoung women do not consider science a realisticcareer option.

The series addresses five additional barriers.

By the time they graduate from high school,many women are academically deficient inmathematics and science. This resourceguide includes an overview of the generalacademic requirements for entrance intoeach of the featured fields. These materialsshould be duplicated for students. In eachprogram, role models stress the importanceand relevance of a strong mathematics andscience education. Many of the featuredwomen scientists address the issue of mathanxiety, their initial fear of science courses,and how they overcame their fears.

Many women perceive women scientistsand science careers as unattractive or un-feminine. Smith (1978) suggested that

7

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young women may feel that the "pursuit ofthese careers means loss of femininity."The presence of female role models in theprograms reaffirms the appropriateness ofwomen working in the sciences.

Many women perceive a tole conflict be-tween having a career in science and beinga wife or mother. Each program presentsone or two professional women who aremothers of preschool or school-age chil-dren. They discuss issues such as dual-ca-reer marriages, division of domestic labor,and child care. Comments from husbandsand children often reinforce the importanceof understanding, support, and coopera-tion in dual-career marriages.

Many women lack job-seeking skills. Prepa-'ration for the job market is one effective wayto alleviate the anxiety women sometimesassociate with job seeking. The series en-courages women to obtain valuable aca-demic credentials. The women featured inthe series confirm that women can succeedin highly competitive, male-dominated fieldsif they are motivated and seek proper train-ing as early as possible.

Many women experience discrimination.Many young women are discouraged frompursuing science careers by significant indi-viduals such as teachers, parents, counse-

lors, and peers. This series provides ameans of educating those who are unawareof the barriers that discourage women frompursuing mathematics and science.

Who Might Benefit fr.= Women inScience ?The series is designed for junior high and highschool-age women who are in the process of mak-ing career decisions and of selecting courses ap-propriate for their career goals. h is also desighedto address counselors, administrators, teachers,parents, employers, college studeras, andwomen reentering the job market.

ReferencesNational Science Foundation. January, 1988.Women and Minorities in Science and Engineer-ing. NSF 88-301.

Smith, Walter. April, 1978. Five Approaches toIncreasing Participation of Talented Women inScience Centers. Presented at the National Sci-ence Teachers Assoeation National Convention.

Vetter, B M. 1982. Opportuaies in Science andEngineering. Scientific Manpower Commission.

How to Use the Women in Science Series

While Women in Science was develop-ad primarilyfor women in junior high and high school, it is alsoadaptable to a variety of audiences concernedwith women's opportunities or science careers.

Each of the eight programs can be viewed sepa-rately or as part of a unit. When used in the class-roomi the discussion questions, supplemental ac-tivities, and supplementary materials for studentscan be used to plan a short program, workshop, orlonger unit.

The Women in Science resource guide containsthe followina materials for each proaram.

Program Summarya summary of programcontent and short biographies of thefeatured women scientists, in order of theirappearance.

Before the Programdiscussion questionsdesigned to orient and introduce viewers torelevant issues.

Did You Know1brief facts and statisticsconcerning the status of women in each ofthe featured fields of science.

After the Programdiscussion questionsdesianed to help guide viewers through anin-depth discussion of relevant issues.

Supplemental Activitieseducational andmotivational activities and projects de-signed to encourage viewers to exploretheir interests and aptitudes for each fea-tured field of science.

Supplementary Materials for Studentsaguide for the viewer, including biographicalprofiles of contemporary women scientists;basic requirements for education and train-ing; overviews of career options includingspecializations and work settings; over-views of economic outlook and salariesincluding information on potential for ad-vancement, economic forecasts, and aver-age salaries within each field.

These materials are designed for duplica-tion and distribution to viewers for class-room or personal use.

For More informationA resource list of or-ganizations, publications, and other instruc-tional materials relevant to each of the fieldsfor users and liewers.

About Program 8: "ScientificCareers for Women: Doors to theFuture"Program 8 is designed to help counselors, par-ents, teachers, and students become more awareof the wealth of career opportunities available inthe sciences while examining some of the barriersthat discourage young women from pursuingthese careers. It can be used as an introductionor conclusion to a course or workshop on wom-en's opportunities or science careers.

Program 8 can be used with a variety of audiencesto

review Me issues associated with the entryof women into nontraditional careers in thesciences

explore the roles of teachers, counselors,school administrators, peers, and parents inencouraging women to pursue mathemat-ics and sciences

inform and motivate young women to electmathematics and science courses

Suggestions for the UserPreview the program(s), if possible.

Review the appropriate sections of the re-source guide.

Duplicate supplementary materials for individ-ual viewers.

Review and plan supplemental activities inadvance.

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Program 1Biomedical Fields

Program SummaryThe program describes biomedicine as a complexgroup of interrelated specialties that combine ba-sic scientific research and medicine. Biomedicalprofessionals usually hold bachelors degrees inone of the basic sciences such as biology, chem-istry, and physics. They often hold advanced de-grees in science, engineering, or medicine.

The narrator explains that the common goal of bio-medical professionals is to improve human healthand life. The professionals featured in this pro-gram often work in teams with other specialists,applying their expertise to challenging problemssuch as perfecting a new treatment for a diseasedbone, developing safety equipment and pro-cedures to protect industrial woricers from toxicchemicals, or developing a new medicine tordiabetes.

The program presents women who have success-fully established careers in biomedical fields, andstudents who are currently pursuing careers.

In order of appearance

Irene Jones holds a Ph.D. in genetic toxi-cology. She develops tests that help to de-termine the effects of chemical exposureon human genes.

Both Concoby, an industrial hygienist with aMasters of Public Health, develops, evalu-ates, and reviews regulations which protectemployees and consumers from exposureto harmful chemicals or conditions.

Janet Ku, a bioengineering doctoral stu-dent, investigates the potential of a tech-nique for replacing sections of diseasedbone with healthy bone material.

Judy Clark, a bioengineering graduate stu-dent with a special interest in nuclear medi-cine, uses PET scanning1 to observe brainfunctions in humans.

1PET is the abbreviation for Positron Emission Com-puted Tomography, a scanning method 03ed in diag-nostic medicine, especially in work on the brain.

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Joyce Vargyas, an obstetrician-gynecolo-gist with an M.D. degree, specializes in invitro fertilization.2

Jessica Schwartz, Ph.D., manages a re-search laboratory at the University ofMichigan Medical School. Her specialty isphysiology.

Joyce Esslen, M.D., specializes in pathol-ogy. She directs the Laboratory ProgramOffice at the Centers for Disease Control(CDC) in Atlanta.

Carey Callaway is an electron microscopistat CDC. She holds a B.S. and a spocialty..

degree in electron microscopy.

Shirley Maddlson, Ph.D., is a parasitologistat CDC who specializes in diseases com-mon in Third World countries.

Diane Rowley, M.D., studies the distributionand dynamics of disease at CDC.

Alice Iststic is a student majoring in biology.

Many of the scientists featured in the programmention the rewards of research and the excite-ment of discovery. Others talk about the satisfac-tion they derive from working to improve thehealth of their patients.

The program reviews recommendations for highschool and college preparation. High school stu-dents should develop a strong background inmathematics and science. A bachelors degree inbiology, chemistry, computer science, engineer-ing, or physics could lead to advanced study andtraining in many biomedical fields.

Professionals in biomedicine work in patient careand clinical application, research and develop-ment, administration, or a combination of theseareas. As technology advances, the demand forbiomedical professionals increases.

21t, vitro fertilization is a method of artificial fertili-zation. Sperm is introduced to the egg outside themother's body in an artificial environment such as atest tube. Once fertilization occurs, the egg is re-turned to the mother's body, where normal fetal devel-opment can proceed.

1. 0

Did You Know?The numbers of health personnei in al fieldshave continued to increase through the mid-1980s (U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, March 1986).

There have been significant increases in thenumbers of females in medical professions thattraditionally have been mata ,dominated (U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,March 1986).

Before the ProgramYou could choose to conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Biomedical Fields lit-terest Assessment on page 8, and then proceedwith an introductory discussion.

1. What types of work might a scientist in bio-medicine perform?

2. What kind of person might be attracted tothese fields?

3. What type of education is necessary?

Mter the ProgramPossible answers to the following discussionquestions are in parentheses.

Which aspects of the featured careers Inbiomedicine did you find most attractive?(interaction with other people, promotinghealth, discovering new medicines andtreatments, meaningful work, good em-ployment prospects and salaries, helpingothers, variety of job options)

2. Describe some types of work that biomedi-cal scientists perform. (patien: care, devel-oping life-preserving machines, research-ing the effects of chemicals on humans,teaching, devebping new medicines, in-vestigating the sources and cures for dis-eases, assisting in laboratory procedures)

3. What are some of the settings in which bio-medical scientists work? (hospitals, labora-tories, classrooms, indusuies, governmentagencies, on location for industries orgovernment)

4. What is the minimum degree that most bio-medical professionals earn? (A master'sdegree or M.P.H. [Master of Public Health]is usually necessary to perform laboratoryor clinical work. A master's degree or doc-torate is usually necessary for conductingresearch.)

5. Which courses would best prepare a highschool student interested in a career inbiomedicine? (mathematics, science, En-glish, communications, foreign language)

6. What type of major should a college stu-dent interested in biomedicine choose?(physical sciences, mathematics, pre-medicine)

7. Why is it advisable for high school studentsinterested in biomedicine to take as manymathematics and science courses as pos-sible? (Avoiding them may make it difficultto catch up in college, where familiarity withthe essential concepts of mathematics andscience is essential.)

8. Can women in biomedicine satisfactorilycombine their careers with motherhood?(While combining a professional life andfamily life is demanding, it is probably nomore difficult for women in biomedicinethan for those in other professions. Manyof the professionals featured in the pro-gram are mothers.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local biomedical professionals and stu-

dents to discuss their career training and ex-periences with your class cr group.

2. Arrange for students to meet and question avariety of biomedical professionals in a typicalwork environment such as a hospital or uni-versity. A hospital public relations manager orcollege admissions counselor might help or-ganize the event. Have students write re-ports about their experiences.

3. Keep a biomedicine bulletin board and careerfile. Have students contribute to the collec-tion of current developments and career op-portunities. Share this information with otherclasses, counselors, librarians, and teachers,and encourage them to be aware of theseand other nontraditional career opportunitiesfor women.

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4. Coordinate a "shadow" program for highschool students. "Shadowing" a woman bio-medical pro!essional for part or all of one daywill enable students to gather firsthand infor-mation and impressions.

5. Ha,. 3 one student role-play a prospective sci-ence major. Another student can role-play acollege admissions counselor, adviser, highschool teacher, friend, or parent who is con-sciously or unconsciously discouraging thestudent from :lursuing a career in science.Discuss and role-play methods of coping withdirect and subtle discouragement.

6. Contact local colleges for information on pro-grams such as science department careerfrirs, open houses, symposiums, and intern-ships. Encourage students to participate.These activities help students learn to workindependently, develop their own innovativeresearch projects, conduct research, and pre-sent results.

7. Schedulo a field trip. Options may include animmunization clinic, county public Inalth de-partment, hospital laboratory, blood bank orblood laboratory, or family planning agency.

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Research laboratories often are receptiveonly to very small groups.

8. Sponsor a bloodmobile. Help students initi-ate, organize, and assist with this communityservice.

9. Students can learn about the human body inclass by performing simple tests: reflexes,lung capacity, blood pressure, pulse, urineanalysis, and blood typing. Incorporatethese activities into a unit in a regular biologyor science class.

10. Make arrangements for students to watch P

demonstration of diagnostic testing anuequipment such as Electroencephalograph(EEG), Electrocardiograph (EKG or ECG),vital capacity test, glucose tolerance test,glaucoma test, CAT scan, X-ray, and radiationtreatment. Help students notice the impor-tance of computers in a wide variety of diag-nostic processes.

11. Incorporate computers into the classroom. Avariety of relevant software is available foruse in science classes.

12

Supplementary Materials for Students

Outstanding Women in Science: Biomediene

Occupation: Emeritus Professor of Medicine,University of Alabama; Distin-guished Physician, Veterans Ad-ministration, Birmingham, Alabama.

Education: M.D., College of Medicine, Univer-sity of Vermont, 1944.

Awards andhonors: American Heart Association, Gold

Heart Award, 1979 and Distin-guished Achievement Award,1980; National Conference onHigh Blood Pressure Control, Ed-ward D. Freis, M.D. Award, 1985;American Medical Association, Sci-entific Achievement Award, 1987.

Professionalservice: President, American Heart Associa-

tion, 1976-77; Board of Regents,American College of Physicians;Member, National Academy of Sci-ences.

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Harriet P. Dustan

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D1. Harriet P. Dustan is a car& . ascular and hypertension specialist who studies the role of salt in highblood pressure. She is director of the General Clinical Research Center at the University of Alabama Hos-pital, where she treats and studies high blood pressure patients.

Dr. Dustan began her studies in the 1940s, when medicine was preuominately a male profession. "Mygrandfather and great-grandfather had been physicians in the small Vermont town in which I was broughtup, and this made it acceptable for me to choose medicine," she explains. "My only brother died of sub-acute bacterial endocarditis when I was 11 years old, and that firmed my decision to become a physician."

She received support and encouragement from a mentor, D. Irvine H. Page, at the Cleveland Clinic inCleveland, Ohio, where she began her research career. "He sheltered me in a highly competitive world,afforded me opportunities, stimulated me to contribute, and was probably the best professional friend Iever had," she says.

Dr. Dustan joined the permanent staff of the Cleveland Clinic in 1951 and continued her work in hyperten-sion and high blood pressure there for 26 years.

"Be serious," Dr. Dustan advises young women considering careers in biomedicine. "If you are interestedin research, be sure that you get training in basic research disciplines."

Of her many accomplishments, Dr Dustan feels most proud of her research contributions to the understanding of high t.,..:od pressure due to kidney disease and of her investigations into new drug treatmentsfor hypertension. "What I like best is contributing to society," Dr. Dustan says. "As a doctor, one cher-ishes what one can give."

1 3-7-

Biomedical Fields Interest AssessmentThe following questions reflect some of the common interests of biomedical professionals. If you answeryes to many of these questions, you might want to consider a career in biomedicine.

1. I find the following occupations attractive:chemist, computer programmer, engineer,nurse.

Yes No

2. i enjoy courses such as: algebra, biology,chemistry, physics, physiology, and statistics.

Yes No

3. Helping people will be an important factor inmy career choice.

Yes No

4. I like conducting scientific experiments.

Yes No

5. I enjoy the challenge of finding difierent wlysto solve a problem.

Yes No

7. I like assignments that require gathering andrecording information.

Yes No

8. When I have a job to do, I plan a course of ac-tion and then follow through with my plan.

Yes No

9. I would enjoy a job that requires me to keepabreast of the newest scientific technolog;esand advances in my field.

Yes No

10. I sometimes think of new inventions or prod-ucts that would help people.

Yes No

11. When I have a problem to solve, I stick with it.

Yes No

6. I am willing to work with others. I genuinely 12. I am generally interested in the field ofhealth.like people.

Yes No

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Yes No

14

Career Options in Biomedical FieldsBiomedicine is a very broad term that encom-passes many areas of science, medicine, and en-gineering. Nursing and the allied health occupa-tions have been the traditional domain of womenin biomedicine, 'out more and more women aremoving into other areas. Many of the following ca-reers represent nontraditional career opportuni-ties for women.

Biologists study living organisms and the relation-ship of animals and plants to their environment.Some biologists are involved in research to in-crease basic knowledge of living organisms;others in applied research use this knowledge inactivities such as developing new medicines,:acreasing crop yields, and improving t heenvironm ent.

Biochemists study the complex chemical combi-nations and reactions involved in metabolism, re-production, growth, and heredity.

Medical microbiologists study the relationship be-tween bacteria and disease or the effect cf antibi-otics on bacteria. Some specialize in virology (thestudy of viruses), or immunology (the study ofmechanisms that fight infections).

Biomedical engineers combine medical knowl-edge and basic science and technology to designand build medical instrumentation and devicessuch as artificial organs and limbs. Computers areoften L.. ad to help design and monitor suchequ ipment.

Some biomedical engineers study materials suchas plastics, metals, and other substances to ex-plore their potential utility in the development ofnew biomedical technology (Swanson 1984, 17).

Biomedical equipment technicians, also calledbioengineering technicians, install, calibrate, in-spect, and perform general maintenance and re-pair on biomedical instruments and equipmentand related technical equipment. They are gener-ally knowledgeable about the design, function,and clinical application of biomedical equipmentand often teach or demonstrate the function andoperation of such equipment to other health carepersonnel (Swanson 1984, 18).

Biomedical scientists conduct research in a varietyof medical specialties and in a variety of settingssuch as hospitals, government iaboratories, anduniversities. These research specialists oftenwork in teams with other types of specialists to

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solve complex medical problems. Some areas ofmedical specialization are

Bacteriologythe study of bacteria

Cytologythe study of zells

Endocrinologythe study of the endocrineglands and their secretions (hormones)

Epidemiologythe study of epidemicdiseases

Hmatologythe study of blood andblood-forming organs

Histologythe study of tissues

Parasitologythe study of parasites

Pathologythe study of diseases

Pharmacologythe study of drugs

Physiologythe study of living organisms

Serologythe study of blood serum

Toxicologythe study of poisons

Clinical engineers use engineering concepts andtechnologies to manage and improve health caredelivery systems in hospitals, clinics, and otherenvironments (Swanson 1984, 18).

Genetic engineers specialize in methods of ma-nipulating genetic material to improve human lifeand health. Artificial insemination is probably thebest known example of genetic engineering.

Genetic scientists ara biomedical scientists con-cerned with the way genes operate and how ge-netic material affects physiological reactions withincells.

Gens.'c toxicologists are concerned with the ef-fects of toxic matenals on human populations.

Industrial hygienists are biomedical scientists whowort to eliminate environmental hazards in indus-trial settings. They are concerned with reducingor eliminating worker exposure to toxic chemicals,heat, noise, dust, and other hazardousconditions.

Medical practitioners are involved in diagnosis,treatment, and prevention of illness and disease.Practitioner specialties include anesthesia, der-matology, ear/nose/throat, emergency practice,family practice, gynecology/obstetrics, immunol-ogy, internal medicine, neurology, ophthalmol-ogy, pathology, pediatrics, physical medicine,psychiatry, public health, radiology, and surgery.

1 5

Medical technologists culture specimens and per-form tests that provide vital information to othermedical professionals about the presence of spe-cific diseases and other abnormalities in the hu-man body. Some medica technologists special-ize in areas such as biochemistry, blood banktechnology, cytotechnology, hematology, andparasitology (Swanson 1984, 127).

Work SettingsBiomedical professionals often work in

government institutions such as federal re-search laboratories, state and local depart-ments, commissions, and health regulatoryagencies

health care facilities such as hospitals, clin-ics, medical centers, health maintenance or-ganizations, and private offices

industry in areas such as applied researchand testing, production, quality control, andtechnical writing

institutions of higher education such as col-leges, universities, and medical schools

private corporations and nonprofitfoundations

Preparing for a Career in a Bio-medical FieldBiomedicine offers a large variety of career op-tions for students interested in health and sci-ence. A strong background in basic mathematicsand science is necessary for students who wish toexplore these options.

While grades aren't the only determining factor ingaining admission to undergraduate and graduateschools, they are important and can help studentsobtain college scholarships and financial aid.

Some schcArships and fellowships are availableexclusively to women and minorities. Studentsmight contact college admissions offices and pro-fessional medical organizations for more infor-matio n.

The following recommendations should help stu-dents direct their studies toward biomedicine.

Seco i Wary Education

High school students interested in the biomedicalfields are encouraged to focus on a mathematicsand science curriculum in addition to a well-rounded education.

MathematicsSuggested courses are alge-bra, aeometry, trigonometry, calculus, andstatistics.

SciencesStbdents are advised to select astrong sequential program in science.Courses in biology, chemistry, physics, physi-ology, and zoology will be advantageous.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum areas help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills which enablethem to communicate effectively with patientsand colleagues.

Modern foreign languagesStudents shouldselect a language sequence, preferably inFrench, German, Russian, or Spanish. Lan-guage proficiency is necessary for biomedicalprofessionals who often participate in interna-tional gatherings and follow research advancesreported in foreign journals.

Aaditional course workComputer science:Computer literacy and experience in program-ming will be advantageous as computers be-come more and more integral in biomedicine.Social sciences: Familiarity with the fields suchas sociology, psychology, and anthropology isimportant for scientists concerned with humanlife and health.

-10-

Postsecondary Education

There are many courses of study and combina-tions of degrees available for students of biomedi-cine. Students usually must continue beyond thebachelor's degree in order to secure a positionwith a high degree of responsibility or leadership.

Mathemati:s and science majors shnuid not over-look the importance of general liberal arts studies.Students should take courses in the humanities,particularly in communications, languages, philos-ophy, and writing.

Associate degreeMany one- to two-year al-lied health programs are offered by communityand junior colleges and hospitals. These pro-grams combine classroom and laboratory studywith clinical practice. Graduates receive certifi-cates or associate degrees enabling them toqualify for positions as technicians.

1 6

Bachelor of Science (B.S.)The bachelor'sdegree requires four years of college. Stu-dents interested in positions as technologistsoften complete specialized four-year trainingprograms which require extensive laboratorywork. Students who intend to pursue an ad-vanced degree and who plan to specialize inone area should consider majoring in a basicscience such as biology, chemistry, physics,statistics, or engineering.

Master of Science (M.S.)The master'sdegree requires two to three years of study be-yond the bachelors degree. Specialized grad-uate school programs are comprised of ad-vanced courses, research within an area ofinterest, and completion of a thesis. The mas-ters degree is sufficient for positions in appliedresearch.

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)This degree in-volves three to six years of study beyond thebachelor's degree and doctoral research. Stu-dents must conduct an independent investiga-tion presented in the form of a dissertaticn. Adoctorate is generally required for collegeteaching and independent research.

Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)Minimum educa-tion requirements beyond a bachelor's degreefor prospective physicians include a four-yearprogram of medical education followed by atleast three years of training (residency or in-ternship). Physicians who specialize in a partic-ular area must also qualify for board examina-tions upon completing their residencies.

Outlook and SalariesThe employment outlook for individuals in bio-medical fields is expected to remain favorable.Several factors account for the anticipated growthin biomedical careers and are expected to con-tinue to influence the innovation and direction inthe field. Those factors include

the ongoing advances and continuing de-mand for developments in biomedical engi-neering and computing

the critical importance of laboratory tests inthe diagnosis and treatment of healthproblems

the increasing demand for diagnostic testsdue in part to the increasing number ofhealth insurance plans which include com-prehensive coverage of diagnostic testsand to the growing availability of health in-surance plans for employees

the recent research advances in the areasof genetics and biochemistry and the sub-sequent increases in funding for researchand development in these and other spe-cialized areas

the initiation of legislation focusing on thedangers of exposure to harmful toxins inthe environment

the anticipated population growth and theprojected Increase in elderly patients

the increase in fitness consciousness, par-ticipation in fitness activities, and broaden-ing concern for health improvement

The average salaries and employment projectionsfor some biomedical careers are listed below. Un-less a specific reference notation is given, the sal-ary and employment projections were obtainedfrom the U.S. Department of Labor Statistics Oc-cupational Outlook Handbook, 1986-87 editiun.

Biological scientists

In 1987, the average starting salary offered to abiological scientist with a bachelor's degreew3 $18,132 (College Placemen': Council,March 1987). Many graduates with advanceddegrees and experience earn cwisiderablyhigher salaries.

Due to recent advances in genetic research,the employment outlook for biological scien-tists is expected to increase 11-19 percent,about as fast as average for all occupationsthrou,j1) the 1990s. Advances in biotechnol-ogy should lead to many additional researchjobs. Employment opportunities will be betterfor those with advanced degrees and will varyby speciality. Those who specialize and con-duct research in genetic, cellular, and bio-chemical biology should have the bestopportunities.

ChsmIste

In 1987 the average starting salary offered to achemist with a bachelor's degree was $26,736(College Placement Council, March 1987).Many wit:1 advanced degraes and experienceearn considerably higher salaries in thebiomedical fields.

WhiIe the general growth of jobs in chemistry isexpected to decline through the 1990s, themajority of new job openings will be in biomedi-cal fields.

Medical tec hnolog ists

In 1984 the average salary for medical technol-ogists working in hospitals, medical schools,and medical centers was $18,200. Those withadvanced degrees and experience averaged$23,700. Chief medical technologists em-ployed in hospitals earned an average of$25,300$31,000 in 1985.

The federal government paid medical technoi-ogists an average salary of $14,400, and thosewith a year of graduate study earned $17,800in 1985.

Employment for all clinical laboratory workers isexpected to grow 4-10 percent, more slowlythan the average for all occupations throughthe mid-1990s. Efforts to contain and reducehealth care costs are expected to contributesignificantly to the slowdown in growth. How-ever, medical technologists will still be needed.

Biomedical engineers

Salaries vary significantly according to an indi-vidual's work environment and qualifications.In 1984 the average salary range was$18,500$22,000 for those with a bachelor'sdegree; $22,000$27,000 for those with amaster's degree; and $28,000$42,000 forthose with a doctorate. Highly skilled and ex-perienced engineers with management experi-ence earn considerably more (Swanson 1984).

According to Easton (1986), careers in bio-medical engineering are expected to flourish.While the majority of the approximately 4,500biomedical engineers in 1984 were men, morewomen are gradually entering the field. Thedemand for biomedical engineers exceeds thesupply, and the number of jobs is expected togrow by 25 percent through the early 1990s(Swanson 1984).

Biomedical equipment technicians

In 1984, biomedical equipment technicianswith two-year associate degrees earned an av-erage starting salary of $12,000$16,500.Certified technicians with four years of experi-ence averaged $17,500$23,500. Certifiedtechnicians with advanced experience aver-aged $28,300$36,000 (Swanson 1984).

The demand for biomedical equipment techni-cians is expected to increase through the1990s.

Medical practitioners

In 1984, medical school graduates in residen-cies earned average salaries of $20,000$24,000. Graduates having completed three-year residencies but having no other experi-ence averaged $44,400 in 1985 at VeteransAdministration hospitals.

In 1984, the average income of all physicianswas $i08,400. Employment for health practi-tioners is expected to remain favorablethrough the mid-1990s. However, accordingto the Occupational Outlook Handbook, "themarket is changing as supply overtakes de-mand. The physician shortage identified du-ring the 1960s and early 1970s has vanishedas a result of legislative measures designed toexpand supply."

Despite this trend, the demand for physiciansis expected to continue to grow as the currentpopulation ages.

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For More InformationAssociations and Organizations

American Medical Women's Association, 465Grand St., New York, NY 10002; 212/533-5104.

Association for the Advancement of Medica In-strumentation, 1901 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 602, Arlington, VA 22209-1699.

Biomedical Engineering Center, Ohio StateUniversity, 2015 Neil Ave., Columbus, OH43210; 614/422-6018.

Riomedical Engineering Society, P.O. Box2399, Culver City, CA 90231; 213/206-6443.

National Institutes of Health, Division of PublicInformation, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesaa,MD 20892; 301/496-5787.

National Institutes of Health, National Library ofMedicine, 8600 Rodwille Pike, Bethesda, MD20894; 301/496-6308.

Women in Cell Biology, contact Dr. Aline Lopo,Department of Biological Chemistry, Universityof California School of Medicine, Davis, CA95616; 916/752-3310.

Publications

Easton, Thomas. Careers in Science. Lincoln-wood, Illinois: VGM Career Horizons, a divisionof National Textbook Company, 1986.

18

Eron, Carol. The Fast Track to the Top Jobs inNew Medical Careers. New York: PedigreeBooks, The Putnam Publishing Group, 1984.

Swanson, Barbara. Careers in Health Care.Homewood, Illinois: Dow JonesIrwin, 1984.

ReferencesCollege Placement Council. March 1987. SalarySurvey. Formal Report No. 2.

Easton, Thomas. 1986. Careers in Science. Lin-colnwood, Illinois: VOM Career Horizons.

National Science Foundation. January 1986.Women and Minorities in Science andEngineering.

111113111_

y

A graduate student in neurochemistry examines atissue sample to learn more about the behaviorand function of neurotransmitters in the brain.

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Swanson, Barbara. 1984. Careers in Health Care.Homewood, Illinois: Dow JonesIrwin.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1986. Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook. Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Offices. 1986-87 edition. Bul-letin 2250.

U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesBureau of Health Professions. March 1986. FifthReport to the President and Congress on the Sta-tus of Health Personnel in the United States.

Additional resource materials, programs, andteaching materials on women and science arelisted on pages 75-76.

A biomedical engineer describes a diagnosticprocedure to a patiant.

9

Program 2Chemistry

INOMMOINIMIN,

Program Su.mmaryThe narrator names a variety of products that aretaken for granted in contemporary life, includingplastics, permanent press clothing, jet fuel, tooth-paste, fertilizer, shatter-proof glass, perfume, andlatex paint. Chemists have contributed to the de-velopment of these and countless other essentialand luxury items used on a daily basis in oursociety.

The chemists featured in the program explain howand why chemistry plays an integral part in manykinds of scientific research. Chemistry is often aprincipal factor in the development of technologi-cal advances that transform modern medicine, in-dustry, agriculture, and many other aspects ofsociety.

Chemists work in an enormously diversified field,doing research on products, developing newmedicines, analyzing compounds, teaching, ever;restoring works of art and archaeological finds.

Chemists often work in universities, hospitals,government agencies, private industry, and manyother settings.

The program focuses on six women who havechosen chemistry as a career.


Jeannette Brown, M.S., specializes in inor-ganic chemistry. She works for a private re-search laboratory developing compoundswhich may be used eventually as pharma-ceutical products.

Donna Metzger, M.S., is a forensic chemistwith the Illinois Department of Law Enforce-ment Scientific Services Bureau. She ex-amines evidence in criminal cases.

Karen Morse, Ph.D., heads the Departmentof Chemistry and Biochemistry at Utah StateUniversity. She combines her administra-tive duties with research.

Helen Free, Director of Marketing Servicesat Miles Laboratories, holds a bachelor's de-gree in chemistry and a master's degree inmanagement.

Kristin Peterson and Barbara Ruppel arestudents majoring in chemistry.

The chemists featured in the program often men-tion the satisfaction and excitement of working ina challenging field in which important, life-enhanc-ing discoveries are made frequently. Some ap-preciate the creative nature of chemistry; othersenjoy the variety of tasks involved I:s the!, careers.

The program reviews recommendations for highschool and college preparation for chemistry ca-reers. High school students should develop astrong background in chemistry, physics, andmathematics. College students working toward abachelor's degree in chemistry usually take twoyears of introductory and general college coursework, and then concentrate mainly on advancedchemistry courses and laboratory work. Many stu-dents take advanced degrees, specializing in onearea of chemistry; others go into related fields.

-14-

Did You Know?

Women now comprise an increasingly largerfraction of the chemistry profession. In 1985,15 percent of all members of the AmericanChemical Society working in the U.S. werewomen. In 1980, 10 percent of all ACS mem-bers were women and less than 8 percent in1975 (ACS 1986, 64:17).

In recent years, one-third of all bachelor's de-grees in chemistry were awarded to women, ascompared with less than 20 percent in the1960s and 1970s (ACS 1986, 64:17). In1986, 21 percent of all Ph.D. degrees in chem-istry were awarded to women (ACS 1985,63:30).

Women chemists tend to be markedly youngerand therefore less experienced than their malecounterparts, due to the increasing numbersof women who have recently entered the pro-fession. Nearly 60 percent of women, t ut only30 percent of men, earned their bachelor's de-grees in chemistry less than 15 years ago (ACS1986, 64:26).

20

Before the ProgramYou could choose to conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Chemistry Interest As-sessment on page 18, and then proceed with anintroductory discussion.

1. What types of work might chemistsperform?


3. Look at various objects around the room.Which ones were manufactured with thehelp of chemicals or chemical processes?

4. What kind of person might be a successfulchemist?

After the ProgramPossible answers to the following discussionquestions are in parentheses.

1. Why should a student thinking about a ca-reer in chemistry acquire a strong back-ground in high school mathematics? (Be-cause mathematics skills are required foracceptance into college chemistry pro-grams. Mathematics is essential in chemis-try studies.)

2. What are some of the career options avail-able to chemists? (administration, devel-opment, applied research, basic research,marketing, teaching)

3. Does combining a career in chemistry withmarriage require special effort? (The pro-gram mentions the importance of mutualsupport, shared responsibility, and com-mitment in dual-career marriages.)

4. What characteristics should a chemist pos-sess? (talent for assembling or makingthings, curiosity about how things aremade, patience, good dexterity and hand-eye coordination, perseverance)

5. How might chemistry students gain valu-able work experience while still in school?(internships, co-op experiences, assistingprofessors on research projects, summerjobs in laboratories or hospitals)

6. What kinds of courses are included in anundergraduate chemistry program? (math-

-15-

emetics, chemistry and physics, lan-guages, social sciences, humanities)

7. Why must chemists possess effectivecommunication skills? (Scientific progressoften involves interaction and communica-tion among researchers. Chemists' re-sponsibilities often include written and oralreports and grant writing.)

8. What are some of the appealing aspects ofa career in chemistry? (the opportunity tobe creative, a variety of responsibilities, theopportunity for discovery, the potential tomake important social contributions, thechallenge of problem-solving)

9. What purpose does an advanced degreein chemistry serve? (Advanced degreeslead to jobs that require more expertiseand responsibilfty and offer better salaries.Advanced degrees are also necessary forteaching in colleges or universities. In ad-dition, advanced degrees lead to a varietyof specializations such as forensic chemis-try or toxicology.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local chemistry professionals and stu-

dents to discuss their training and job experi-ences with your class or group.

2. Encourage students to form a chemistry club.Help them make decisions about activities,projects, and speakers.

3. Organize a field trip to a chemistry laboratoryin a hospital, university, or industry, or plan aseries of field trips to several different labora-tory settings.

4. Keep a bulletin board or scrapbook with infor-mation on notable women chemists and onnew advances in chemistry. Share this infor-mation with other classes, counselors, librari-ans, and teachers, and encourage them to beaware of these and other nontraditional careeropportunities for women.

5. Have one student role-play a prospective sci-ence major. Anothsr student can role-play acollege admissions omnselor, adviser, highschool teacher, friend, or parent who is con-sciously or unconsciously discouraging thestudent from pursuing a career in chemistry.Discuss and role-play methods of coping withdirect and subtle discouragement.

21

6. Arrange an activity that enables students totest their skills in forensic chemistry. Presentclues (hair, coat cloth fibers, etc.) to the iden-tity of a "mystery student." (Select a volun-teer beforehand.) Challenge student teamsto use the evidence provided to determinethe identity of the mystery student.

7. Suggest that students role-play a dual-careercouple at home. They should decide howthe cooking and household chores are to bedivided and accomplished.

8. Gather information about science fairs andcompetitions directed toward your elasslevel. Enrourage students to create andsubmit chemistry projects to these competi-tions. Encourage them to collaborate onprojects whenever appropriate.

9. Investigate summer programs, camps, andinstitutes that, might enable students to get ahead start in chemistry studies. Informationon local programs for young scientists maybe available from school boards, collegesand universities, or chemists' associations.

10. Perform an experiment.1 The experimentbelow is designed for inexperienced stu-dents. Develop or choose a more advancedexperiment for chemistry students.

Ask students to test different substances todiscover whether they are acidic, alkaline, orneutral.

Step 1: Ch. .he day before the exp -ment is to be conducted, ask students tobring to class substances such as vine-gar, aawnonia, lemon juice, eyewash(boric acid), drain cleaner, salt, sugar, andvarious brands of shampoo. (Advise stu-

1Experiment provided by Susan McGrath, Huron HighSchool, Ann Arbor, Nil.

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dents to handle drain cleaner or similarsubstances with caution.)

Step 2. Begin by boiling red cabbage indistilled water to obtain a dark, concen-trated liquid that will substitute for litmuspaper.

Step 3. The substances listed in step 1should be poured in equal amounts intoglass dishes or test tubes. (A fixedamount of distilled water should be addedto the dry substances and the shampoosto create similar consistencies.)

Step 4. Students should add the samenumber of cabbage solution drops toeach of the different substances. Thenumber of drops added will depend onthe concentration of the cabbage solu-tion. Two or three drops may be suffi-cient, but more may be necessary tocause a change. The resulting colorchanges in liquids will range from brightred (acidic substances) to purple (neutralsubstances); brownish green to brightgreen and yellow (alkaline substances).

Step 5. An optional step would be tocompare the color of the resulting liquidswith a graded series of buffer (stabilized)solutions which can be purchased fairlyinexpensively from chemical supplycompanies.

t 1. Celebrate National Chemistry Day on Novem-ber 6. The American Chemical Society has182 local sections, many of which sponsorspecial programs, exhibits, and other eventsfor students. ACS local sections often dis-tribute videotapes and other educational ma-terials to schools.

2 2


Occupation:

Education:

Awards andhonors:

Professionalservice:

Outstanding Women in Science: Chemistry

Director of Corporate Research &Analytical Sciences at the StandardOil Company, Cleveland, Ohio.

Ph.D., Chemistry, Ohio University,1950.

Coblentz Society, Williams-WrightAward, 1980; Society for AppliedSpectroscopy, Distinguished Ser-vice Award, 1983; American Chem-ical Society, Garvan Medal, 1986.

President, Society for AppliedSpectroscopy; Editorial BoardMember, Applied SpectroscopyReviews; Founding Member, Fed-eration of Analytical Chemistry andSpectroscopy Societies; Chairman,Board of Assessment, NationalMeasurement Laboratories, Na-tional Bureau of Standards.

Jeanette G.Grasselli

When Dr. Grasselli first expressed an interest in chemistry, her parents were not certain she would be ableto "develop a career in that field." A supportive high school chemistry teacher encouraged her to pursueher interests and helped her obtain a scholarship to Ohio University, where she received a Ph.D. in chem-istry in 1950.

Dr. Grasse Ili began her 37-year career at Standard Oil of Ohio at a time when many employers were reluc-tant to hire women because they were perceived as likely to retire after only a few years to raise families.She now holds the highest position of any woman at Standard Oil and directs a research staff of 300.

Dr. Grasse Hi is a recognized authority on the chemical applications of spectroscopy, a method of analysisthat enables chemists and other scientists to study the chemical compositions of substances by analyzingtheir spectra (the amount and quality of light emitted). She pioneered the use of infrared spectroscopy inthe petroleum industry, applying it to the development of new petroleum products and plastics. She wasone of the first scientists to use computers to interpret infrared spectra.

Dr. Grasse Ili believes young women entering chemistry today will find increased opportunities and moresupportive environments in which to work.

But she also advises that chemistry requires dedication, a commitment to studying, and often the willing-ness to work more than eight-hour days. "I believe the real key to success is demanding excellence fromyourself and others," she says. "This means applying every skill you have in the most dedicated way."

Young women who wish to succeed in the sciences, advises Dr. Grasse Ili, "must enter with their eyesopen, be willing to work hard, and have confidence that they can make it."

-17- 23

Chemistry Interest Assessment

The following questions reflect some of the common interests of chemistry professionals. If you answeryes to many of these questions, you might want to consider a career in chemistry.

1. Have you ever owned a chemistry set or takenchemistry? Do you find it interesting to spendtime finding out how chemicals react underdifferent conditions?

Yes No

2. Do you like mathematics?

Yes No

Science?

Yes No

3. Do you enjoy keeping records? Have youever kept a diary or joumal?

Yes No

4. Do you like memory games?

Yes No

5. Do you ask 'Why?" often?

Yes No

6. Have you ever collected objects such asrocks or shells and tried to identify and cate-gorize them?

Yes No

7. Do you like to work with your hands?

Yes No

8. When a problem is difficult to solve, do youusually stick with it until you've found asolution?

Yes No

9. Do you like jobs that involve sorting? For ex-ample, would you enjoy separating a groupof coins or stamps into different categories?

Yes No

10. Do you sometimes think of new ideas thatmight never have occurred to anyone else?

Yes No

11. Do you like team sports?

Yes No

12. Do you ever try to predict the weather?

Yes No

13. Do you ever wonder how a microwave oven,stereo, television, or radio work?

Yes No

-18-

Career Options in Chemist.tyA degree in chemistry can lead to a vast array ofcareer options. Listed below are some commonareas of specialization for chemists.

Analytical chemists are concerned with the struc-ture, composition, and nature of substances.They often develop new techniques for analyzingsubstances. Analytical chemists frequently workto identify specific chemicals in an environment.For example, they might identify the presence ofspecific airborne pollutants and determine theirsources in an effort to reduce air polk.tion.

Biochemists combine expertise in biology andchemistry to atudy the complex chemical combi-nations and reactions involved in metabolism, re-production, growth, and heredity.

Inorganic chemists study the nature and structureof all k:ompounds that are not hydrocarbons ortheir derivatives. They often research and work todevelop electronic components such assemiconductors.2

Organic chemists study the nature and structureof carbon compounds. They frequently work todevelop commercial products such as drugs, plas-tics, and fertilizers.

Physical chemists are concerned with the physicalcharacteristics of atoms and molecules and withthe nature of chemical reactions.

General Career AreasApplied chemistryA chemist might work in fo-rensics, environmental control, customs labs, oc-cupational safety, health administraticn, or stan-dards control.

IndustryIndustrial chemists are usually involvedin the development or improvement of products.Some work in marketing or corporatemanagement.

ResearchResearch chemists ask questionsabout the substances that make up the environ-ment. They work in a variety of settings, develop-ing new matenals, studying compounds, improv-ing products, and controlling qua*I. in all types ofmanufacturing operations. Chem stry research

2Semiconductors are materials that conduct electric-ity, such as germanium and silicon. They are fre-quently used in electronic devices and solar batteries.

can be highly specific to a particular problem orproduct, or more general, depending upon theyork setting.

TeachingMany chemists teach chemistry andrelated sciences at the secondary and postsecon-dary levels. Chemists in universities usually com-bine teaching with research.

Other optionsMuseums, insurance companies,and banks often employ chemists. Chemists canalso combine their degrees with other kinds of ad-vanced training or research to build careers in law,engineering, and other fields.

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Preparing for a Career in ChemistrySecondary Education

MathematicsSuggested courses: algebra,geometry trigonometry, calculus, statistics.

SciencesStudents should tge as manychemistry courses as possible. Physicscourses are also strongly recommended.Other suggestions include biology, botany,physiology, and zoology.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum areas help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills that enablethem to communicee effectively.

Modern foreign languagesStudents shouldselect a language sequence, preferably inFrench, German, Russian, or Spanish. Lan-guage proficiency is necessary for chemists,who often participate in international gather-ings and follow research advances reported inforeign journals.

Additional course workComputer science:Computer literacy and experience in program-ming will be advantageous as computers be-come more and more integral in scientific re-search. Social sciences: Familianty with fieldssuch as anthropoiogy, psychology, and sociol-ogy is important for scientists concerned withhuman life ;Ind health. Typing Most chemistsmust be proficient with computer keyboards.Electronics and shop courses: Many chemistsmust build and maintain the special equipmentthey use in their research.


The rapid advancement of a variety of technolo-gies is certain to influence the way future chem-ists are trained. Current trends suggest thatfuture college chemistry curriculums wiil be more

25

interdisciplinary in an effort to prepare studentsfor the new multi-disciplinary high-technology re-search. Chemistry graduates with expertise in thebiological and materials sciences will be in particu-larly high demand (ACS 1987, 65:43).

Bachelor of Science (B.S.)During a four-yearundergraduate program in chemistry, a studentwill become familiar with the different branchesof chemistry and will also study mathematics,physics, foreign language, and selected sub-jects in the humanities and social sciences.

During their junior and senior years, chemistrystudents typically concentrate on specializedcourses in biochemistry, physical chemistry, or-ganic chemistry, and inorganic chemistry.

Student research is an important part of under-graduate study in chemistry. Throunh re-search, students learn to apply the principlesof chemistry and experience the work thatchemists actually perform. Students shouldta'ee advantage of opportunities to conduct orparticipate in research as early as possible.

A bachelor's degree in chemistry Is usually suf-ficient for entry-level positions. Many araJu-ates enter sales, marketing, technical writing.health professions, and engineering.

Combined degree programs: chemistry andengineering-1n addition to a B.S. degree inchemistry, some universities offer a combina-tion B.S. ano chemical engineering degree.The joint degree usuay requires five years tocomplete.

Master of Scionce (M.S.)Students canchoose from a wide range of graduate pro-grams in chemistry. Graduate work can be un-dertaken in any of the various specializations.

Chemists with master's degrees can usuallyteach in two-year colleges or wort in private in-dustry as technicians and managers.

A Ph.D. is usually required for basic research,four-year college faculry positions, and admini-strative positions such as directors, senior sci-entists, vice presidents, and presidents.

Other fieldsStudents with undergraduatedegrees in chemistry may choose to undertanegraduate work in related areas such as envirmental science, biological sciences, toxioul-ogy, pharmacy, astrophysics, medicine, orpublic health.

A background in chemistry con also be com-bined with graduate study in unrelated fields.For example, a student might combine a B.S.In chemistry with a graduate degree in law in

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order to specialize in environmental or patentlaw.

Outlook and SalariesUnless otherwise specified, the follewirrg trendsand statistics were compiled from publications ofthe American Chemical Society.

Emplophent of chemists is expected togrow at a rate of 4-10 percent through themid-1990s, more slowiy than the averagefor all oceupations, according to the U.S.Bureau of Labor Statistics (1986). TheAmerican Chemical Seciety (1986, 84:26)attributes a significant reduction in growthto cutbacks and budget-tightening mea-sures in the U.S. chemical industry.

The slowdown in growth has not had a ma-jor effect on the overall economic well-be-ing of chemists. Salaries, especially forchemists with Ph.D.s, are continuing to in-crease (ACS 1986, 64:28).

Demand for chemists was up slightly in theU.S. chemical industry during the first partof 1987, reversing a declining trend thatpersisted ;rom 1984-1986. In March 1987only 1.1 percent of chemists were unem-ployed, representing the lowest number ofunemployed since 1981 (ACS 1987,65:43).

Most jobs fur chemists be located in pri-vate industry, primarily in product develop-ment. Advances in high technoiogy fieldssuch as computers, composites, supercon-ductors, biesensors, drug desion, and bio-technology are expected to increase thedemarei for research chemists with muiredisciplinary trainina and expertise (ACS1987, 65:43).

Organic chemists and biochemists ware inhighest demand at the September 1987ACS National Employment Clearmg 1-i01.1;:e(ACS 1987, 65:43).

There are a growing number of vacancies inacademic chemistry departments in col-leges and universities across the U.S. Astudy conducted by the National ScienceFoundation concluded that facury po-sitions are increasingly difficult to fill be-cause industry salaries are usually more at-tractive. Difficulty in securing funding toperform research is another possible factorin the decline of academic chemists (ACS1987, 65:43).

26

z

The following chart, compiled from a Na-tional Science Foundation report (1986) onwomen and minorities in science, indicatesa 3 percent increaf,e in the number of em-ployed women cnernists between 1976and 1984.

Number of Employed Chemists by Se=1976 and 1984

Total In 1976

132,800

Total In 1984

168,600

Men

119,100

Men

146,300

Women

13,700

Women

22,300

While women comprise an increasinglylarger portion of all chenists, the field is stilldominated by white males. In 1985, nemthan three-fourths of all American ChemicalSociety members were male and white(64:17).

According to a College Placement Councilinterim salary survey (March 1987), recentcollege graduates with B.S. degrees inchemistry can expect to make an averagebeginning salary of $26,700. Recent grad-uates with Ph.D. degrees can expect tomake $33,200.

Salaries for chemists are attractive, espe-cially in private industry. In 1987 the high-est average salaries ($42,300) were offeredto chemists with B.S. degrees in the petro-leum and plastics industries. The highestaverage salaries for chemists with Ph.D.swere offered in the following industries (indescending order): petroleum and naturalgas, soaps and detergents, basic chemi-cals, pharmaceuticals, and electronics (ACS1987, 65:43).

Chemists earn more or less depending ontheir work settings. In 1987, a chemist witha Ph.D. earned a mean salary of $55,700 inindustry, $50,200 in government agencies,and $41,300 in universities and colleges(ACS 1987. 65:43).

Women are less likely to hold managementpositions and more likely to specialize inlower-paying areas (ACS 1986, 64:17).

-21-

While women chemists entering the jobmarket in the late 1970s and early 1980stended to earn more than comparable menchemists, recent surveys show that inex-perienced men chemists at all degree levelsnow earn more than comparable womenchemists (ACS 1987, 65:43).

A study of median annual salaries con-ducted by the American Chemical Societyin 1987 showed that women chemists withB.S. degrees earn 3 percent less than com-parable rren. Women chemists with M.S.degrees earn 2 percent less, and thosewith Ph 9. degrees earn 5 percent lessthan comparable men. The salary gap risesaccording to years of experience, due inpart to the fact that women are less likely tobe managers than men (ACS 1987, 65:43).

For More InformationAssociations and organizations

American Chemical Society, Department ofEducational Activities, 1155 16th St. N.W.,Washington, DC 20036; 202/872-4600.

American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017; 212/705-7660.

Chemical Institute of Canada, 151 Slater St.,Ste. 906 Ottawa, ON K1P 5H3; 613/233-5623.

Council for Chemical Research, P.O. Box AJ,Allentown, PA 18106; 215/395-4550.

Women Chemists' Committee, AmericanChemical Society, 1156 16th St. N.W., Wash-ington, DC 20036; 202/872-4456.

Chemical companies

Colgate-Palmolive Company, Technical Infor-mation Center, 909 River Rd., Piscataway, NJ08854; 201/878-7574.

Eli Lilly and Co., Scientific Library, filly Corpo-rate Center, Indianapolis, IN 46285; 31 7-261-4030.

Directories of professional associations

Eqcyclopedia of Associations. Denise Akey,editor. Detroit: Gale Research Company (up-dated biennially).

National Trade and Professional Associationsof the United States and Canada and Labor

2 7

Washington, DC: Columbia Books,Inc.

Other resources

Younger Chemists: In Transition. A film avail-able from the American Chemical Society, De-partment of Educational Activities, 1155 16thSt. N.W., Washington, DC 20036; 2021872-4600.

ReferencesAmerican Chemical Society. 1987. 1988 Em-ployment Outlook. Chemical and EngineeringNews 65:43.

. 1986. Survey Data Probe Status ofChemists. Chemical and Engineering News64:17.

-4_

1986. Unemployment Slightly Higher forChemists in the Past Year. Chemical and Engi-neering News 6426.

1965. Chemical and Engineering News63:30-25.

National Science Foundation. January 1986.Women and Minorities in Science and Engineer-ing. Washington, DC.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986. Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Offices. 1986-87 edition. Bul-letin 2250.


Chemistry graduate students prepare a Time of Flight (TOF) laser ionization mass spectrometer to analyzethe masses of chemical compounds.

-22- 28

Program 3Computer Science

Program SiimmaryThe narrator explains that computers have be-come indispensable tools for processing andmanaging information, findino solutions to prob-lems, making predictions, and generating designsin many fields. Computers have created an explo-sion of new career opportunities, and large num-bers of women are taking advantage of them.

The program features computer scientists work-ing in a variety of settings and illustrates the diver-sity of careers available to those with educationand training in computer science.

Some computer scientists program computers toperform specific tasks, some analyze complexdata, some perform research to advance the de-velopment of artificial intelligence.' Others usecomputers to make models of natural systemssuch as the upper atmosphere.

The program focuses on seven women who havechosen computer science as a career.


Bonnie Hausman, B.S., is a scientific pro-grammer with the National Oceanic and At-mospheric Administration.

Linda Benson, B.S., is a systems analystwith the Wells Fargo Bank.

Sharon Schmidt, a data processing coordi-nator for the NCR Corporation, specializesin sales of computer systems to banks. Sheholds a bachelors degree in mathematicsand a master's degree in businessadministration.

Dianne Lyons owns and managesData Skills, a school for home-computereducation. She holds a masters degree inmathematics.

Pat Cole, a software manager and computergraphics expert, works for a special pro-

1Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer sciencedevoted to researching ways to design "intelligent"computers with the capacity to pei.orm tasks such asreasoning, adapting to new situations, and learningnew skills.

grams group at Atari, Inc. She holds amasters degree in applied science and hascontributed to film projects such as StarTrek II: The Wrath of Khan and SupermanIII.

Elaine Kant, Ph.D., teaches and conductsresearch concerning computers and ar-tificial intelligence at Carnegie MellonUniversity.

Ellen Scott is a senior majoring in computerscience at Michigan State University.

The women featured in the program often men-tion the satisfaction they derive from solving bothbig and little problems in the course of their workwith computers. Many also mention the challeng-ing and creative aspects of their careers.

The program explains that many college gradu-ates with bachelors degrees begin their careersas computer programmers and are promoted tosystems analyst positions. Some computer scien-tists work for large firms and eventually take posi-tions in management or sales. Others conduct re-search in universities, businesses, or governmentinstitutions.

Most successful computer scientists possessintelligence, creativity, strong logical thinkingskills, and good preparation in science andmathematics.

The program reviews recommendations for highschool and college Fqparation for computer sci-ence careers. High school students interested incomputer science should begin with courses inscience and should plan to take at least threeyears of mathematics. High school computer sci-ence courses are also strongly recommended.

Did You Know?In 1985, 36.9 percent of all bachelors degreesin computer science were awarded to women,as compared to 18.9 percent in 1975 (NationalScience Foundation 1988).

According to a 1986 survey of approximately1,700 data processing companies, 18 percentof all programmers and systems analysts em-

-23- p9

ployed by the companies were women, ascompared to 13 percent in 1978. The medianage for women programmers and systems ana-lysts was 36, as compared to 39 for men, sug-gesting that the majority of women have en-tered the field more recently (Datamation1987, 33:6).

Before the ProgramYou could choose t7: conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Computer Science In-terest Assessment on page 27, and then pro-ceed with an introductory discussion.

1. What type of work might a computer scien-tist perform?


3. Where might a computer scientist work?

4. What kind of person might be a successfulcomputer scientist?


1. What are some common job titles of com-puter scientists? (data processing coordi-nator, programmer, professor, researcher,software manager, systems analyst)

2. What kind of person might be attracted to acareer in computer science? (people whoare bright, inquisitive, and creative; peoplewho are able to think logically and who en-joy problem solving; personable, articulatepeople who are willing to adapt to newsituations)

3. What is the main task of a computer scien-tist? (Information control: computer scien-tists use computers to organize and man-age complex systems of information.)

4. How does the work of a systems analystdater from thr... or a programmer? (A sys-tems analyst designs systems that dictatehow computers will store and retrieve infor-mation. A programmer translates the ana-lyst's designs into step-by-step instruc-tions for the corrputer. In designing aninventory control system, for example, a

-24-

systems analyst would determine whatdata should be collected, what hardware2should be used, and what software3should be used or developed.)

5. What kinds of high school courses wouldbest prepare a student for entry into a col-lege program in computer science?(Courses in science, social studies, En-glish, foreign languages, and communica-tions are strongly recommended.)

6. Why might it be sensible for a college stu-dent who had not yet decided on a careergoal to major in computer science? (Thecurrent computer revolution will affectnearly every field, making computer sci-ence a good foundation for many careers.)

7. What kind of work schedule might a com-puter scientist expect? (Computer scien-tists usually work regular office hours.Some are called on to attend to computerproblems whenever they occur. Otherswork according to their own schedules.)

8. What kinds of information-processing tasksmight computers perform? (Computerscan be applied to design tasks such asgenerating graphics for movie and videogame animation. Computer-Aided Design(CAD) is a design method often used byengineers to transform designs into simu-lated three-dimensional models. In Com-puter-Aided Manufacturing (CAM), thesemodels can serve as guides to robots andother computer-controlled mechanismsused in manufacturing.)

9. Why is a good mathematics backgroundhelpful to a computer scientist? (Mathe-matics provides training in logical thinking.Mathematical problems are often assignedin programming courses. Computer scien-tists often work with mathematical databases and apply mathematics in designingdata processing systems.)

2In computer terminology, hardware re!ers to elec-tronic or mechanical devices, such as monitors, key-boards, hard disks, and printers, used in dataprocessing.

3Software refers to detailed instructions or programswritten in computer languages, which enable comput-ers to organize and manipulate data in a logical anduseful way.

30

10. Why might computer science be an ap-pealing career choice for women who areplanning marriage and children? (Somecomputer science careers allow flexibility inwork schedules. Many computer sciencecareers, although demanding, pay highsalaries which enable dual-career couplesto afford domestic assistance and childcare.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local computer science professionals

and students to discuss their training andcareers.

2. Encourage high school students to join theirschool chapter of JETS, INC. (Junior Engi-neering Technical Society). If the school hasno JETS, INC. chapter, help students orga-nize one. The society encourages studentsto explore engineering and applied sciencethrough project wort< and activities. Chaptersoperate in high schools, under the guidanceof a teacher. Practicing engineers serve asvolunteer technical advisers. For more infor-mation, contact the United Engineering Cen-ter, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017;212/705-7690.

3. Organize field trips to places where computerscientists work. (computer hardware or soft-ware companies, businesses, universities,hosp it als)

4. Take a trip to a local computer store. Stu-dents should be prepared to ask informedquestions about memory capacity, keyboarddesign and function, number and types of ap-plications, hardware components, displayterminal features, computer languages, andinterfacing capacities.

5. Have students think of ways in which com-puters could help them at home with theirdaily activities.

6. Ask students to figure out how a computer-aided mechanism such as a robot might bedesigned and programmed.

7. Arrange for students to play chess against acomputer.

8. Suggest that students role-play a womancomputer scientist and her husband as theydecide how the household chores and child-care responsibilities are to be divided andaccomplished.

9. Have one student role-play a prospective sci-ence major. Another student can role-play acollege admissions counselor, adviser, highschool teacher, friend, or parent who isconsciously or unconsciously discouragingthe student from pursuing a career incomputer science. Discuss and role-playmethods of coping with direct and subtlediscouragement.

10. Investigate summer programs that allow stu-dents to get a head start in computer sciencetraining. Information on such programs mightbe available from local school boards, nearbyuniversities, or computer science associ-ations.

11. Have students bring to class help-wantednewspaper ads for computer science ca-reers. Discuss the qualifications required,the types of jobs described, and the salaryrange offered. Have students write to thepersonnel departments of leading data pro-cessing companies to learn more about com-puter science jobs in business. A list of lead-ing U.S. data processing companies is onpage 31.

12. Keep a bulletin board or scrapbook with in-formation on women in oomputer sciencecareers.

13. Check the library or bookstore for recent arti-cles, magazines, and books on computertopics. Some suggested computer maga-zines include; Byte, Computer World, Data-mation, Info World, Personal Computing, PCWorld, and Mac Wolk/.


Outstanding Women in Science: Computer Science

Sara A. Sty

Occupation:

Educatio n:

Professionalservice:

Member of the Research Staff atXerox Palo Alto Research Center,Palo Alto, California.

Ph.D., Computer Science, Univer-sity of California, Davis.

Treasurer, 1988-90, and ViceChair, 1983-84, Association forComputing Machinery (ACM), Spe-cial Interest Group on ComputerGraphics; Secretary, 1988-90,ACM.

Dr. Bly and I r colleagues are researching ways in which technologies such as video can help make com-puters more efficient and more supportive of people who use them. Her research focuses on improvinguser interfacesthe part of a computer program users actually see and interact with while working.

She and other members of the System Concepts Laboratory at Xerox PARC have worked on a number ofprojects linking video and computers. One such project included an experiment designed to explorewhether workers in distant offices could see each other, talk, and collaborate effectively on a daily basis.Through a complex network of computers, cameras, and microphones, her woup shared ideas, heldmeetings, and even "ate lunch" with another group of researchers in Portland, Oregon.

As a sophomore, Dr. Bly had decided to major in education until a supportive professor encouraged her totake a degree in mathematics. After graduating in 1968, she pursued her interest in education, com-pleted a master's degree, and taught high school mathematics for several years. "Then I decided it wastime to try something different," she says. "Having a math degree meant I had options."

In 1972 she accepted a position at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), where she workedpart time and developed an interest in computer programming. She completed her master's degree anddoctorate in computer science while continuing to work at LLNL, where she supervised a team designinga computer graphics simulation system for tactical defense planning.

Dr. Bly cautions young women who have not yet made a career choice: "Don't make a decision now thatwill narrow your options later. Take all the math and science you need to keep your options open," she ad-vises. "Build your confidence by participating in activities that develop your talents and make you feelgood about yourself. Find a role model whom you admire. If someone tries to discourage you, remember:never depend on just one person's perception of the world."

Computer Science Interest Assessment

The following questions reflect some of the common interests of computer science professiohals. If youanswer yes to many of these questions, you might want to consider a career in computer science.

1. Do you look for logical explanations t o 9. Before starting a new task, do you like to planquestions? how you're going to accomplish it?

Yes No Yes No

2. Do you want to learn more about how com- 10. Do you enjoy using your imagination to cre-puters work? ate new things?

Yes No Yes No

3. Do you enjoy meeting challenges?

Yes No

4. When working on a complicated problem, doyou often pay attention to detail in figuring outthe solutiun?

Yes No

5. Would you enjoy working with a team?

Yes No

6. Do you like putting jigsaw puzzles together?

Yes No

7. When a problem is difficult to solve, do youusually stick with It until you've found theanswer?

Yes No

8. Are logic games such as bridge and chessappealing to you?

Yes No

A...

,.

Using a computer to solve a mathematics problemgives these students hands-on experience andhelps them see how computers are applied inmany different fields.

-27- 3 3

Career Options in ComputerScienceA professional in computer science can choosefrom a number of career options. The followingrepresent some of the most common computerscience careen; (Career Associates 1985).

Computer programmers are employed in busi-ness, heatth care; government, universities, andmany other settings. Programmers write pro-grams that enable computers to perform complexoperations. For example, a programmer mightwrite a program that would enable a large univer-sity to retrieve information about its students byname, academic year, grade point, address, andsex.

Programmers are usually divided into two generalcategories. Systems programmers work to pre-pare computers for the general kinds of functionsthey will perform in a specific work setting such asa bank or a laboratory. They work with low-levelcomputer languages called assembly languages.Applications programmers prepare computers toperform specific tasks for business or scientific ap-plications using high-level computer languagessuch as Cobol or Fortran. In general, systems pro-gramming is considered to be more technical thanapplications programming, and salaries are gener-ally higher.

A bachelor's degree is usually required for pro-gramming positions, and many employers requirea graduate degree. Some programmers aretrained in business but have taken specialcourses to supplement their skills.

Employers in science and engineering preferprogrammers with degrees and experience incomputer or information science, mathematics,engineering, or physical sciences. Business em-ployers prefer experience in accounting, inven-tory control, and other business skills (U.S. Bur-eau of Labor Statistics 1986).

Systems analysts design complex systems of in-formation management. For example, a systemsanalyst working to design an inventory controlsystem for a large retail business would need todecide what types of data should be collected,processed, and reported. Working closely withthe business managers to determine their specificneeds, the systems analyst would decide whattype of computer system would best addressthese needs and then work with computer pro-grammers to develop and install the computerhardware and software.

Most systems analysts work in manufacturing,government agencies, banks, insurance com-panies, and data processing firms (U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics 1986).

Most analysts have at least a bachelor's degree,and many employers require graduate degrees.Most analysts have worked as programmers, engi-neers, or managers before advancing to theirpresent lobs.

Data telecommunications -epecialists work withnetworks of computers, designing ways to trans-mit data from computer to computer through a va-riety of telecommunications technologies. Theyoften install and maintain special communicationshardware and software.

Technical support representatives, also calledsystems engineers, are usually experts in a partic-ular line or brand of computers. They are oftenemployed by computer companies and manufac-turers to assist customers with problems andquestions.

Electronic data processing auditors, usually calledEDP auditors, often work in the finance or audit-ing departments of large corporations. They mon-itor, evaluate, and generally oversee large com-puter operations. Some EDP auditors work forprofessional accounting firms.

Documentation specialists translate the technicalcomputer terminology used by programmers, ana-lysts, and software developers into a simpler lan-guage for computer users. They write manualsdescribing the designs and functions of softwareand hardware, so that nonexpert computer userscan use programs and equipment more quicklyand efficiently.

-28-

General Career AreasBusiness management and salesComputer sci-ence graduates often work in business. Theymight work for computer corporations that de-velop or manufacture computer software andhardware or in any business in which computersplay an integral role.

Teaching and researchSo me graduateschoose academic environments. Computer sci-entists in universities generally combine teachingand research.

Research is also carried out in hospitals and clin-ics. As biotechnology advances, health care pro-viders rely increasingly on computers and com-puter specialists.

3 4

Teaching opportunities are also available in corpo-rations and in the armed services. Corporations,industry, and government institutions also employcomputer scientists to conduct applied research.

ConsultingConsultants work in business, edu-cation, government, health care, and industry,wherever people use computers extensively andneed advice or training.

Future optIonsComputer professionals are ex-pected to be in demand in many areas as morecomplex computer applications develop in manyfields. Future computer scientists will find jobopportunities in

education, as educators incorporate morecomputers into schools

medicine, as doctors utilize computer-aideddiagnostic programs and as hospitals, clin-ics, and laboratories rely more on comput-ers to store and retrieve information

fitness and recreation, as fitness specialistsincreasingly apply computer technology tothe task of monitoring the human body dur-ing exercise and sports performance

financial Institutions and retail outlets, asthey advance in their development of com-puterized services for customers

engineering, as researchers develop moreand more complex robotics systems for usein industry and other fields. Computer andsoftware engineering are two rapidly grow-ing fields with joh opportunities for thosetrained in engineering and computer sci-ence. Software engineers are expected tobe in particularly high demand through themid-1990s (Revell 1985).

Preparing for a Career in ComputerScienceSecondary Education

MathematicsBecause formal logic is impor-tant in computer science, students should ac-quire a strong background in mathematics.Suggested courses: algebra, geometry, trigo-nometry, calculus, statistics.

SciencesHigh school science courses helpstudents develop the background they needto combine their knowledge of physical ormedical science with computer science in a fu-ture career. Recommended courses: chemis-try, physics, biology, physiology, and zoology.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum areas help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills that enablethem to communicate effectively.

Modem foreign languagesStudents shouldselect a language sequence, preferably inFrench, German, Russian, or Spanish. Lan-guage proficiency is necessary for computerscientists, who often participate in internationalgatherings and follow research advances re-ported in foreign journals.

Additional course work--Social sciences:Familiarity with the fields of anthropology, psy-chology, and sociology is important for scien-tists concerned with human life and society.Philosophy. Because logic and symbolic logicare integral to cunputer science and mathe-matics, philosophy is an important discipline forcomputer scientists. Introductory course workin philosophy will help prepare students to takehigher level philosophy courses required incollege.


Bachelor of Science (B.S.)Undergraduatesmajoring in computer science at most collegesand universities will be required to takecourses in mathematics, natural and social sci-ences, logic and symbolic logic, statistics, hu-manities, and communications. Courses withinthe undergraduate major might include artificialintelligence, computer graphics, computer lan-guages, data base systems, digital computerengineering, operating systems, software, andothers.

Combined degreesStudents interested incomputers can choose to follow a programwhich combines computer science withanother area of study. A double major in com-puter science and mathematics or statistics isconsidered highly useful in business, science,and many other fields.

Computer Information Systems (CiS)Thecomputer information systems degree is usu-ally offered by business schools. CIS focuseson commercial applications of data processingsystems.

Master of Science (M.S.) and Doctor of Philos-ophy (Ph.D.)Students who wish to pursuegraduate study in computer science have sev-eral options. Programs in computer engineer-ing include advanced study in computer hard-ware and applications. Operations research,which deals with problems such as optimizingthe efficiency of a complex computer informa-

35

tion network, is another option for graduatestudy.

A graduate degreeusually a Ph.D.is nec-essary for college teaching and research andfor many nonacademic computer sciencepositions.

Outlook and SalariesWhile the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics pro-jects that employment of programmers andsystems analysts will grow more than 30 per-cent (much faster than the average for all occu-pations) through the mid-1990s, the CollegePlacement Council (July 1986) reported aslowdown in the number of offers made tocomputer science majors between 1985 and1986. Changing economic trends and rapidadvances in computer technology may createfkIctuations in employment opportunities forcomputer scientists

Hking slowdowns were also evident in a 1987review of 100 leading U.S. dais. nrocessing-ori-ented companies. The survey, conducted bybatamation magazine (1987, 33:12), revealedthat by the end of 1986 the leading companiesemployed a total of 6.63 million people, about13,000 less than in 1985.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook (1986-87) projectsthe following trends in computer scienceemployment.

Employment opportunities will be mostnumerous for college graduates who are fa-miliar with several programming languages.Knowledge of newer languages that applyto computer networks and data base man-agement are most in demand.

Field experience through work-study or in-ternship programs in applied fields such asaccounting, management, engineeriog, orscience will help college graduates secureentry-level jobs.

Graduates c": two-year programs in data pro-cessing and those with less training andwork experience will find more competitionin the job market.

According to ...i College Placement Council in-terim salary survey (March 1987), the averagebeginning monthly salary offered to coilegegraduates with bachelors degrees in computerscience was $2,162, an average annual salary

iiihr,a5gdyithia.lwfiasi---

of $25,900. Graduates with master's degreeswere offered an average beginning monthlysalary of $2,767, an average annual salary of$33,200.

Average starting salaries for computer sciencegraduates increased 15 percent during themid-1980s and are expected to continue to in-crease sharply according to research con-ducted by the Commission on Professionals inScience and Technology. The commissionpredicts shortages of computer scientists inthe 1990s due to declining undergraduate en-rollment in computer courses nationwide.

A 1987 survey of 595 data processing firmsconducted by Infosystems magazine revealedthat the highest salaries in computer sciencefields are earned by presidents and vice presi-dents of large data processing-oriented com-panies. Many earn salaries of $100,000 ormore. The second-highest salaries are earnedby data telecommunications specialists andmanagers. The survey also indicates that sala-ries of data telecommunications specialists arecontinuing to rise, indicating high demand.

Computer scientists working in large data pro-cessing companies can earn up to $5,000more annually than those working for smallercompanies. Those working in utilities and gov-ernment institutions also rank well on the salaryscale. Computer scientists working in collegesand universities are generally paid less thanmost in the field (Datamation 1987, 3...5).

-30-

For More InformationAssociations and organizations

American Federation of Information Process-ing Societies, 1899 Preston White Dr., Res-ton, VA 22091; 5161757-5664.

American Society for Information Science,1010 16th St. N.W., 2nd Floor, Washington,DC 20036; 202/653-3644.

Association for Computing Machinery, 11 W.42nd St., 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10036;212/869-7440.

Association for Women in Computing, 407 Hill-moor Dr., Silver spring, MD 20901; contact:Nancy Mae Bonney.

Association for Systems Management, 24587Bagley Rd., Cleveland, OH 44138; 216/243-6900.

R6

Computer Society-IEEE (International ofElectrical and Electronics Engineers), 1109Spring St., Ste. 300, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

Data Processing Management Association,505 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, III 60068; 312/825-8124.

Women in Information Processing, 1000 Con-necticut Ave. N.W., Ste. 9, Washington, DC20036; 202/328-6161.

U.S. data processing companies

The following companies were the leading tenU.S. data processing companies in 1986 (Datama-tion 1987, 33:12).

1. International Business Machines (IBM), OldOrchard Road, Armonk, NY 10504; 914/765-1900.

2. Unisys Corp., One Unisys Place, Detroit,MI 48232; 313/972-7000.

3. Digital Equipment, 146 Main St., Maynard,MA 01754; 617/897-5111.

4. Hewlett-Packard Co., 3000 Hanover St.,Palo Alto, CA 94304; 415/857-1501.

5. NCR Corp., 1700 S. Patterson Blvd., Day-ton OH 45479; 513/445-5000.

6. Control Data Corp., 8100 34th Ave. S.,Bloomington, MN 55420; 612/853-8100.

7. Wang Laboratories Inc., 1 industrial Ave.,Lowell, MA 01851; 617/459-5000.

8. Xerox, P.O. Box 1600, Stamford, CT06904; 203/329-8700.

9. AT&T Co., 550 Madison Ave., New York,NY 10022; 212/605-5500.

10. Apple Computer Inc., 20525 Mariani Ave.,Cupertino, CA 95014; 408/996-1010.

ReferencesCareer Associates. 1985. Career Choices forStudents of Computer Science. New York:Walker and Company.

College Placement Council, March 1987. SalarySurvey. Formal Report No.2.

July 198t. CPC Salary Survey: A Studyof 1985-86 Beginning Offers. Formal Report No.3.

Datamation. 1987, 33:12. The Datamation 100.

. 1987, 33:6-91. What You Should KnowAbout Programmers.

-31-

Infosystems. 1987, 34:6. 29th Annual DP SalarySurvey Report.

National Science Foundation. 1988. Division ofScience Resources Studies. S/E Degreesseries.

Revell, Diane B. 1985. Software Engineering.U.S. Woman Engineer. May/June.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986. Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook. Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Offices. 1986-87 edition. Bul-letio 2250.


Program 4Dentistry

Program SummaryAlthough women in the U.S. have been enteringthe dental profession for over a century, womendentists were rare until the 1970s when the num-ber of women enrolled in dental schools in-creased dramatically. Today, the number ofwomen entering dental school continues to in-crease gradually.

The program describes a variety of career options.While most students choose general dentistry,many others choose to specialize in areas such asorthodontics, oral surgery, and pediatric dentistry.Those interested in teaching and research pur-sue academic dentistry, usually combining theirother responsibilities with clinical practice.

The program features four successful womendentists and two students of dentistry.


Sheryl Pomerance, D.D.S., manages herown general practice in Taylor, Michigan.

Judith Davenport, D.M.D., returned toschool after her children were grown to be-gin her career in dentistry. She now woricsin a private dinic in Pittsburgh.

Carol Drinkard, D.D.S., M.S., specializes inpedodontics. She combines teaching, re-search, and clinical practice at The Univer-sity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Schoolof Dentistry.

Gloria Kerry, D.D.S., M.S., is a periodontistwho divides her time between teaching atThe University of Michigan School of Den-tistry and managing a large private practice.Her daughters, Julie and Karen, are dentalstudents. They discuss various aspects ofgrowing up in a lady with a worRing profes-sional mother as well as their own decisionsto pursue careers in dentistry.

Although the training required for a degree indentistry is demanding and expensive, thewomen featured in the program speak frequentlyof the rewards. They mention the satisfaction ofworking to improve the health and lives of their pa-tients, and the independence, good salary, and

='flexibility in wori< schedules that accompany a ca-reer in dentistry.

The program reviews recommended course wori<for high school and college preparation for dentalschool. High school students should develop astrong background in mathematics and scienceand should continue this preparation in college.Along with good academic preparation, studentsshould pursue activities that deveicp manual dex-terity such as playing a musical instrument.

Dental schools require at least two years of under-graduate course work for admission. Most stu-dents admitted to dental schools have completeda full four years of college. Four years of study,someiimes including summer taessions, are re-quired for graduation from dental school. Goodgrades, dedication, and persistence are all impor-tant for success. While the dentists and studentsinterviewed in the program agree that dentalschool is challenging, they also agree that the re-wards of practicing dentistr; are worth the invest-ment of time, money, and effort.

-32-

Did You Know?

In 1987 women represented approximately 27percent of all graduates of U.S. dental schools,as compared to 2 percent in 1974-75 (Ameri-can Dental Association Division of EducationalMeasurements 1986-87; Manpower Data Re-source Service 1986).

In 1985 women comprised 6.5 percent of allU.S. dentists, as compared to 3 percent in1982 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, January1986; American Dental Association Bureau ofEconomic and Behavioral Research 1984-85).

Before the ProgramYou could choose to conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Dentistry Interest As-sessment on page 35 and then proceed with anintroductory discussion.

1. What kind of individual might be a success-ful dentist?

8

2. What type of education is required?

3. Which aspects of dentistry appeal to you?

4. Where else might a dentist work other thanin a private practice?

5. What aspects of dentistry might enable awoman to balance a family and a career?


1. What are some of the factors that you findattractive about dentistry? What would mo-tivate you to enter the dental profession?(flexible work schedule, variety of careeroptions and environments, opportunity tohelp people, independence)

2. What are some of the aspects of dentistrywhich facilitate the combination of careerwith marriage or child raising? (flexible, per-sonalized work schedules; job security, fi-nancial security)

3. What types of courses would best preparea student who plans to attend dentalschool? (a solid background in mathemat-ics, science, and English; college coursesin chemistry, biological sciences, compara-tive anatomy, and related sciences.)

4. What characteristics should a dentist pos-sess? (intelligence, interest in science andthe health professions, persistence anddedication, ability to enjoy working withothers, good manual dexterity and hand-eye coordination)

5. What type of dentistry would best fit thelifestyle you would like to live? (Workschedules vary greatly depending on thework environment and specialty. Privatepractice usually enables a dentist to havemore flexibility in work hours. Salaries varygreatly depending on specialization andwork setting.)

6. Dental edunation requires a considerableinvestment. What are some 0 the ways inwhich a dental education might be fi-nanced? (Dental schools offer a variety offinancial assistance, including governmentstudent loans. Banks and other financialinstitutions also offer student loans. Part-time jobs during dental school are notrecommended.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local dentists who represent a variety of

career options such as general practitioner,specialist, teacher, and researcher to speak toyour class or group.

2. Invite students who are currently pursuing acareer in dentistry to speak about their experi-ences in dental school.

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3. Ask students to make a "wish list" of goals andhopes they hold for their lives. Conduct a dis-cussion in which the students compare theirlists with their career goals. For example, fe-male high school students often say they planto work for a while and then stay home to raisea family. Changing economic trends havemade this arrangement unrealistic for mostwomen. Encourage students to examinerealistically whether their ideal lifestyle can beachieved.

4. Assign individual research papers on varioustopics such as new trends in dental practice,specializations within the field, an in-depthlook at dental school, and other topics. Havestudents present their findings to the class orgroup.

5. Schedule a field trip to a local dental school,research laboratory, or dental office.

6. Have students learn proper dental hygienetechniques, and (if appropriate) teach them toa younger sibling.

7. Have eudents interview professionals in thedental field and report their findings to theclass or group.

8. Keep a file or bulletin board on women in den-tistry. Share this information with otherclasses, counselors, librarians, and teachers,and encourage them to be aware of theseand other nontraditional career opportunitiesfor women.

9. Have one student role-play a prospect;vedentistry major. Another student can role-play a college admissions counselor, adviser,high school teacher, friend, or parent who isconsciously or unconsciously discouragingthe student from pursuing a caraer in den-tistr,,. Discuss and role-play methods of cop-ing with direct and subtle discouragement.

3 91.

Supplementary _AIT,Airaari or Ct.c.. 44% '

Outstanding Women in Science: .1-1-trmilcztry

Linda C. N lessen

Occupation: Director of the Geriatric Dental Pro-gram at the Veterans Administ, a-tiofi tiledica! Center, Perry Point,Maryland.

Education: D.M.D., School of Dentnl Medicine,Hxyard University, 1977; M.P.H.,School of Public Health, HarvardUniversity, 1977.

Awards andhonors: Choctaw Tribe, Outstanding Ser-

vice to the Choctaw Nation of Okla-homa, 1980; American Dental As-sociation, Geriatric Dental Award,1986.

Professionalservice: President Elect, American Associa-

tion of Public Health Dentistry;President, American Associ2tion ofWomen Dentiel, 1984; Fellow,American College of Dentistry; Dip-lomate, American Board of DentalHealth.

Dr. Lin& Niessen is a public health dentist who specializes in the field of geriatric dentistry. She providesdental care to pati,Ints and conducts research at the Veterans Administration Medical Center in PerryPoint, Maryland. Her research concems the frequency and types of oral diseases that afflict veterans; sheexamines how frequently tooth decay and periodontal disease occur in theso patients. Dr. Niessen alsoteaches gerontology and geriatric dentistry at the University of Maryland Dental School.

After graduating from dental school, she accepted a position with the U.S. Public HealthService's Civ:sionof Indian Health. While serving as Chief of the Dental Service at the Indian Hospital in Talihina, Oklahoma,her concern over the high caries (decay) rates among local children prompted her to organize a campaignto fluoridate the Talihina water supply. "It's rewarding to know that luture generations of children will nothave the pain of dental decay that their brothers and sisters suffered," she says.

In 1982 she entered the Veterans Administration Dentist Geriatric Feffowship Program at the Boston Out-patient Clinic to study aging and its relation to oral health. She accepted her current position in 1984.

Reflentil- -)n the challenges of a career in dentistry, Dr. Niessen comments: "It is hard work, but the workwas - something I liked doing, so the long hours never fett hard. I have a very supportive husband,and our oraid-care problems have always been jointly resolved. My recommendation to a young womanconsidering dentistry is to develop and maintain a good sense of humor. Take your work seriously, butnever yourself. If you are inclined to marry, marry a supportive, understanding man who isn't threatenedby your success and wit() can enjoy it as much as you will."

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Dentistry Interest AssessmentThe following questions reflect some of the common interests of dentists. If you answer yes to many ofthese questions, you might want to consider a career in dentistry.

1. I find some of these occupations attractive:surgeon, nurse, paramedic, scientificresearcher.

Yes No

2. I enjoy some of the following actMties or otheractivities that require working with my hands:drawing, needlework, sculpture making mod-els, playing a musical instrument.

Yes No

3. I would like to find a career in which my hourswould be regular.

Yes No

4. I would enjoy working for myself.

Yes No

5. When I have a job to do, I usually plan it in de-tail and then follow through by working in asteady manner.

Yes No

6. In schod I enjoy courses like botany, chemis-try, geology, geometry, mechanical drawing,physics, and zoology.

Yes No

7. I have considered pursuing a career aftermarriage.

Yes No

8. I believe security and permanence are impor-tant factors in a job.

Yes No

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9. I would De to find a job in which I san applymy knowledge and skills.

Yes No

10. I enjoy the freedom of working out my ownmethods of accomplishing a task.

Yes No

tl%

141E !

ale

Judith Davenport, D.M.D., treats a patient. Shedecided to become a dentist after her childrenwere grown and now practices in a private clinic inPittsburgh.

Career Options in DentistryGeneral dentistry involves the examination, diag-nosis, and treatment of the teeth, jaws, and sur-rounding soft tissues of the mouth. Many kinds ofdental practices are performed in general den-tistry such as diagnosing and filling cavities, ex-trac:ing teeth, performing root canals, and replac-ing lost teeth with bridges or dentures. Generalpractitioners often emphasize preventive den-tistry, encouraging and teaching patients to adoptgood dental hygiene and nutrition, which helpmaintain he:y teeth and gums.

Most dentists practice general dentistry. Approxi-mately 20 percent practice in one of the followingeight specialty areas recognized by the AmericanDental Association (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statis-tics 1986).

Endodontics is the treatment of diseased tissuesof the gums and teeth. Endodontists are special-ists in root canal treatment, which involves remov-ing diseased pulp from the tooth and replacing itwith special materials, thereby avoiding extraction.

Oral surgery and maxi dofacial surgery are surgicalspecialties for correcting problems such as im-pacted wisdom teeth and mouth injuries resultingfrom accidents. In these specialities, techniquesare often adapted from plastic surgery to correctcosmetic problems of the jaws and face.

Oral pathology is the diagnosis of mouth dis-eases. Oral pathologists use microscopes andlaboratory tests to determine the presence or ab-sence of tumors and other disorders. Some spe-cialize in forensic dentistry, which involves the ap-plication of oral pathology techniques in legalcases.

Orthodontics involves the correction and preven-tion of irregularities of the position of the teeth.Orthodontists use braces and other devices tocorrect malocclusion (bad bite) and other types oforthodontic problems.

Pediatric dentistry, also called pedodontics, isdentistry for children. Pedodontists use specialtechniques to manage and treat young patientswho sometimes require special attention in pre-venting and treating dental decay and otherproblems.

PeriodolltIcir is the treatment of the bones, liga-ments, and tissue that support and surround theteeth. Periodontal disease is a major cause oftooth loss in adults. Periodontists treat these dis-

eases and help prevent them by educaiir,g theirpatients about proper dental hygiene.

Prosthodontics involves the making of artificial de-vices such as dentures, crowns, and bridgeworkto replace missing teeth and to repair damagedteeth.

Public heatth dentistry involves practicing den-tistry and promoting dental health and awarenessin a variety of community settings such as publicclinics, schools, and hospitals.

Practice OptionsAfter finishing their educations, dentists mustchoose the practice option that is most conve-nient and economically feasible for them. Factorssuch as preferred work schedule and financialcapability are important determinants. Most re-cent dental school graduates begin their careersin a partnership, associateship, or clinic due to therising cost of solo practice and to increasing com-petition in the field.

Of approximately 133,000 practicing dentists in1984, nine out of ten were in private practice.Those who were not were primarily researchers orteachers. Others worked in clinics, hospitals, or ingovemment institutions (U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics 1986).

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Some common private practice options are

solo practice, in thich the dentist is the soleowner and operator

partnersnip 0-. group practice, in which thedentist shares all expenses and profit withother dentists

asstriateship, in which the dentist is an em-ployee of another dentist-owner and re-ceives a salary or percen:age of profit

dental clinic, in which the dentist is an em-ployee and receives a salary or percentageof profit

Some practice options in public health fieldsinclude

hospitals

public heath clinics

schools

42

Other Career OptionsAdministration and public relationsSome den-tists work in administration and managementwithin dental schools, hospitals, and dental as-sociations.

Federal dental servicesDentists practice in allbranches of the armed forces.

Teaching and researchSome dentists combineteaching and research with clinical practice in anacademic setting such as a dental school. A smallnumber of dentists perform research in privateindustry.

SchedulesSchedules vary greatly by work environment andspeciality. Part-time options are most frequentlyavailable in associateships, clinics, and in dentalschools. Any privately owned business will affordthe greatest flexibility in terms of personal practicestyle.

Preparing for a Career in DentistrySecondary Education

MathematicsSuggested courses: algebra,geometry, trigonometry, calculus, andstatistics.

SciencesStudents are advised to select astrong program in science. Courses in biol-ogy, chemistry, physics, physiology, and zo-ology will be advantageous.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum areas help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills which en-able them to communicate effectively with pa-tients and colleagues.

Additional course workForeign language:Language proficiency is advantageous formedical and science professionals who oftenparticipate in international gatherings and fol-low research advances reported in foreignjournals. Computer science: Computer liter-acy add experience in programming will benecessary as computers become more inte-gral in medicine and science. Social sci-ences: Familiarity with the fields of anthropol-ogy, psychology, and sociology is importantfor professionals concerned with human lifeand health.

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Predental educationMost dental studentsare graduates of four-year colleges and uni-versities. In 1984, four out of five studentsadmitted to accredited dental schools heldbachelor's degrees. Between 1985 and1987, however, the prcentage of studentsaccepted with two years of predental educa-tion has increased slightly (American DentalAssociation Division of Educational Measure-ments 1986-87).

Prerequisites for dental schools may varyslightly, but most require at least one year ofcourses in English composition, chemistry (in-organic and organic), biological sciences, andphysics.

Most dental schools recommend that stu-dents take at least one semester of biochem-istry and social sciences such as anthropol-ogy and sociology.

Admission to dental schoolAll dental schoolapplicants must take a national standardizedtest before applying to dental school. TheDental Admissions Test is used by dentalschools to determine the appiKant's potentialfor success in dentistry. Applicants generallytake the test before or during the fall semes-ter of their last year of predental course work.

Admission to dental school is based on futfill-ment of the predental course work, scholasticachievement, Dental Admissions Test scores,and other personal factors.

Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.) or Doctor ofDental Medicine (D.M.D.)Beginning stu-dents concentrate on course and laboratorywork in basic sciences such as anatomy, bio-chemistry, microbiology, and physiology.Preclinical technique and introductorycourses in clinical sciences are also required.

During their final two years in dental school,students combine their course and laboratorywork with clinical practice.

Graduate studySome dentists continuetheir dental educations in order to specializein a particular branch of dentistry. A Master ofScience in Dentistry (M.S.D.) requires two ormore years of postdoctoral studies. Otherstake advanced degrees, such as the M.S. andPh.D., to qualify for teaching and research po-sitions in colleges and universities.

4 3

Outlook and SalariesEmployment in dentistry is expected to grow20-30 percent through the mid-1990s, fasterthan the average for all occupations accordingto the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook (1986-87 edition).Changes in population size and characteristics,particularly the aging of the "baby boom" gen-eration, are expected to contribute to thisgrowth trend. Increasing public awareness ofthe importance of regular dental care and an in-crease in the availability of dental insurancehave also contributed to growth in the field ofdentistry.

While the demand for dentists continues to in-crease, an abundance of general practitionersin private practices wiil create intense competi-tion in some areas of the country. Generalpractitioners and specialists are expected to re-main in demand in high-income urban areasand in small towns (U.S. Bureau of Labor Sta-tistics 1986).

Salaries vary greatly depending on the type ofdentistry practiced and on the work setting.Most beginning dentists work in establishedpractices to gain experience and to savemoney. Some enter residency training pro-grams in hospitals and dental schools.

Beginning dentists usually earn considerablyless than those who are experienced and wellestablished. Equipment costs, student loanpayments, and other start-up costs take up asignificant proportion of income for most newlyestablished dentists, but their earnings risequickly over time (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statis-tics 1986).

Specialists in all stages of their careers gener-ally earn considerably more than general practi-tioners. In 1985 the median income for gen-erai practitioners in private practice was$60,000 according to a dental practice surveyconducted by the American Dental AssociationBureau of Economic and Behavioral Research(1986-87). The median income for specialistsin private practice was $98,000.

For More InformationAssodations and omankations

American Dental Association, 211 East Chi-cago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611; 312/440-8900.

American Association of Dental Schools, 1625Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC20036; 202/667-9433.

American Association of Women Dentists, 211East Chicago Ave., Ste. 948, Chicago, IL60611; 312/337-1563.

Publications

Russon, James E. Dentistry: An Inside View.Salt Lake City, UT, 1979.

Peterson, Sheller. Preparing to Enter DentalSchool. Sterling Swift Publishing Co., Man-chaca, TX, 1977.

ReferencesAmerican Dental Association: Bureau of Eco-nomic and Behavioral Research. 1986-87. The1986 Survey of Dental Practice.

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. 1984-85. 1984-85 Dental StatisticsHandbook

American Dental Association: Division of Educa-tional Measurement 1986-87. Annual Report.Division of Educational Measurements, Councilon Dental Education.

Manpower Data Resnurce Services. 1986, Pro-fessional Women and Minorities. Sixth edition.Betty M. Vetter and Eleanor Babco, editors.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. January 1986.Employment and Earnings.

. 1986. Occupational Outlook HandbookWashington, DC: Government Printing Offices.1986-87 edition. Bulletin 2250.


Program 5Engineering

Program SummaryThe program examines various ways in which en-gineers are essential in modem society. Theywork behind the scenes in many environments tocreate, design, and test new products and tech-nologies. Some engineers oversee the designand construction of large buildings and industrialplants, others test the performance of products todetermine their durability, efficiency, and safety.Some engineers design and build highly special-ized equipment such as computerized cardiologyequipment for use in coronary intensive careu nits.

The narrator explains how the field of engineeringhas developed from four classical divisionsme-chanical, civil, electrical, and chemicalto morethan 25 engineering specialties.

The careers of engineers vary enormously ac-cording to their specialties, work settings, andproject specifications.

The program focuses on seven women who havechosen engineering as a career.


Nene Menlove, a civil engineer, supervisesconstruction on various projects for Morri-son Knudson of Boise, Idaho. She hasworked in a variety of environments, includ-ing a shale oil refining plant in Salt Lake City.

Gall March, an electrical engineer at Rock-well International, monitors truck functionsin the laboratory and in the field.

Marta Klndya, a telecommunications engi-neer, is a training supervisor for New YorkTelephone.

Janice Jenkins, an assistant professor inthe Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering at the University of Michigan,conducts research in computer applicationsfor cardiology.

Christina Lee, Leigh Bryant, and Susan Liv-ingston, three engineering students, givetheir views on college academics and sociallife, and discuss the importance of highschool preparation for engineering school.

-

The engineers featured in the program discussmany aspects of their careers: their various dailyresponsibilities; the importance of communicatingwith co-workers; their training and academic ex-periences; how they balance their personal liveswith their professional lives; how they became in-terested in engineering; and why they enjoy theirchosen careers.

These scientists frequently mention the satisfac-tion they derive from applying their intelligence,resourcefulness, and creativity to complex prob-lems and challenging situations.

The program presents typical college require-ments for a degree in engineering, and several ofthe engineers and engineering students discussthe importance of taking mathematics courses asearly as possible in preparation for an engineeringcareer.

Did You Know?Increasing numbers of women are taking advan-tage of opportunities in engineering. The Na-tional Science Foundation (1984, 3) reported thefollowing statistics.

Full-time enrollment of women in under-graduate engineering programs increasedfrom 34,000 in 1978 to 62,700 in 1984an84 percent increase.

The number of women engineering gradu-ates has increased sharply in recent years.Engineering degrees represented 10 per-cent of all science/engineering degreesawarded to women in 1984.

Engineering was the fastest growing field ofdoctoral study for women in 1984.

Before the ProgramYou could choose to conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Engineering InterestAssessment on page 43, and then proceed withan introductory discussion.

1. What types of work might engineersperform?

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4 5

2. What high school courses help to preparea student for engineering school?

3. What type of person might be a successfulengineer?


1. Engineers shape the physical and chemi-cal behavior of materials to meet society'sneeds. Can you give some examples ofways in which engineers accomplish thisfeat? (A civil engineer manipulates theproperties of building materials such assteel, concrete, and plastic to achieve a re-quired density, weight, tensile strength,and flexibility. Similarly, a chemical engi-neer works with the properties and reac-tions of chemicals to produce materialssuch as synthetic fibers.)

2. How important are mathematics and sci-ence in engineering? (Mathematics andscience teach "game" rules that governthe practice of engineering. Success inthe profession depends upon knowledgeof these rules. In other words, mathemat-ics and science teach engineers what na-ture will and will not albw.)

3. Are good communication skills essential toan engineer? Why? (Yes. An engineerworks as part of a team. Communicatingwellverbally and in writingis essentialto good project control. Verbal reports andpublications are often required ofengineers.)

4. The number of women in engineering is in-creasing. Why? (The success of womenwho have already entered the field is in-spiring others to enter. Changing socialpatterns have recently enabled morewomen to step into male-dominated fields.More women are choosing lifelong careersin well-paying professions.)

5. Musi women engineers give up tradition-ally feminine roles and interests in order tosucceed? (No. Engineers can also bewives and mothers, and can pursue otherpersonal interests.)

6. Are women engineers apt to face specialproblems in their profession? (Possibly.

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Women are still a minority in engineering.A woman might apply undue p:essure onherself to combat sexual stereotyping.Another problem women might encounteris the lack of female colleagues. Femaleengineers facing these and similar diffi-culties can find support and assistancethrough a variety OT pi afessional women'sorganizations and societies.)

7. Why is it advisable for high school studentswho are interested in engineering to takeas many mathematics and science coursesas possible? (Avoiding mathematics andscience in high school might make it diffi-cult to catch up in college, where familiaritywith the essential concepts of mathematicsand science is essential)

8. What courses are included in the first twoyears of the core curriculum of engineeringstudy at a university? (The core curriculumtypically includes mathematics and sciencecourses, including calculus, differentialequations, linear algebra, physics, chemis-try, and computer science. Other require-ments include English and communica-tions courses, humanities, and socialscience courses.)

9. Could an engineering student specializingin a particular area later qualify for work inother areas of engineering? (Yes, in manycases. In the program, Nena Menlove ex-plained that she initially decided to special-ize in hydraulics, but later changed tostructural design. Marta Kindya graduatedin metallurgical engineering, but laterworked in telecommunications.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local engineers and engineering stu-

dents to discuss the profession with the classor group. A nearby university with an engi-neering program might be able to recommendspeakers.

2. Organize a field trip to a local engineeringproject.

3. For materials that serve as motivational toolsfor students interested in engineering ca-reers, obtain the Engineering Guidance Ma-terials Directory. The directory contains infor-mation on publications, films, videotapes,slides, and tapes available from industrial, pro-fessional, and educational organizations.

4 6

(Send requests to tha National Action Councilfor Minorities in Engineering, Inc., Three W.35th St., New York, NY 10001; 2121279-2E26.)

4. Keep a bulletin board or scrapbook with infor-mation on engineering advances and notablewomen engineers. Share this informationwith other classes, counselors, librarians, andteachers, and encourage them to be aware ofthese and other nontraditional career oppor-tunities for women.

5. Help students create an engineering project.For example, using their own community as amodel, they could design an emergency sup-port system for use in the event of a disastersuch as a flood or fire.

6. Have students develop a scenario 25 years inthe future. In this future society, robots havesignificantly changed work environments.What kinds of tasks will robots perform? Howwill humans occupy themselves? What mightbe the consequences of this change insociety?

7. Investigate pre-engineering summer pro-grams that allow students to get a head start intraining. Information on local programs mightbe available from local school boards, nearbyuniversities, or professional engineering as-sociations.

8. Suggest that students form an engineeringclub. Help them organize and plan regular ac-tivities. Encourage high school students tojoin their school chapter of JETS, INC. (JuniorEngineering Technical Society). If the schoolhas no JETS, INC. chapter, help students or-ganize one. The society encourages stu-dents to explore engineering and applied sci-ence through project work and activities.Chapters operate in high schools, under theguidance of a teacher. Practicing engineers

serve as volunteer technical advisers. Formore information, contact the United Engi-neering Center, 345 E. 47th St., New York,NY 10017; 212/705-7690.

9. Have one student role-play a prospective en-gineering major. Another student can role-play a college admissions counselor, adviser,high school teacher, friend, or parent who isconsciously or unconsciously discouragingthe student from pursuing a career in engi-neering. Discuss and role-play methods ofcoping with direct and subtle discourage-ment.

Comp etitions1. Discover who can build the strongest struc-

ture from a fixed amount of balsa wood, orwho can turn "junk" into the most valuablecreation. (Students could ask their parents todonate diccarded materials, or small dona-tions of 25-50 cents could be collected topurchase identical materials for each student.)

2. Hold an egg-dropping contest. The studentwho can drop a wpped egg from a fixedheight three times without breaking it wins thecontest. The egg should be wrapped with nomore than five sheets of legal-size mimeo-graph paper and two feet of cellophane tape.Begin the contest with a drop from six feetand increase the height of the two subse-quent drops.

3. Encourage students to participate in the inter-scholastic Olympics of the Mind competition.Olympics of the Mind challenges students toundertake their own creative engineeringprojects. (For information, contact Dr. C. Sam-uel Micklus and Carole Micklus, Olympics ofthe Mind Association, Inc., P.O. Box 27,Glassboro, NJ 08028; 609/881-1603.)

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4 7

.1"


Outstanding Women in Science: Engineering

Nance Katherine Dicciani

Occupation: Director of Research and Commer-cial Development in the IndustrialChemicals Division of Air Productsand Chemicals, Inc., Allentown,Pennsylvania.

Education: Ph.D., Chemical Engineering, Uni-versity of Pennsylvania, 1977;M.B.A., Business Management,University of Pennsylvania,1986.

Awards andhonors: Villanova University, Professional

Achievement Award, 1986; Snci-ety of Women Engineers, Achieve-ment Award, 1987; Women of Influ-ence in the Lehigh Valley.

Professionalservice: Member, Advisory Board, Universi-

ty of Virginia Chemical EngineeringDepartment; Member, American In-stitute of Chemical Engineers;Senior Member, Society of WomenEngineers.

Dr Dicciani's parents were an important influen ,e in her decision to become an engineer. "They taughtme, 'if you can dream it, you can do it,'" she says.

The research she directs and supervises at Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. is aimed at creating new or-ganic compounds useful in the manufacture of products such as herbicide, building insulation, automo-bile bumpers, medical equipment, furniture, and many others.

She and her research staff also work to deveiop novel compounds with new induArial uses, test and eval-uate products, and perform a wide variety of other technical activities. "The work environment is exciting,action-filled, visionary, and intellectually stimulating," Dr. Dicciani says. "The people I work with are excep-tionally bright, ambitious, goal-oriented, and fun to be around."

Of her many professional accomplishments, she is most proud of discovering a new catalyst for the pro-duction of benzene. She also developed the company's first non-cryogenic product (one which does notrequire very low temperatures) for the separation of air into nitrogen and oxygenand a new product forthe recovery and purification of landfill gas.

While Dr. Dicciani is enthusiastic about the opportunities available to young women in the field of engi-neering, she admits that achieving her goals has been difficult. "The old adage, 'A woman must be twiceas good to be considered equal,' is slowly fading but not yet gone," she says. "Young women must havesingle-minded determination to succeed, and they must remember that consistency of performance is crit-ical. But for those who have the courage and the will to be their best, the personal rewards and sense ofaccomp" hment are enormous."

-42- 4 8

Engineering Interest AssessmentThe following questions reflect some of the common interests of engineering professionals. If you an-swer yes to many of these questions, you might want to consider a career in engineering.

1. Do you like trying to figure out how thingswork?

Yes No

2. Do you ever think of ideas for new ways to dothings or new uses for common objects?

Yes No

3. Have you ever sketched a design for a newmachine or other invention?

Yes No

4. Have you ever drawn up plans for buildingprojects or constructed models?

Yes No

5. Do you like reading charts, maps, blueprints,or diagrams?

Yes No

6. Are you good at mathematics and numericalproblem solving?

Yes No

7, Do you like conducting scientificexperiments?

Yes No

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8. Have you ever spent a lot of time finding asolution to a difficult problem?

Yes No

9. Before :tarting a new task, do you like to planhow you're going to accomplish it?

Yes No

10. If something breaks, do you enjoy trying torepair it?

Yes No

1 1. Do you like discussing your ideas and writingreports?

Yes No

12. Do you enjoy learning how to use differentdevices such as calculators and computers?

Yes No

13. Do you enjoy the challenge of a new task,even if you don't understand it fully dt thebeginning?

Yes No

4 9

Career Options in EngineeringCurrently, engineering has approximately 2 5branches and 85 subdivisions of specialization tomeet the growing demands of an increasinglytechnological society. The Occupational OutlookHandbook (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986)lists the following specialties and occupationaldefinitions.

Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, andhelp produce commercial and military aircraft, mis-siles, and spacecraft. They develop new technol-ogies, work in areas such as structural design andnavigational guidance, and frequently specializein one type of aerospace product such as rocketsor commercial aircraft.

Ceramics engineers work with all nonmetallic, inor-ganic materials, transforming ceramics and othermaterials into useful parts and products such asglassware, electrortics, ar,d computers.

Chemical engineers work in many phases of theproduction of chemicals and chemical products.They design equipment and chemical plants, andtest methods of manufacturing chemical prod-ucts. Because their skills are essential in many dif-ferent fields, chemical engineers work in a varietyof environments. Large numbers of chemical en-gineers work in electronics manufacturing and inbiotechnology fields. They frequently specializein a particular process such as oxidation, or in aparticullr produri area such as rubber or plastics.

Civil engineers work in the oldest branch of engi-neering, supervising and designing the construc-tion of roads, airports, tunnels, etc. There arenuir erous subcaigories of specialization, includ-ing environmental, highway, hydraulic, soil, struc-tural, and transportation.

Electrical and electronics engineers design, de-velop, test, anG supervise the manufacture ofelectrical equipment such as power-generatingequipment for utiiity plants, vehicles, and build-ings. Some specialize in electronics equipmentsuch as radar, computers, and consumer goods.

Industrial engineers determine the most effectiveways for an organization to use basic elements ofproduction: people, machines, materials, and en-ergy. They are more concerned with people andmethods of business organization than are engi-neers in other specialties. They help developsystems of management, production, and dataprocessing for industry, government, and otherinstitutions.

,_.,...

Materials engineers evaluate technical and eco-nomic factors to determine which of the manymetals, plastics, ceramics, or other materials wouldfunction best in a specific application.

Mechanical engineers are concerned with theuse, production, and transmission of mechanicalpower and heat. They doveiop and design en-gines and many other machines such as refrigera-tion devices and robots. Many mechanical engi-neers work in research, testing, and productdesign; others work in machine maintenance.

Metallurgical engineers develop new types ofmetals and other materials that must meet certainrequirements such as weight restrictions and heatresistance. Most work in three main subcatego-ries of metallurgy.

1. Extractive. Engineers who work in thisarea remove metal from ores and refineand alloy them to obtain useful metal.

2. Chemical or physical. Specialists in thisarea are concerned with the nature, struc-ture, and physical properties of metals.

3. Mechanical or process. Engineers in thisarea of metallurgy are concerned with pro-cesses that help form and shape metalssuch as casting, forging, roiling, anddrawing.

Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare miner-als for use in manufacturing industries. They fre-quently design and supervise construction ofopen pit and underground mines. Because ofgrowing environmental concerns, mining engi-neers sometimes supervise land reclamation pro-cedures or work to control water and air pollutionconnected with mining projects.

Nuclear engineers design, develop, monitor, andoperate nuclear power piants. They frequentlyconduct research on nuclear energy, radiat:on,and nuclear weapons and explore the industrialand medical uses for radioactive materials.

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Petroleum engineers are primarily concerned withachieving maximum profitable recovery of oil andgas from petroleum reservoirs. They are fre-quently involved in the research and develop-ment of better methods to recover oil, and theyoften supervise drilling operations.

General Career AreasEngineers can work in many environments andfulfill many different kinds of relponsibilities.

Some general career areas for engineers arelisted below.

AdministrationEngineers can work as admini-strators, making decisions regarding human re-sources, finances, purchasing, or contracts.

Information systemsSome engineers woric in in-formation systems or information processing, de-signing and developing complex systems of infor-mation management. For example, an engineermight woric for a telephone or communicationscompany, conducting research or developingnew equipment.

Production and constructionSome engineersworic directly with the production of goods, otherswork in construction. These engineers designand implement plans to produce or constructstructures such as buildings, vehicles, or othertypes of machines.

Research and developmentAn engineer mightchoose to woric in research and development, de-signing and developing new or improved prod-ucts, systems, processes, or techniques.

Technical servicesSome engineers woric in in-dustrial settings, performing tasks such as trou-bleshooting, plant maintenance, safety and en-vironmental control, testing, or evaluation.

Preparing for a Career inEngineeringSecondary Education

MathematicsStudents should take as manycourses as possible, including algebra, trigo-nometry, geometry, and calculus.

SclencesPhysics and chemistry are essen-tial sciences for engineering, but a stronggeneral background in the sciences will beadvantageous.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum area; help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills that enablethem to communicate effectively.

Modern foreign languagesStudents shouldselect a language sequence, preferably inFrench, German, Russian, or Spanish. Lan-guage proficiency is necessary for engineers,who often participate in international gather-ings and follow research advances reported inforeign journals.

Additional course workDrafting and Design:Introductory courses in these areas will givestudents a head start in basic engineeringskills. Social Sciences: Familiarity with thefields such as anthropology, sociology, andpsychology, is important for scientists con-cerned with human life, health, and society.Computer Science: Computer courses will beadvantageous as engineers continue to incor-porate computers in their work

Additional factorsIn evaluating the records ofprospective engineering students, collegeadmissions officers are likely to look at severalfactors. The overall quality of the applicant'shigh school preparation will be a prime consid-eration. An applicant's grade-point averageand Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) scoreare likely to be taken into consideration, butneither is likely to outweigh evidence of a solidfoundation in the basic disciplines.


According to the Occupational Outlook Hand-book, engineering programs vary in duration andemphasis. Some engineering schools and two-year colleges have entered into an agreementwhereby the college or school provides the initialengineering education and the engineeringschool then automatically admits qualified stu-dents. Other engineering schools have arrange-ments with liberal arts colleges whereby studentstake three years of liberal arts studies and twoyears of engineering studies to obtain a bache-lors degree from both the college and engineer-ing school. Some schools offer five-year mastersdegree programs.

Associate degreeA student may choose topursue a two-year associate degree program inengineering. Such programs are offered bymany colleges, universities, and technicalprograms.

Bachelor of Science (B.S.)A bachelors de-gree in engineering requires four to five yearsof study. The first one io two years will consistof a core curriculum and will be followed by twoto four years of specialization in one of themany branches of engineering. A bachelor'sdegree in engineering is acceptable for mostbeginning-level engineering jobs. Graduateswith bachelors degrees in science or mathe-matics and experienced technicians may alsoqualify for some engineering jobs (U.S. Bureauof Labor Statistics 1986).

Engineering Ochnology programsMany col-leges and univ3rsities offer two- to four-year

training programs in engineering technology.These programs prepare studerts for practicaldesign and production work rather than ad-vanced theoretical scientific and mathematicalwork. Often called engineering technicians,these graduates usually find jobs similar tothose obtained by graduates with bachelor'sdegrees in engineering (U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics 1986).

Combined degreesEngineering combineswell with other disciplines. In some instances,universities offer douole majors in engineeringand other fields. Currently, growing opportu-nity exists in a wide spectrum of areas relatedto engineering, and the interdisciplinary combi-nations available in colleges and universitiesreflect the numerous career opportunities.

Graduate siudy In engineeringGraduate pro-grams permit further specialization and gener-ally lead to teaching or research. Graduatetraining Is essential for faculty positions, butnot necessary for entry-level jobs. Many engi-neers return to graduate school to learn newtechnologies or to qualify for promotions.

Gracipofe study In other fieldsA bachelorsdegree in engineering can be supplementedby an advanced degree in another fiele suchas medicine, law, or business. Students whocombine bachelor's degrees in engineeringwith advanced study in other fields can buildcareers in biomsdical engineering, patent law,intemational consulting, and many other areas.

Outlook and SalariesThe U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1986) re-ported the following findings regarding employ-ment outlook and opportunity in engineeringfields.

Engineering is the second largest pro-fession in the U.S., exceeded only byteaching.

The demand for engineers (in all specialitiesexcopt mining and nuclear) is expected toremain high through the mid-1990s, due toanticipated higher levels of investment in in-d. -sial plants and equipment, office build-irigs, other construction projects, a ndhigher defense expenditures. Employ-ment opportunities for engineers are ex-pected to remain good through the mid-1990s as well, although the number of jobsand salaries will vary by area ofspecialization.

Aerospace, chemical, civil, and industrialengineering are the largest specialties.

In 1984, over half of the 1.3 million jobsheld by engineers were located inmanufacturing.

In addition to opportunities in traditional special-ties, computer and software engineering are bothrapidly growing fields that promise job opportuni-ties for those who combine engineering with train-ing in computer science, particularly in softwaredevelopment. In this decade the demand for soft-ware engineers is expected to exceed the supply(Revell 1985).

Perhaps the most reliable indicator of market de-mand for engineers is salaries. A bachelors de-gree in engineering will command a higher begin-ning salary than the same degree in another field.According is the College Placement Council(1984), engineering graduates with bachelor'sdegrees and no experience averaged $26,300 ayear in private industry. Graduates with master'sdegrees averaged $30,400, and Ph.D. graduatesaveraged $39,500.

A survey conducted by the U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics in March 1986 indicated a mean salaryrange of $27,866-$79,021 for engineers;$16,882-$32,718 for engineering technicians;and $13,054431,004 for drafters.

A survey conducted by the National Society ofProfessional Engineers (1987) revealed a 4.7percent increase in the income of engineers be-tween 1986 and 1987, increasing the median an-nual income from $47,200 to $49,400.

Starting Salaries o! Engineers with BacnelorsDegrees (by Specialization)

Aeronautical $25,836Chemical $27,420CMI $27,764Electrical 26,556Industrial $25,224Mechanical $26,280Metallurgical $26,556Mining $24,876Nuclear $26,388Petroleum $29,568

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(J.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1986-87)

52

Most companies must compete to hire women en-gineers because they are presently in short sup-ply in the job market.

An engineer with an advanced degree can earnmore, and the benefits of holding an advanceddegree in ongineering are expected to increasein coming years, when more exclusive opportuni-ties are expected to become available for thosewith advanced degrees and experience.


American Association of Engineering Soci-eties, Inc., 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY10017. (A federation of 43 engineering soci-eties, AAES is a wealth of information on all as-pects of engineering careers and practice. It

publishes annual surveys of engineering sala-ries in industry and education, studies of sup-ply and demand, and special reports on ca-reers and employment.)

Junior Engineering Technical Society, 345 E.47th St., New York, NY 10017; 2121 664-7690. (This organization provides club guide-lines and information on engineering activ-ities.)

National Action Council for Minorities in Engi-neering, Inc., Three W. 35th St., New York, NY10001; 2121279-2626.

National Society of Prok .;sional Engineers,2029 K St. N.W., Washington, DC 20006. (Amembership organization for practicing engi-neers, it provides information on professionalissues such as ethics, registration, profes-sional development, salaries, and legislativedevelopments.)

Society of Women Engineers, 345 E. 47th St.,Room 305, New York, NY 10017. (SWE pub-lishes information on career opportunities andprovides assistance to women engineers re-turning to work. It also administers severalaward, certificate, and scholarship pr arns.)

Dlrectodes of pmfessional associations

Directory of Engineering Soc;eties and Re-lated Organizations. 10th edition. New York:American Association of Engineering Soci-eties, Inc., 1982.

Encyclopedia of Associations. Denise Akey,editor. Detroit: Gale Research Company,1987 (updated biennially).

National Trade and Professional Associationsof the United States and Canada and LaborUnions. Washington, DC: Columbia Books,1987. (Updated annually.)

ReferencesCollege Placement Council. October 1984. In-terim Salary Report.

National Science Foundation. February 14,1986. Science and Engineering (S/E) GraduatesFind Increasing Opportunities for Employment inS/E Occupations. Science Resources StudiesHighlights. NSF Publication in series, NSF 85-334.

National Society of Professional Engineers.1987. NSPE Professional Engineer Income andSalary Survey 1987.

Revell, Diane B. 1985. Software Engineering.U.S. Woman Engineer. May/June.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986. Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook. Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Offices. 1986-87 edition. Bul-letin 2250.

March 1986. National Survey of Profes-sional, Administrative, Technical and Clerical Pay.

Additional resource materials, programs, andteachIng materials on women and science areilsted on pages 75-76.

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1

Program 6Geosciences

Program SummaryGeoscientists study the structure, composition,and history of the earth. Some geoscientists ex-plore the earth to locate oil, natta:a! gas, and otherenergy resources. Others support egriculturalplanning, helping farmers determine the patternsof erolon in their fields. A geoscientist mightstudy how the underlying rock in a specific loca-tion will react when a bridge is built above it, orhow the earth compares geologically with otherplanets in our solar system.

Geosdentists work in many parts of the world andin many different locales such as mines, oceans,deserts, and mountains, as well as in office build-ings and laboratories.

Specializations in the geosciences are numerous,reflecting the complexity of the earth and its com-ponents. Most ge^qcientists specialize in a partic-ular field.

More and more women are choosing careers inthe geosciences. The program features four pro-fessional women geoscientists and several gradu-ate students.

order of appearance

Merldee JonesCecll, M.S., is a seismolo-gist for the United States Geological Sur-vey. She studies earthquakes, particularlyhow, why, and when they occur, to deter-mine safe building sites and appropriateemergency procedures.

Nancy Ann Brewster works as an explora-tion geologist for Union Oil Company, spe-cializing in the discovery of new oil re-serves. She holds two master's degrees,one in geology and one in business man-agement. She was recently appointedSpecial Assistant for Scientific Planning tothe National Science Foundation.

Bonnie Robinson is a production geologistfor the Superior Oil Company. She workswith engineers and other specialists to de-velop the least costly and most efficientmeans of extracting oil from the earth.

Tanya Atwater is an internationally knowngeologist speValizino in oceenograpandpiatetectonics at the University of Califor-niaSanta Barbara. Her Investigations oftenlead her to the ocean floor, where she stud-ies the renewal and aging processes of theearth's crust.

Sandy Carlson, a Ph.D. student in paleon-toloay at the UniverSily of MichiganAnnArbor, studies three million-year-old fossilsto determii.3 the development of lifethrough geolegie-ai time.

Two unidentified geology studente are alsointerviewed. They discuss the Value of fieldwork opportunities and the excitement ofapplying what is learned in the classroom tothe real world.

Several of the geoscientists mention the pleasurethey derive from working in field settings. Geosci-ence offers oportunities to work outdoors, ex-ploring the earth. Others mention that work in thegeosciences rarely becomes routine. They havean enthusiasm for exploration and discovery.

The program reviews recommended course workfor high school and college preparation for a ca-reer in the geosciences. Interested studentsshould have logical reason:rig skills, enjoy solvingproblems, and be able to visualize in thredimensions.

High school students should develop a strongbackground in earth ecience, physies, and chem-istry. In addition, they should take three to fouryears of mathematics. Courses in English, com-munications, computei science, and foreign lan-guages are also recommended.

In their first two years, college students majoringin the geosciences should complete basic re-quirements in the humanities, mathematics, andsciences. Most geoscience majors concentrateon advanced geoscience courses and field workduring their junior and senior years.

Geoscientists share an interest in science andmathematics and a wonder of the earth and itsprocesses, history, and composition.

Did You Know?While only 5 percent of geologists worldng to-day are women, the number of women earningdegrees in the geosciences has increasedsubstantially in the last 10 years. Based on thisincrease, the number of women in thegeosciences work force could increaco asmuch as 20-25 percent in the next decade(Crawford et al., 1987).

Percentage of All Geosclence DegreesAwarded to Women

1972 1980 1986

B.S. 23 26 24M.S. 1 0 20 24Ph.D. 7 1 0 22

American Geological Institute, 1987Survey of Geoscience Degrees Earned

Before the ProgramYou could choose to conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Geosciences InterestAssessment on page 52, and then proceed withan introductory discussion.

1. What type of work might a geoscientistperform?

2. Do geoscientists spend all their time out-doors?

3. What aspects of the gz.nsciences appealto you?

4. What type of person might be a successfulgeoscientist?

5. What type of education is required?

6. Can women geoscientists manage both acareer and a family?

7. What special problems do you thinkwomen geoscientists might face?


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What aspects of geology do you find inter-esting? (working in a variety of locations,traveling, exploring the earth, performingscientific research)

2. Describe the type of work that various geo-scientists perform. (Geoscientists special-ize in many different areas: seismologistsstudy earthquakes, exploration geologistssearch for undiscovered oil reserves, pro-duction geologists help engineers andother specialists extract oil from the earthor ocean floor, paleontologists study an-cient life forms. For a list of specializationssee page 53.)

3. What courses would best prepare a highschool student interested in a career in thegeosciences? (A strong background inmathematics and science is recom-mended. Courses in earth science and as-tronomy are highly recommended.Courses in communications, computer sci-ence, English, and foreign languages arealso required.)

4. Why is a strong mathematics backgroundimportant? (Mathematics is an importanttool in geoscientific research. Geoscien-tists must be able to use logical reasoningskills, solve complex problems, and visual-ize objects in three dimensions.)

5. Why are good communications skills valu-able to a geoscientist? (They often writereports, articles, and grants; they must beable to consuit and communicate with sci-entists and other professionals.)

6. What are some of the settings in whichgeoscientists work? (laboratories; offices;field sites such as mountains, ocear loors,and oil rigs)

7. What level of education do most geoscien-tists possess? (Most possess at least abachelor's degree. Many geoscientistsfind it necessary to earn a master's or Ph.D.degree in order to pursue a career with op-portunities for growth and a good salary.)

8. Can a woman geoscientist manage a ca-reer and family life at the same time? (Yes,with planning and support. Several of thefeatured geoscientists are married andhave children. They stress the importanceof sharing the responsibilities of home andfamily with their spouses.)

Supplemental Activities1 . Invite professional geoscientists and stu-

dents to speak about their careers and train-ing. For help identifying potential speakers,contact local (city or state) geoscience socie-ties, state or federal geoscience agencies, orlocal university geoscience departments.Useful references include the American Geo-logical Institute's Directory of Geoscience Or-ganizations, the U.S. Geological Survey Geo-logic Division, and the U.S. State Surveys,available annually in the October Geotimes orseparately as a reprint.

2. Create a career center or bulletin board withinformation on careers in the geosoiences.Collect magazine and newspaper clippings.Write to professional organizations such asthe Association for Women Geoscientists formaterial. Share this information with otherclasses, counselors, librarians, and teachers,and encourage them to be aware of theseand other nontraditional career opportunitiesfor women. (For information about profes-sional organizations and resource materialssee pages 54-55.)

3. Invite an academic adviser or professor of ge-ology from a local college or university tospeak about academic preparation, career op-tions, and work-study programs available tostudents.

4. Take a field trip to a site of geological impor-tance. For information about local fossil de-posits, mines, faults, or other interesting geo-logical sites, contact the geology departmentat a nearby university or college.

5. Obtain a guide to rock and mineral identifica-tion and have students identify rocks and min-erals commonly found in their area. (A good,inexpensive guide is Golden Guide: Rocksar .1 Minerals by Herbert Zim and Paul Shaffer,Golden Press, New York)

6. Collect a variety of rocks. Conduct a simpletest to identify which of the rocks contain the

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minerals calcite or dolomite. Test the rocksby placing a drop of a solution of hydrochloricacid which has been diluted with water oneach one. Substances that contain either ofthese minerals, such as limestone or chalk,will make the solution fizzle.

7. Take a field trip to a natural history museum.

8. Have one student role-play a prospective ge-ology student. Another student can role-play a college admissions counselor, adviser,high school teacher, friend, or parent who isconsciously or unconsciously discouragingthe student from pursuing a career in geol-ogy. Discuss and role-play methods of cop-ing with direct and subtle discouragement.

9. Develop research projects that involve thegeoscientific investigation of your local area.Students could research the land planningand development of their city or town. (Whyis it located where it is? How did the presentstreet plan develop?) Students might mapthe local water sources, including processingstations, and make geochemical compari-sons of the water composition from varyinglocations. Students might also collect mete-orological data on their region and examinethe influence of weather on their environ-ment.

10. Have students make a topographic map of alocal park or area close to the school.

11. Develop a problem-solving activity involvingmaps. Using topographic maps of the localarea, have students locate a shopping cen-ter, power plant, or other significant site.

12. Choose a geological site such as a river,mountain, detta, lake, or island. Have stu-dents research the site's history from its for-mation to its present state. Based on this in-formation, have students project how thesite will change in the future.


Outstanding Women in Science:

Occupation: Administrator of Special Programsand Proposals at the AmericanGeological Institute (AGI), Alexan-dria, Virginia.

Education:

Awards andhonur=0:

M.A., Earth Science, WesleyanUniversity,1981.

Minority Participation Scholarship,American Geological Institutc%1977.

Professionalservice: President, Association for Women

Geoscientists, 19V-89.

Geosciences

1311111aw

Marilyn J. Su lter

Maryilyn Suiter began her career teaching science in the Philadelphia Public Schools. Her involvement ingeosciences began when she attended a NSF earth science course 1or teachers. "I found the course in-triguing enough to compei me to go back to school for my earth scie. ct. teaching certification," she says.

Later, a field trip to the Yellowstone Bighorn Research Association field camp in Montana inspired her tochange careers. "Driving through Canada to the camp was really an exciting experience," she recalls."Living in a log cabin in the Bighorn Mountains was just wonderful; that was probably the clincher."

While studying to obtain her B.A. and M.A. degrees, she worked as a geologist for the U.S. GeologicalSurvey. Later, she also woriced as an exploration geologist for an oil and gas company, locating oil and gasand supervising their extraction from sites in Kansas, Colorado, and the Oklahoma Panhandle.

Suiters current responsibilities at AGI involve directing programs and recommending new projects that encourage the participation of underrepresented populations in geoscience.

"My career has involved humanitarian phases such as teaching and technical phases such as working !orthe U.S. Geological Survey," she explains. "I enjoy my current position because rm able to combine thesephases, and my work affects a much larger audience.

"For those considering a career in geoscience, a good background in mafflematics is important," Suiteradvises. 'The math and science are do-able, don't get frustrated if it takes a L.. of extra wArk. It's worth it."

Suiter cautions young women not to presume that they will experience bias o: discriminaron. "Develop asound awareness of who you are, your values, your weak and strong points. With clear self-perceptionyou will have the self-confidence necessary to counter most problems."

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Geosciences Interest AssessmentThe following questions reflect some of the common interests of geoscientists. If you answer yes to manyof these questions, you might want to consider a career in the geosciences.

1. I find some of these occupations attractive: 8. I sometimes wonder how the earth came tobe the way it is.biologist, physicist, chemist, engineer.

Yes No Yes No

2. I enjoy some of these activities: traveling, hik- 9. I enjoy readino and drawir-j maps.ing, mountain climbing, collecting rocks andminerals. Yes No

Yes No

10. I enjoy giving presentations and writingreports.

3. I enjoy solving puzzles.Yes No

Yes No

11. I have the ability to visualize objects in three4. I sometimes question what I read. dimensions.

Yes No Yes No

5. I enjoy worRing as a part of a team. 12. I like solving problems that require "detec-tive" work and finding evidence that enables

Yes No me to draw sound conclusions.

6. I can adapt easily to different people andenvironments.

Yee No

7. In school I enjoy mathematics and sciencecourses such as algebra, calculus, chemistry,and physics.

Yes No

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Yes No

13. I enjoy activities that require observation, de-scription, and classification such as birdwatching and stamp collecting.

Yes No

5 8

Career Options in the GeosciencesThere are many specializations in the geosci-ences. Some common career options for geolo-gists are listed below.

Earth Materials

Economic geology involves the investigationof ore-forming minerals and fuel deposits thatcan be mined or developed.

Engineering geology is the use of engineeringtechniques to determine the feasibility of con-structing dam sites, tunnels, and highviays.

Geochemistry is the investigation of the natureand distributions of chemical elements in rocksand minerals.

Marine geology is the study of the nature andcomposition of the ocean floor and continentalshelves.

Mineralogy is the analysis, classification, anddescription of minerals.

Petroleum geology is the study of oil and natu-ral gas deposits in the attempt to locate newdrill sites.

Petrology is the analysis, classification, and de-scription of rocks.

Planetary geology is the study of the surfacesof the moons and planets in our solar system.

Earth Processes

Geomorphology is the investigation of earthprocesses such as the development of land-forms.

Geophysics is the study of magnetism, gravity,and heat flow patterns within the earth.

Hydrology is the study of the circulation, distri-bution, and properties of water.

Seismology is the study of the causes and ef-fects of earthquakes.

Structural geology concerns the processesthat form the earth's crust and its characteristicssuch as fracturing and folding.

Volcanology is the study of the causes and ef-fects of volcanic activity.

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Earth History

Geochronology is the calculation of the rate ofdecay of radioactive elements in rocks to deter-mine their ages.

Paleontology is the study of fossils in the at-tempt to describe the nature and developmentof life through geologic time.

Stratigraphy is the investigation of the thick-ness, shape, and distribution of layered rocksand their mineral and fossil content.

General Career Areas

Private IndustryPrivate industries employ overhalf of all geoscientists in the U.S. Most geolo-gists work for petroleum companies, mining com-panies, or service companies that perform specialtechnical jobs for these industries (American Geo-logical institute 1987).

GovernmentThe federal government is the sec-ond-largest employer of geoscientists. Approxi-mately 12 percent of all working U.S. geologistshold government positions. The following agen-cies are primary sources of opportunity for geosci-entists: U.S. Geological Survey, Soil Conserva-tion Service, Bureau of Land Management,National Park Service, Bureau of Mines, U.S. For-est Service, and the Army Corps of Engineers. Inaddition, most state governments employ geolo-gists to work for geological surveys. Some cityand county governments also employ geoscien-tists (AGI 1987).

EducationBecause many states now requirethat earth science education be included in thepre-college curriculum, new teaching opportuni-ties are available for geoscientists. While earthscience is commonly taught at the junior highschool level, it is now part of many K-6 cufficulaand is also taught as an advanced science in highschool. Approximately 8 percent of all workinggeologists now hold academic appointments.Opportunities in academe for women geoscien-tists are expected to increase in the next decade(AGI 1987).

ConsultingSome geoscience professionalswith specializations in exploratory geology, petrol-ogy, and other applied fields offer consultation toprivate industries. They are usually employed oncontracts as project consultants.

5 0t,

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Preparing for a Career in theGeosciencesSecondary Education

MathematicsSuggested courses: algebra,geometry, trigonometry, calculus, and statis-tics. Calculus is strongly recommended.

SciencesThe geosciences apply the princi-ples and techniques of virtually all physical sci-ences to the study of the earth. Therefore,students should take as many science coursesas possible, including biology, chemistry, andphysics. Earth science and astronomy, if avail-able, are strongly recommended.

English and communicatIonsGeoscientistsmust express themselves clearly through writ-ten and oral reports and must be able to com-municate effectively with their co-workers.

Modern foreign /anguagesKnowledge of atleasi one and preferably two languages will beadvantageous. Geoscientists often travel toforeign countries to conduct field research, at-tend international conferences, and read re-search reports in foreign journals.

Additional course workComputerscience:Computers are becoming increasingly integralin geoscientific research. Advanced place-ment courses: Advanced placement coursesin mathematics, sciences, and foreign lan-guages can lead to early college credit.


Bachelor of Science (B.S.)--The bachelor'sdegree requires four years of lecture and labor-atory instruction in basic geology courses suchas mineralogy, petrology, stratigraphy, paleon-tology, and structural geology. Additionalcourses in mathematics and computer science,as well as advanced chemistry, physics, biol-ogy, economics, and government, are sug-gested. Most students will also be required toenroll in a special summer course in geologicalfield work.

Master of Science (M.S.)A masters degreeis usually required for beginning research posi-tions or higher-paying positions in the geosci-ences. The M.S. usually requires two yearsbeyond a B.S. and consists of advancedcourses in geology and related fields. Stu-dents usually select an area of specialization.

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)A Ph.D. is re-quired for advancement in college teachingand for most high-level research positions.

Related fieldsSome students choose tocombine their geoscience degrees with otherareas of interest such as another science spe-cialty, business management, secondary edu-cation, joumalism (for technical writers and edi-tors), and law.

Outlook and SalariesUnless specified otherwise, the following job andsalary statistics were compiled by the AmericanGeological Institute.

Students graduating with degrees in thegeosciences will face a competitive job mar-ket due to decreasing opportunities in thepetroleum and minerals industries. A sur-vey conducted for the American GeologicalInstitute revealed a 4 percent unemploy-ment rate for geoscientists (AGI 1987).

Supply and demand in the geosciences jobmarket is expected to continue to be imbal-anced in the near future. A 1987 surveysuggests that the number of viable employ-ment opportunities for geoscientists in1987 was far less than the number of 1986geoscience graduates seeking positions(AGI 1987).

A near-term employment forecast estimatesthat 700-900 of approximately 10,000 U.S.geoscience graduates were hired by allU.S. employers in 1987. Approximately300-400 graduates were hired by the pe-troleum industry. The mining/minerals in-dustry hired 150 to 250 graduates (AGI1987).

The median annual income for brnployedgeoscientists is approximately $50,000.Those working in the oil and petroleum in-dustries usually earn more. Those workingin education and local government usuallyearn less (AGI 1987).

As in most scientific professions, womengeoscientists still earn less than their malecounterparts at all stages of their careers. In1986 a male geoscientist with less than oneyear of professional experience earned anaverage salary of $22,600, while an equiva-lent female geoscientist earned $14,800.A male geoscientist with five to nine yearsof experience earned an average of$34,400, while his female counterpartearned $31,700 (National Science Founda-tion 1988).

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American Geological Institute, 4220 King St.,Alexandria, VA 22302; 703/379-2480 or800/336-4764. (1'rovides public information,education, publications, and services for thegeoscience community.)

Association for Women Geoscientists, 10200West 44th Ave., Ste. 304, Wheat Ridge, CO80033; 303/422-8527. (Aims to encouragethe participation of women in the geosciences.Provides career information and conductsscholastic awards program for outstanding stu-dents in the geosciences.)

U.S. Geological Survey, Public Inquiries Office,Department of the Interior, Menlo Park, CA94025; 415/329-4396.

Geological Society of America, P.O. Box 9140,3300 Penrose Pl., Boulder, CO 80301;303/447-2020.

History of Earth Sciences Society (HESS), E-501, Museum of Natural History, Washington,DC 20560; 2021343-3232.

Rollin' Rock Club, 1155 E. 42nd St., Odessa,TX 79762. (Publishes educational materialsand trading information for those interested ingems, minerals, the earth sciences, and lapi-dary arts.)

tr

f

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A geology graduate student pauses for a breakduring a field trip to measure sand and gravelbeds for a mapping project.

Publications of the American Geobgical Institute

Earth Science. A quarterly magazine for all stu-dents of the earth. $8/year.

Careers in Geology. A career-guidance pam-phlet for anyone interested in the geologicalprofession. Single copies free; bulk orders$20/100.

ReferencesAmerican Geological Institute. 1987. Summary:North American Survey of Geoscientists, U.S.Section, Survey Results and Forecast of Employ-ment Trends.

Crawford, M.L., J.B. Moody, and J. Tullis. 1987.Women in Academia: Students and ProfessorsRevisited. Gaea 10:2.

National Science Foundation. January, 1988.Women and Minorities in Science and Engineer-ing. NSF 88-301.


r

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A woman geologist and her colleagues examinecores (long, thin samples of subsurface rock) forpotential mineral deposits.

6 1,

Program 7Physics and Astronomy

Program SummaryPhysicists and astronomers are curious about theuniverse. They share a fascination with the waythings work and a desire to find the answers tosome of the most difficult questions ever askedOften at the forefront of scientific discovery, theystudy many aspects of the universe from thesmallest particles of matter to the most remotegalaxies.

Women have been involved in important dis-coveries and events in physics and astronomythroughout history. Five famous women physi-cists are featured in the program.

French physicist Marie Curie (1867-1934) re-ceived two Nobs Prizes (1903 and 1911) for thediscovery of po.of -n and radium.1

Use Meitner (1878-1968), an Austrian, helpedpioneer the development of nuclear energythrough her research in nuclear fission.2

German-born physicist Maria Goeppert Mayer(1906-1972) shared the 1963 Nobel Prize inphysics for her research concerning the shellstructure of atomic nuclei.

Chien-Shiung Wu (1912? ), an American experi-mental physicist, helped disprove the law of con-servation of parity,3 proving that the physical lawsthat govern some systems of molecules are differ-ent from the laws that govern the mirror images of

1Polonium (Po) and radium (Ra) are highly radioactivemetallic elements. Both occur naturally in uranium oressuch as pitchblende.

2Nuclear fission is the process of splitting the nucleusof an atom into two parts, thereby creating a largeamount of energy. The continuous fissioning of atoms,also called a chain reaction, is the energy source of allpresent nuclear reactors.

3Once believed to be a natural law of physics that ap-plied to all events, conservation of parity concerns thesymmetry between an event and its reflection: whenparity is conserved, an event and its mirror image ap-pear identical to an observer. While all ordinary me-chanical and electrical systems demonstrate conser-vation of parity, physicists have discovered that parityis not conserved in a specific type of nuclear event.

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these systems. Her discovery suggests that na-ture is not always symmetrical.

During the space shuttle mission of June 1983,American astronaut Sally Ride (1951 ) bacamethe first woman flight engineer to travel intospace. Ride, who holds a Ph.D. in astrophysics,performed experiments outside the Challenger,using a remote manipulator arm.

Physicists and astronomers are interested in thelaws and properties of matter, motion, heat, light,and electricity. Often their research contributespractical information that can be applied to prob-lems such as improving the efficiency of a nuclearpower plant. Other physicists and astronomerscontribute to our basic understanding of the uni-verse with discoveries about the life cycles ofstars and galaxies, atomic theory, and other physi-cal phenomena.

The program presents five women who havemade successful careers in physics and astron-omy, and two students who are currently pursuingdegrees in physics.


Unda Powers is a theoretical physicist work-ing with KMS Fusion, a laser physics re-search laboratory in Ann Arbor, Michigan.She holds a master's degree in mathe-matics and is finishing a doctorate in plasmaphysics.

June Rooks holds a master's degree inphysics. She creates and tests flight simu-lations for aircraft at the U.S. Naval Weap-ons Center in California.

Betsy Turner works in a nuclear physicslaboratory at Emory University in Atlanta,monitoring the effects of radiation from anuclear power plant. She holds a bache-lor's degree in physics and a master's de-gree in medical science.

Gayle Ater teaches high school physics inLouisiana. She holds a master's degree ineducation and physics and has received na-tional awards for excellence in teaching.

Anne Cowley holds a Ph.D. in astronomyand serves on the faculty of Arizona State

62

University. Her research led to the dis-covery of a black hole.4

Two physics students at the University ofMichigan, Anne Cummings and Ellen Mon-tague, discuss their educational experi-ences.

Physicists work in a variety of settings: federaland state agencies, industry, hospitals, and uni-versities. Astronomers usually work for govern-ment agencies and universities.

The program reviews recommendations for highschool and college preparation for physics and as-tronomy careers. High school students shouldprepare by developing a strong foundation inmathematics and science. Courses in astronomyand computer science are highly recommended.

Most physics and astronomy majors begin withgeneral physics courses and progress to ad-vanced courses and laboratory work in specializedbranches of physics such as mechanics, elec-tronics, and thermodynamics.

Physicists and astronomers often mention the ex-citement of making new discoveries, finding solu-tions to difficult problems, and asking questionsabout the nature of the universe. Many profes-sionals in these fields find their creativity limitedonly by their imaginations.

Did You Know?In 1986, approximately 7 percent of the72,600 physicists and astronomers employedin the U.S. were women. Of the 44,300 physi-cists and astronomers employed in the U.S in1976, 4 percent were women (National Sci-ence Foundation, January 1988).

In 1986, approximately 14 percent of all bache-lor's degrees granted in physics were awardedto women. Sixteen percent of all terminal mas-ter's degrees and 8 percent of all doctorates inphysics were awarded to women (Ellis 198687).

4Black holes are objects with intensely strong gravita-tional force which astronomers believe exist in space.Black holes are probably formed when a large star col-lapses and compresses until its light cannot escape; astar in this condition appears as a "black hole" inspace.

Before the ProgramYou could choose tc, conduct an introductory dis-cussion using the following questions, or havestudents first complete the Physics and Astron-omy Interest Assessment on page 61, and thenproceed with an introductory discussion.

1. What type of work might a physicist per-form? An astronomer?

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2 What advantages might a career in physicsor astronomy offer?

3. How much education is necessary?

4. Where might a physicist or astronomerwork?

5. Can a woman physicist or astronomer suc-cessfully combine her career with familylife?

After the Program1. How are physics and astronomy related?

(Both disciplines seek to understand thephysical nature of the universe. Astronomy isgenerally considered to be a subfiald of phys-ics. Astronomy requires a background inphysics. Both require sound knowledge ofmathematics.)

2. Who are some famous women physicistsmentioned in the program? (Marie Curie dis-covered radium and polonium; Lise Meitnerparticipated in early research in nuclear phys-ics; Maria Goeppert Mayer developed a modeldescribing the shell structure of atomic nuclei;Chien-Shiung Wu proved that nature is not al-ways symmetrical in her theory of nonconser-vation of parity; Sally Ride was the first Ameri-can woman to explore space; Anne Cowleydiscovered a black hole.)

3. How have physicists influenced the way welive today? (The work of physicists led to thedevelopment of microwave technology, tran-sistors, televisions, computers, telephones,and many other technological advances.)

4. How might physics be applied to health andmedical issues? (Betsy Tanner monitors nu-clear radiation to prevent health problems.Other physicists are concerned with the ef-fects of x-ray and ultrasound equipment onhuman health. Some are involved with the

e 3

cv

development and use of laser technology forsurgery, and others work in radiation therapy.)

5. Why is a good back.. ) mathematics im-portant to physicists Aronomers? (Math-ematics Is the languagu used by physicistsand astronomers to communicate their Ideasand observations. For example, measure-ment p.1..viies essential data in both fields.)

6. What kind :)1 work schedule might a physicistor astronomer follow? (Physicists tend towort a rec ;!ar day in laboratories, classrooms,or offices. Astronomers can also expect fairlyregular hours, atthouph they may travel to ob-servatories occasionally to conduct fieldstudies and work through the night gatheringdata. Physicists and astronomers sometimeswork long hours to complete a researchproject.)

7. What are some of the tools an astronomeruses to make observations of the sky? (In ad-dition to the telescope, astronomers use ra-dioscopes to measure wavelengths of highenergy elef.ltrons moving at the speed oflight. Spectroscopes enable them to see thespectrum of a star and thereby determine itschemical composition. Infrared detectorshelp astronomers determine newly formedstars. Computers are also integral tools inastronomy.)

8. How should a high school student prepare fora career in physics or astronomy? (Mathemat-ics is especially important: students shouldtake as many courses as possible as early aspossible. Courses in physics and other sci-ences are highly recommended. English,humanities, social sciences, and foreign lan-guages are usually required for college en-trance. Shop and electronics courses arealso advantageous.)

Supplemental Activities1. Invite local physics and astronomy profession-

als and students to discuss their careers, re-search, education, and training.

2. Help students form a physics or vtronomyclub and plan regular activities. Encouragehigh school students to join their schoolchapter of JETS, INC. (Junior EngineeringTechnical Society). If the school has n oJETS, INC. chapter, help students organizeone. Tho society encourages students to ex-plore engineering and applied science

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through project work and activities. Chaptersoperate in high schools, under the guidanceof a teacher. Practicing engineers serve asvolunteer technical advisers. For more infor-mation, contact the United Engineering Cen-ter, 345 E. 47th St., New York, NY 10017;212/705-7690.

3. Organize a field trip to a research laboratorywhere physicists or astronomers work

4. Plan a trip to a planetarium or observatory.Ask a local astronomer to accompany stu-dents, or arrange for a special guide to be as-signed to your group at the site.

5. If computers are available, arrange for stu-dents to have access to software programsthat introduce concepts in physics andastronomy.

6. Encourage students to read articles aboutphysics and astronomy in magazines such asFhysics Today, Astronomy, and Sky andTelescope. If your students are less ad-vanced, select more general science maga-zines such as Discover, Science, The Sci-ences, Scientific American, and ScienceDigest. Conduct a discussion about thelatest advances in physics and astronomy.

7. Review television programming guides forte dates and times when relevant scienceprograms sucl- as Mr. Wizard's World, 3-2-1Contact, and Nova will be broadcast in yourarea. Remind students to +;iaih these pro-grams. Conduct a follow-up discussion.

8. Keep a bulletin board or sccapbook aboutwomen in physics and astronomy. Have stu-dents contribute articles about women scien-tists and their contributions, current physicsand astrommy news, and information aboutcareer opportunities. Share this informationwith other classes, counselors, librarians,and teachers, and encourage them to beaware of these and other nontraditional ca-reer opportunities for women.

9. Suggest that students role-play a womanphysicist or astronomer and her husband asthey decide how to divide cooking, childcare, and other family and householdresponsibilities.

10. Have one student role-play a prospectivephysics or astronomy major. Another stu-dent can role-play a college admissions

4

counselor, adviser, high school teacher,friend, or parent who is consciously or un-consciously discouraging the student frompursuing a career in physics or astronomy.Discuss and role-play methods of copingwith direct and subtle discouragement.

11. Investigate summer programs that enablestudents to get a head start in physics or as-tronomy. Information on programs may beavailable from local school boards, nearbyuniversities, or professional science associa-tions.

12. Help students conduct experiments thatdemonstrate fundamental laws of physics orarrange for them to visit a high school or col-lege physics course in which experimentsare being conducted.

A DemonstrationAstronomer Annie Jump Cannon (1863-1941)dist..overed 300 variable stars, five new stars, anda double star. She became known as "the censustaker of the sky" for her classification of nearly300,000 stars. She was able to compare and clas-sify stars according to spectral type, brightness,and distribution by studying thnir spectra (bandsof colored light) with a spectroscope.5

Have students read about and discuss Cannon'swork. Conduct a demonstration to illustrate howCannon studied the stars with a spectroscope. Aspectroscope might be borrowed from the highschool physics laboratory, purchased from an op-tics supplier, or constructed according to the fol-lowing instructions.

110w to make a spectroscope

Materials: a shoe box, a piece of diffractiongrating large enough to cover a one-inchsquare surface, tape.

The diffraction grating can be obtained com-mercially, or a reasonable facsimile can bemade at home. To make the diffraction grating,pour clear glue on an old record. Allow theglue to dry, and peel it off the record surface.

5A spectroscope is an optical device for observing thespectrum of light or radiation from a given source.Most commercial spectroscopes consist of a chamberwith a slit through which light passes, a lens, a prism,and, in some cases, a telescope through which thespectrum is viewed.

Directions: (1) Cut a slit (about one by one-eighth of an inch) in one end of the shoe box,and a one-inch square in the other end.(2) Place diffraction grating over the squareopening and secure it with tape. (3) Tape theboA lid shut.

Viewing lght through a spectruscopo

Step 1. Shine a flashlight through a prism ontoa sheet of white paper. Demonstrate and ex-nlain how the prism separates the white lightinto different colors of the spectrum.

Step 2. Once students understand this con-cept, they can use the spectroscope to ob-serve differences in light from differentsources. Have them pay attention to thebrightness of the various colors in the spec-trum. Explain that they might have to look care-fully: the variationin brightness may be subtle.

Step 3. Ask them what conclusions can bedrawn from the variations in brightness andcolor. Have them take notes and compare theirobservations.

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Students examine an industrial robot to see howphysics is applied in the design of mechanical andelectronic devices.

65

IMMINIMPIIMIK-


Outstanding Women in Science: Physics and Astronomy

I

'''''.:'-' ''''.'INItii iaigifi i_ '

E. Margaret BurtIdge

Occupation: Professor of Astronomy, Director ofthe Center for Astrophysics andSpace Sciences at the University ofCalifornia, San Diego.

Education: Ph.D., Astronomy, University ofLondon,1943.

Awards andhonors: Warner Prize in Astronomy, 1959;

Bruse Gold Medal of the Astronom-ical Society of the Pacific, 1982;American Astronomical Society,Russell Lectureship,1984; NationalMedal of Schnce,1984.

Professionalservice: President, American Astronomical

Society, 1976-1978; President,American Association for the Ad-vancmerit of Science, 1982;Member, American Academy ofArts and Sciences, 1969; Member,National Academy of Sciences,1978; Eleven honorary degrees.

Dr E. Margaret Burbidge is an observational astronomer. She studies active galaxies and quasars, whichare luminous, energy-emitting objects located at the center of some distant galaxies. She employs tele-scopes, computers, and sperAruscopcs to determine the physical properties, energy sources, and radia-tion mechanisms of these cbjects. She is currently a co-investigator on a team of scientists developing aFaint Object Spectrograph for NASA's Hubble Space Telescope.

With encouragement and help from a supportive professor, Dr. Burbidge excelled in her graduate studiesat the University of London. After graduating, she conducted researo at the University of Chicago De-partment of Astronomy, the Yerkes Observatory, the Enrico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies, and theCalifornia Institute of Technology before accepting her current appointment.

Dr. Burbidge and her husband, Dr. Geoffrey Burbidge, also an astronomer, have wolted together on re-search projects frequently during their marriage of 40 years. The:r enduring professional collaboration andthe excitement of working with young scientists and graduate students are among the most rewarding as-pects of her career.

Dr Burbidge has worked throughout her professional life to promote equal opportunities for women in as-tronomy. She encourages young women who are interested in aorronomy to prepare for their futuresnow. "Study math and physics, read popular books on astronomy, and perhaps join an amateur 'star-watchers' club," she suggests. Persistence is a quality Dr. Burbidge counsels young women.ta cultivatewhen they embark on a career in science. "If you meet discrimination or discouragement, persist in yourgoals and find ways to work around the problems."

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Physics and Astronomy Interest AssessmentThe following questions reflect some of the common interests of physicists and astronomers. If you an-swer yes to many of these questions, you might want to consider a career in physics or astronomy.

1. Are you intrigued by the unknown?

Yes No

2. Would you like to look at the moon through atelescope?

Yes No

3. Are you curious Et.out how things work? Doyou ever take things apart and put them backtogether?

Yes No

4. Are you interested in making di3coveries toadvance present knowledge of the universe?

Yes No

5. Do you often watch science shows ontelevision?

Yes No

6. Have you ever woriced or experimented withmagnets, mirrors, floating and sinking objects,bicycle gears. or simple machines like pulleysand levers?

Yes No

7. Do you like to think about why things happenand try to find logical explanations?

Yes No

8. Are you mechanically inclined?

Yes No

9. Do you enjoy mathematics?

Yes No

Science?

Yes No

10. When you are working on an interestingproblem, do you find it difficult to stop beforeyou've reached a solution?

Yes No

11. Have you ever tried to come up with newinventions?

Yes No

12. Do you like to tackle jobs in an orderly way,one step at a time?

Yes No

13. Are you interested in working withcomputers?

Yes No

Career Opaons in Physics andAstronomyPhvits

All physicists are concerned with the nature andbehavior of matter and energy. Whether theywork in universities, government laboratories, orprivate Industry, most conduct research in a spe-cialty area within one of many branches of phys-ics. The following are some major branches ofphysics and examples of their practical applica-tion.

Acoustical physics is the study of sound and itstransmission, including shock and vibration,underwater sound. and speech. Among thecontributions of acoustical physicists are thedesign of symphonic auditoriums, the devel-opment of the stereo tape deck, and the ultra-sound scanner used in diagnostic medicine.

Atomic and molecular physics concern the in-teraction of electrons and nuclei in ato,ns, andthe comNnation of atoms into molecules. Re-search in these areas has provided assistancein the manufacture of chemicals and pharma-ceuticals and enabled identification of un-known materials.

Biophysics is the application of the ideas andmethods of physics and chemistry to the studyof living organisms. Investigations focus onunderstanding DNA, the effects of x-ray andnuclear particles on cells and tissues, and theconduct of nerve impulses.

Electronics involves the study, design, and ap-plication of devices that operate on the basis ofthe characteristics and behavior of electrons.Some contributions of this specialization aretelevision, radar systems, and telephones.

Electrodynamics is the study of electrical andmagnetic phenomena. Physicists woMing inthis area have helped design huge generatorscapable of providing electricity for heating,lighting, and air-conditioning.

Fluid physics concems the forces and motionsof uncharged liquids and gases. Physicists inthis specialization have contributed to the de-velopment of streamlined vehicles and to thedesign of the jet engine.

Geophysics applies the principles of physics tothe study of the earth. Geophysicists havecontributed methods of more efficient petrol-

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eum production. Others have studied the dy-namics of earthquakes.

Medical physics applies the principles andtec_ :iques of physics to the problems of medi-cine. Physicists in this specialty have contrib-uted medical diagnostic techniques and equip-ment such as x-rays, radioisotope., and otherscanning devices.

Nuclear physics is the stir& of the atomic nu-cleus. Contributions include nuclear energyand radiation therapy.

Optical physics is the study of light. Optice.!physicists have contributed to the use of lasersin eye surgery, tool manufacture, fusionpower, and holography.

Plasma physics is the study of the behaviorand use of high-temperature ionized gas.Plasma physicists are working toward thedevelopment of controlled thermonuclearenergy.

Solid state physics is the tudy of the crystallo-graphic, electronic, and magnetic properties ofsolids, primarily of crystalline solids. PhysicistswoMing in this area have helped to producethe transistor, integrated circul, and computermemory.

Space and planetary physics is the study nf theregions of space oetween the planets. Nu-clear particles, atoms, molecules, meteorites,and radiation pass through these regions.Physicists in this specialty have contributed tomore accurate weather forecasting and to theincreased sophistication of communicationssatellites.

Thermodynamics is the study of different formsof energy and of the process of conversionfrom one form to another. Thermodynamicshas helped create efficient engines and micro-wave ovens.

Other major branches of physics

Cryogenics is the study of extremolv low temperatures.

Health ptyslcs is the developmem of technol-ogies and methods of protecting pertr',' whowork with or near radiation.

Mathematical physics is the study ofmathernatioal systems that describe physicalphenomena.

Mechanics is the study of the behavior of ob-jects and systems in response to variousforces.

Particle physics or high-energy physics is thestudy of the behavior and properties of ele-mentary particles.

Quantum physics is the study of quantum the-ory, which deals with the interaction of matterand electromagnetic radiation.

Astronomy

Astronomers study the stars, planets, and otherastronomical objects and phenomena to under-stand the nature and origin of the universe. As-tronomy- is generally considered to be a subfieldof physics.

Most astronomers are also astrophysicists: theyapply the principles of physics and mathematics toquestions about astral objects and phenomena.

The following are some specializations withinastronomy.

Observational astronomers specialize in ob-serving astronomical objects and phenomenausing sophisticated computers and tele-scopes.

Theoretical astronomers use the principles ofphysics and mathematics to determine the na-ture of the universe.

Stellar astronomers specialize in the study ofstars.

Solar astronomers study the sun and relatedphenomena.

Planetary astronomers study the nature andconditions of the planets.

Cosmologists study the structure and historyof the universe as a whole.

General Career AreasResearchGraduates with advanced degrees inphysics, astronomy, or a combination of relateddegrees possess the qualifications to conduct re-search in their areas of specialization.

Physicists conduct research on an enormousnumber of subjects in a variety of settings, includ-ing government, industrial, and university labora-

tories. Astronomers usually conduct research in auniversity or government laboratory.

A Ph.D. is generally required of thole who con-duct research; however, some pa ,:ons in privateindustry and government institutions are availableto those with masters degrees.

TeachingMany people with backgrounds inphysics and astronomy teach in public and privateschools, universities, and government institu-tions. A Ph.D. is usually required for academicteaching positions; however, some two-year col-leges will hire physicists and astronomers withmasters degrees. Those who teach in large aca-demic institutions usually combine teaching andresearch in their careers.

Inspection and product controlA small numberof physicists conduct product inspection, testing,and supervise quality control in industry.

ConsultingA few physicists help supervise proj-ects related to their specializations in a number ofdifferent settings such as hospital, private indus-try, and government laboratories.

Preparing for a Career in Physicsand AstronomySecondary Education

MathematicsMathematics courses are espe-cially important because they provide theground rules for computationan integral partof physics and astronomy. Students shouldtake as many courses as possible, including al-gebra, trigonometry, geometry, and calculus.

SciencesPhysics courses are essential, buta strong general background in the sciences isalso important. If astronomy courses are notavailable at the high school level, studentsshould read science magazines and view rele-vant science programs whenever possible.Computer science is also important. Com-puters have become essential tools in physicsand astronomy.

English and communicationsCourses inthese curriculum areas help students developwriting, speaking, and other skills that will en-able them to communicate effectively with fu-ture colleagues and students.

Modern foreign languagesKnowledge of atlc:9st ore and preferably two languages will beadvantageous. Language proficiency is nec-essary for physicists and astronomers, who of-ten participate in international gatherings and

follow research advances reported in foreignjournals.

Additional course workShop and electron-ics: These courses will help familiarize stu-dents with many of the skills and techniquesthey will use in research. Social sciences: Fa-miliarity with the fields of anthropology, psy-chology, and sociology will help students be-come familiar with the issues and problems ofsociety.


Bachelor ot Science (B.S.) --Students will takecourses in various branches of physics: me-chanics, electricity and magnetism, thermody-namics, astronomy, modern physics (atomic,nuclear, solid state) and electronics, amongothers. Courses in mathematics will also be re-quired. Chemistry and biology are electivesthat might enhance career options.

Students who choose to major in astronomymay also want to take courses in related areassuch as geology, geophysics, planetary atmos-pheres, computer science, optical instrumentdesign, and electronic data acquisitionsystems.

Intemships and special learning opporfunl-tiesAdditional learning opportunities are of-ten available to undergraduate studentsthrough summer programs sponsored by gov-ernment and private industry. Summer oppor-tunities may also be available at universities;students are sometimes able to work with fac-ulty members on research projects.

Master of Science (M.S.)Graduate study isessentially a prerequisite for students whowant to conduct research. In graduate school,students will focus on one branch of physics ora subfield of astronomy. Earning a masters de-gree in physics usually requires two to threeyears of advanced courses and directed re-search. Astronomy graduate students may berequired to spend part of their graduate educa-tion working at an observatory.

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)A Ph.D. is re-quired for advancement in college teachingand for most high-level research positions.Most physicists and astronomers hold Ph.D.s.Seventy percent of the total membership ofthe American Institute of Physics hold Ph.D.s,20 percent hold M.S. degrees, and 10 percenthold B.S. degrees (Czujko et a). 1986).

Doctoral students in physics or astronomy canexpect to complete an average of three to four

years of study beyond the masters degree, in-cluding research leading to the completion of adissertation in their area of specialization.

Related fieldsStudents with undergraduatedegrees in physics or astronomy can elect toenter graduate degree programs in other areasof science to prepare for careers in biophysics,chemical physics, engineering, geophysics,etc. The number physicists working in ca-reers that combirr., physics with other sciencesor engineering has increased in recent years(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986).

Unrelated fieldsA physics background canalso be combined with education, law, medi-cine, and a variety of other fields.

Outlook and SalariesIn 1987, the professional membership of theAmerican Institute of Physics totalled approxi-mately 86,000 (AIP 1987).

.imployment opportunities in physics are ex-pected to grow between 4 and 10 percentthrough the rnid-1990s, more slowly than theaverage for all occupations (U.S. Bureau of La-bor Statistics 1986).

in the current economy, there will be consider-able competition for positions in physics andastronomy. Physics graduates with doctorateswill be in greatest demand. Physics majors withbachelor's degrees are not qualified to 'entermost physicist positions, but many find work astechnicians, engineers, computer specialists,and secondary teachers (U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics 1986).

The job outlook is brightest for those who ex-pect to work in private industry. If research anddevelopment expenditures increase through1995 as expected, positions will open up.However, little growth is expected in universi-ties and colleges as enrollment numbers stabi-lize. Individuals interested in academic posi-tions will probably have to wait for existingpositions to become vacant. Similarly, govern-merri funds are not expected to increase sig-nificantly to create many new positions (U.S.Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986).

In 1984, nearly hail of all employed physicistsheld faculty positions in colleges and universi-ties. Approximately one quarter worked for in-dependent research and development labora-tories. Three out of 10 physicists worked ingovernment positions, primarily for the Depart-

-64- 70

ments of Defense and Commerce (U.S.Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986).

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, an in-flux of foreign graduate students majoring inphysics reversed a decline in physics enroll-ments in the U.S. The rise in foreign studentenrollment also contributed to a substantial in-crease in the number of women receiving doc-torates in physics (Ellis 1986-87).

In March 1985, the median annual salary forAmerican Institute of Physics members was$44,100. Physicists and astronomers withPh.D.s, who comprise nearly 75 percent of AIPfulltime employed membership, earned a me-dian salary of $46,000. Those with masters orbachelor's degrees earned approximately$40,000 (AIP 1987).

Salaries vary according to employer, location,and years of experience. The highest medianannual salaries were paid by private industry inhighly industrialized areas of the Pacific coastand in the Middle Atlantic states. In 1985, AIPmembers working in industry earned rnedianannual salaries of $48,300$C5,000. Thoseemployed in manufacturing earned slightlyhigher salaries than those in services. Feder-ally funded research and government posi-tions paid the next highest salaries: $39,000$68,000. Universities and colleges paid me-dian annual salaries of $29,000$58,000 (AIP1987).

While male physicists continue to earn morethan their female counterparts, this disparityhas decreased steadily. in 1981, women phys-icists and astronorners earned 25 percent lessthan their male colleagues in colleges and uni-versities and 16 percent less than their col-leagues in industry and other nonacademicsettings. By 1985 this salary gap had narrowedto 12 percent and 10 percent, respectively(AIP 1987).


American Association of Physics Teachers,5110 Roanoke Place, Ste. 101, College Park,MD 20740; 301/345-4200.

American Astronomical Society, University ofDelaware, Newark, DL 19711; 2021659-0134.(The society consists of 4,000 astronomers,physicists, and scientists in related fields.Among other rrojects, the society rnaintains

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ant. distributes information on the status ofwomen in astronomy.)

Arnerican Institute of Physics, 335 E. 45th St.,New York, NY 10017-3483; 2121661-9404.(A1P is a corporation of national societies in thefield of physics. Among other projects, the in-stitute provides information about physics edu-cation to students, physics teachers, andphysics departments.)

American Physical Society, Commission on theStatus of Women in Physics, 335 E. 45th St.,New York, NY 10017-3483; 2121682-7341.

Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 1290 24thAve., San Francisco, CA 94122; 415/661-8660. The society exists to increase public un-derstanding and appreciation of astronorny;disseminate relevant information; sponsor lec-tures, conferences, and teacher workshops.ASP offers a full catalog of educational materi-als in astronomy. ASP also maintains the As-tronomy News Hotline: 415/661-0500.

Health Physics Society, 1340 Old ChainBridge Rd., Ste. 300, McLean, VA 22101;703/790-1745.

Society of Physics Students, 335 E. 45th St.,New York, NY 10017-3483; 516/349-7800.(Operated by the American Institute of Physicsto promote education for all students andothers interested in physics.)

ReferencesAmerican Institute of Physics. 1987. 1985 Sala-ries: Society Membership Survey. Education andEmployment Statistics Division.

Czujko, R., W.K. Skelton, B.F. Porter, and R. Cox.1986. Society Membership Profile: Th9 Patternof Subfield Associations. American Institute ofPhysics. Manpower Statistics Division.

Ellis, Susan D. 1986-87. Report: Education andEmployment. Arnerican Institute of Physics. Man-power Statistics Division.

National Science Foundation, January 1988.Women and Minorities in Science and Engineer-ing. NSF 88-301.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1986. Occupa-tional Outlook Handbook. Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Offices. 1986-87 edition. Bul-letin 2250.


Program 8Scientific Careers for Women:

Doors to the Future

Program ObjectivesThis program is designed to help counselors,parents, teachers, and students become moreaware of the wealth of career opportunities avail-able in the sciences while examining some of thebarriers that discourage young women from pur-suing these careers.

Viewers should be able to identify some of thebarriers women face, identify misconceptionsabout women and science, and suggest somestrategies that help women succeed in their pur-suit of mathematics and science.

Program SummaryWhile the number of women studying and work-ing in science and engineering has increased dra-matically since the 1970s, many high school-agewomen do not complete the academic prepara-tion necessary for a college major in science orengineering. The narrator quotes Betty Vetter,director of the Commission on Professionals inScience and Engineering, formerly the ScientificManpower Commission.

If a young woman does not take a full com-plement of math and science courses whilein high school, she has eliminated herselffrom 75 percent of all job opportunities.

The program illustrates that career decision mak-ing is a complicated process. For young women-to be receptive to nontraditional career opportuni-ties, they must possess

knowledge of the opportunities available tothem

input and support from parents, counsel-ors, teachers, and friends

a solid academic foundation in mathematicsand science

The program examines what happens in the pre-college experience of young women that discour-ages them from pursuing mathematics and sci-ence careers. The following women scientists,engineers, psychologists, students, and coun-selors discuss the barriers that prevent young

women from pursuing career opportunities in thesciences.


Judy Clark, a bioengineering student with aspecial interest in nuclear medicine

Karen Morse, head of the Department ofChemistry and Biochemistry at Utah StateUniversity

Judith Davenport, D.M.D., a dentist prac-ticing in a private clinic in Pittsburgh, Penn-sylvania

Tanya Atwater, Ph.D, a geoscientist andfaculty member at the University of Califor-nia-Santa Barbara

Nena Men love, B.S.E., a civil engineer inBoise, Idaho

Several unidentified high school studentsfrom Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and Ann Ar-bor, Michigan

An unidentified chemistry major at the Uni-versity of Michigan

Barbara Stoat, Ph.D., director of the Womenin Science project at the University ofMichigan

Irene Jones, a genetic toxicologist atLawrence Livermore Labs in Livermore,California

Pat Cole, M.S., a computer software man-ager for Atari, Inc., Sunnyvale, California

Jacqueiyne Eccles, Ph.D., a psychologist atthe University of Michigan

Beth Concoby, M.P.H, an industrial hygien-ist for P.P.G. Industries, Pittsburgh, Penn-sytvania

Janet Ku, M.S.E., a Ph.D. student in bioen-gineering at the University of Michigan

Meridee Jones-Cecil, M.S., a seismologistworking for the United States GeologicalSurvey in Colorado

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Gayle Ater, a Louisiana high school scienceteacher who was named Discover magazineScience Teacher of the Year, 1983

An unidentified physics graduate student atthe University of Michigan

Bonnie Hausman, B.S., a computer pro-grammer with the National Oceanic and At-mospheric Administration

Letitia Byrd, M.A., a high school counselorin Ann Arbor, Michigan

Gall March, M.S.E., an electrical engineer atRockwell International in Troy, Mid-Aga:1

Marta Kindya, B.S.E., a telecommunicationsengineer and training supervisor at NewYork telephone

Joyce Essien, M.D., Director of the Labora-tory Program Office at the Centers for Dis-ease Control in Atlanta, Georgia

Bonnie Robinson, B.S., a production geol-ogist for the Superior Oil Company in Den-ver, Colorado

Barriers Addressed in This ProgramThe women in this program discuss the followingsocial and psychological barriers that preventyoung women from preparing for science careers.

Many women perceive women scientists andscience careers as unattractive or unfeminine.

Several high school students share their per-ceptions of scientists. One student imagines ascientist to be "an old man with white hair and alittle lab jacket." Another comments that scien-tists are "really quiet, really introverted, really,really intellectual." She also suggests that ascientist is someone who "doesn't get alongwith people well."

Several science students and professionals re-fute the notion that scientists are unattractiveor unfeminine. A graduate student mentionsher work in a chemistry research laboratory: "Itwas not considered unfeminine, so to speak,to get your hands dirty." Geologist Tanya At-water comments: "Geology is so much fun. I

love to get dirty and sweaty."

Many women believe that scientists aren't peo-ple-oriented.

Several women scientists react to the notionthat scientists and engineers work in isolation.Nena Men love, an engineer, says: "One of the

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most important parts of my job is communica-tion, and I think that's why i enjoy constructionmore than designing."

"No one should have the vision that a scientistworks alone in a dark and bnely place," toxicol-ogist Irene Jones remarks. "All of us work to-gether as a team. There are times when you'realone doing something. But by in large, we'rea very large and happy family..."

Psychobgist Jacquelyne Eccles suggests thatwomen are more "person-oriented," moredrawn te occupations and service fields thathelp people in a direct manner. She stressesthe importance of informing women studentsthat many science careers offer the opportu-nity to interact with and serve people.

By the time they graduate from high school,many women are academically deficient Inmathematics and science.

The research conducted by Jacquelyne Ec-cles and others suggests that young womenperceive mathematics as less important andless valuable in terms of their career goals, andthis perception is sufficient to persuade themto discontinue taking mathematics and scienceafter the requ'ued basic courses.

Many of the women scientists featured in theprogram stress the importance of a solid highschool background in mathematics and sci-ence. "I think that students should take all themathematics and science they can in highschool, whether or not they plan to be scien-tists," physics teacher Gayle Ater comments."Most students in high school don't know whatthey want to be when they grow up, and forthat reason I think they should leave all doorsopen."

Many women lack confidence in their ability tosucceed in mathematics and science courses.

Research suggests that lack of confidence andmath anxiety prevent women from enrolling inmathematics and science wurses. But the re-search of Sheila Tobias and others has proventhat confidence issues and math anxiety canbe dealt with successfully through desensitiza-tion treatments, which involve creating a morepositive environm- I for women in mathemat-ics and science coses.

Several women scientists describe how theycoped successfully with their own fears andanxieties in mathematics and science courses.

Engineer Bonnie Hausman comments: "I fig-ured that nobody else in that class is better

than I am. The fact that I didn't catch on in-stantly like the rest of the guys in the classdidn't bother me that much, because I knew inthe end that I would understand it too."

Many women perceive a role conflict betweenhaving a career in science and being a wife ormother.

Most women work outside the home and willcontinue to do so for most of their lives,whether or not they are married or have youngchildren. Combining roles always means mak-ing special arrangements and spending extraenergy, but this is true in any career. Careersin science often allow the flexibility and finan-cial freedom to manage career and familysuccessfully.

Several women scientists discuss the rewardsand difficulties of combining their careers withfamily life. Geologist Tanya Atwater comments:"Very often young women come to me and askme if it's possible to be a mother and a careerperson at the same time, and I'm always flab-bergasted because no man would ask thatquestion. They assume it will be worked out.And it gets worked out for women too. Most ofmy women scientist friends have children, andthey work it out in amazing different numbersof ways and sometimes it's easy and some-times it's hard. But nobody wants an easy life.That's boring."

In addition to their own misconceptions andconcerns about science careers, youngwomen must also contend with discriminationfrom parents, teachers, counselors, andpeers.

Jacquelyne Eccles comments: "Some stu-dents, girls especially, often meet with activeresistance to the suggestion on their part of al-temative careers, with career guidance ct,dn-selors and teachers, and in some cases, par-ents, actively discouraging them from thinkingabout these other careers."

According to Eccles, young women some-times experience a lack of attention from math-ematics and scienct, teachers. In one suchcase, the girls in a high school science classsaid that the boys perform the experiments,while they are expected to clean up afterward.

"What we found," Eccles explains, "was thatschools play a very passivu role, that schoolsare not actively discouraging girls, but they arenot actively encouraging them."Research suggests that parents are more likelyto commend female children for their hard workand effort rather than for possession of innate

talent or skill in mathematics and science. Par-ents more often praise sons for their talent andskill when they perform well in these subjects.

Many of the featured women scientists com-ment on the influences, both negative andpositive, that parents, teachers, counselors,and peers had on their career decisions. Theyalso discuss ways they have managed to over-come the negative effects of subtle and directdiscrimination.

Did You Know?

Women now earn 50 percent of all bachelor'sand master's degrees and 33 percent of alldoctorates, but their representation in manynontraditional fields, including engineeringand some science fields, is significantly belowthese figures. In engineering, women earnedonly 13.2 percent of all bachelor's degrees,9.2 percent of all master's degrees and 4.4percent of all doctorates in 1982-83. In physi-cal sciences such as chemistry and physic*,women earned 27.3 percent of all bachelor's,21.4 percent of all master's, and 14 percent ofall doctorates (Ehrhart and Sandler 1987).

In 1986 women comprised 44 percent of U.S.employed workers, 49 percent of all employedprofessionals, but only 15 percent of em-ployed scientists and engineers. In 1986, 1 in4 scientists was a woman and only 1 in 25 engi-neers was a woman (National Science Founda-tion, January 1988).

While the number of women scientists and en-gineers is still small, it represents a dramatic in-crease, rising from 9 percent in 1976 to 15 per-cent in 1986 (National Science Foundation,January 1988). Employment growth for menscientists and engineers remained at about 6percent during the same 10-year period.

Number of Women Scientists and EngineersEmployed In the U.S.

IrsORMIK.

1976 1984 1986

199,700 512,600 698,600

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Naeonal Science Foundation, January 18

Before the Program1. What image do you hold of a typical scientist?

What qualities and attributes do they pos-sas? Are the qualities and attributes youthought of considered to be traditionally femi-nine or masculine?

2. Can women be successful scientists andengineers?

3. DO most women work outside the home? Canmost young women today choose whethernot not they will work?

4. What advantages might a career in sciencehave over other kinds of careers?

5. Is it as easy for young women to pursue sci-ence and engineering as it is for men?

6. What kinds of factors determine whether ayoung woman will pursue a career in scienceor engineering through college?

7. What are the barriers that directly and indi-rectly block young women from pursuing sci-ence and engineering careers?

Mter the Program1. How did the high school girls featured in the

program describe a typical scientist? ("an oldman with white hair and a little lab jacket";"somebody who was just buried in her work";"really quiet, really introverted, really, reallyintellectual"; "doesnl get along with peoplewelr)

2. How do the featured women scientists andengineers dispel these stereotyped imagesof scientists? (Many of the women [NenaMen love, engineer; Irene Jones, toxicologist;Pat Cole, computer scientist] mention thatthey work with others and stress that commu-nication and interaction are import9nt aspectsof their jobs. Several women [Beth Concoby,industrial hygienist; Janet Ku, bioengineer;Meridee Jones-Cecil, seismologist] mentionthat their work goals focus on improving andprotecting the hea:th and lives of individuals.They are articulate, dedicated, bright womenwho enjoy their careers, but they also haveother interests such as family, friends, andrecreation.)

3. How many women today are scientists andengineers? (In 1986, 15 percent of all work-

ing scientists and engineers were woman, ascompared to 9 percent in 1976. Today, morethan 1 in 4 scientists are women and 1 in 25engineers are women. See the Did YouKnow? section for more relevant statistics.)

4. What factors must be present before a youngperson can make an intelligent career choice?(knowledge of the opportunities available;support and input from parents, counselors,teachers, and friends; a solid academic foun-dation) Are all of these factors present foryoung women when they make career deci-sions? (Not always. Many young womenaren't made aware of or encouraged to pur-sue the opportunities available to them in sci-ence and engineering. Many must contendwith subtle and direct discrimination.)

5. What are some of the barriers that directly andindirectly block women from pursuing scienceand engineering careers? (Many women per-ceive scientists and science careers as unat-tractive. Many believe that scientists aren'tpeople-oriented. Many are academically defi-cient in mathematics and science by the timethey graduate from high school. Manywomen lack cenfidence in their ability to suc-ceed in mathematics and science courses.Some perceive a role conflict between havinga career in science and being a wife ormother. Many must contend with discrimina-tion from parents, teachers, counselors, andpeers.)

6. Which individuals have significant influenceon the career decisions of young men andwomen? (counselors, parents, peers, teach-ers) What kinds of experiences and situationsmight influence their career choices? (lack ofencouragement or unequal treatment inmathematics and science classes; subtle ordirect discouragement from counselors, par-ents, and teachers; teasing from peers)

7. Do most young women believe that mathe-matics is an important and valuable aspect oftheir educations? (Studies indicate that girlsperceive mathematics as less important andless valuable to their career goals. Subse-quently, girls are more likely to drop out ofmathematics courses [Armstrong and Price1982; Haven 1972].)

8. Are young men and women treated equally inmathematics and science courses? (Youngwomen often perceive that teachers pay lessattention to them in mathematics and science

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courses. There is some evidence to sug-gest that men and women have different ex-periences in mathematics courses [Becker1981]. Other studies clearly indicate thatgirls frequently meet with resistance fromteachers, parents, counselors, and peerswhen they develop interests in nontradi-tional careers [Haven 1979; Casserly 1979].)

9. Why is it important to take courses in scienceand mathematics in high school? (Youngwomen who avoid mathematics and sciencein high school are often ill-equipped to majorin sciences or mathematics in college. BettyVetter of the Commissior. on Professionalsin Science and Technology says that youngwomen who don't take a full complement ofmathematics and science in high schoolhave eliminated themselves from 75 percentof all job opportunities.)

10. How is learning mathematics to prepare forscience similar to learning a foreign languagebefore traveling? (Mathematics is a kind oflanguage for science. It enables a student tocommunicate and interact within theframework of science just as knowing a for-eign language enables a traveler to commu-nicate and interact in a foreign country. Stu-dents who develop strong foundations inmathematics can apply it to science moreeasily.)

11. How might young women come to believethat they aren't skilled or talented in mathe-matics, and that, if they succeed, it is be-cause they try harder than young men?(Subtle forms of discouragement. Parentsare more likely to attribute their daughters'successes in mathematics to hard work andeffort, rather than s!dll or talent. Conse-quently, girls incorporate the notion that theytry hard, but aren't actually skilled o,talentedat mathematics into their self concepts.)

12. Does math anxiety afflict only women? (Bothmen and women experience math anxiety.)

Can students successfully overcome mathanxiety? (Studies show that men andwomen can overcome math anxiety throughdesensitization treatments, which deal withthe problem much like clinical psychologistsdeal with other forms of anxiety.)

13. Can professional women scientists and engi-neers successfully combine their careerswith husbands and children? (Yes, althoughit often requires making special arrange-ments and compromising on some aspectsof daily life. The women featured often men-tion the support and help they receive fromtheir husbands. The good salaries manywomen scientists earn ensure that they canafford good child care.)

14. Do most women work outside the home to-day? (Almost all women spend a portion oftheir lives working outside the home. Mostwomen are employed an average of 28 yearsof their lives.) Do many women with childrenwork outside the home? (Sixty percent ofmothers with children under the age of 16work.) Do most women today choosewhether or not they will work? (In manycases, economic circumstances make it nec-essary for women to work.)

15. What kind of rola do most schools play in en-couraging young women to pursue mathe-matics and science? (Studies suggest thatmost schools play a passive role: they do notactively discourage or encourage youngwomen.)

16. What does it mean to "keep all doe's open"for future career choices? (If a young womanavoids or rejects mathematics and science inhigh school, she has effectively closed somedoors to future career opportunities. By es-tablishing a strong academic preparation inhigh school, including mathematics and sci-ence, a woman ensures herself a broader se-lection of college majors and many more ca-reer options.)

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Supplementary Materials for Administrators,Counselors, Teachers, and Students

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Supplemental Activities1. Develop a policy regarding sex fairness in

yout school or school district. Hold a specialmeeting to discuss strategies for creating anequitable climate for men and women. Informcollege recruiters and other guest speakersof your policy.

2. Plan a series of workshops, seminars, or in-services to address issues of sex fairness andequal treatment in yaur school. Include ses-sions and activities of relevance to administra-tors. counselors, curriculum specialists,student:, and teachers. For help, contact theEQUALS program at the University of Califor-niaBerkeley. EQUPI_S promotes the partici-pation of women in mathematics and encour-ages their entry into all occupations throughmodel workshops, classroom projects, teach-ing strategies, problem solving activities, andother materials. For more infot mation onEQUALS see pages 73-74.

3. Actively recruit women for mathematics andscience classes. Schools often play a passiverole in the course selection and career deci-sion-making processes of their students.(Studies show that young women are morelikely than men to avoid mathematics and sci-ence classes, and less likely to be encour-aged to enroll.) Emphasize the importanceand relevance of mathematics and scienceclasses to students' future career plans.

4. Develop a series of sneak previews: short,fun, motivational mini-courses designed toencourage women to sign up for specificmathematics and science courses. A sneakpreview should help women develop enthusi-asm for the subject by explaining what topicswill be covered, how the subject relates to thereal world, and what kinds of college majorsand career opportunities are available tothose with knowledge and skills in the sub-ject. Liven up the sneak preview with a dem-onstratiOn, experiment, or videotape.

5. Evaluate your school's career guidance ma-terials and practices to ensure that they pro-mote sex fairness and equality of opportunityfor men and women. A bibliography of sex-fair counseling and career awareness materi-als is included in the EQUALS Handbook.(See pages 73-74 for r )re informativ.1 aboutEQUALS.)

6. Incorporate career education in mathematicsand science classrooms as early as possible.

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Help students see how these subject areasrelate to real occupations. (Studies indicatethat many young women reject mathematicsand science because they believe them tobe itrelevant to the personal career goalshey have made, often as early as ninthgrade. Inadequate career information maygive young women false impressions of theirrelevance of mathematics and science inmany careers [Becker and Jacobs 1983).)

7. Adopt teaching techniques that improve themathematics and science achievement ofwomen and men. Successful techniques in-clude more "hands-on" experiences in class-rooms and laboratories and the use of coop-erative rather than competitive learning andproblem-solving methods (Campbell 1986;Bums 1981). More information on success-ful techniques, programs, and ideas aboutteaching mathematics are included in the PhiDelta Kappa Exemplary Practice Series onmathematics. Contact Phi Delta Kappa, P.O.Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402; 81 2/339-1156. Tha cost is $20.

8. Develop a women in science internship pro-gram. Arrange for interested young womenin your school to intern with local women sci-entists in their laboratories and offices. Stu-dents will gain hands-on experience andpositive reinforcement from their scientist-role models. The University of Michigansponsors such an internship program andpublishes guidelines to help schools de-velop programs based on this model. Formore information contact the Women in Sci-ence Program, University of Michigan, 350S. Thayer St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109 and re-quest Summer Internships in the Sciencesfor High School Women, A Model Program atthe University of hiichigan, by Barbara Sloatand Catherine DeLoughry.

9. Establish a support group for young womenwho pursue mathematics and science be-yond the basic requirements. The groupcould take the form of a club such as "FutureWomen Scientists." Plan confidence-build-ing and motivational activities such as meet-ing role models and taking field trips to thelaboratories or offices of female scientists.The club might publish a science newsletterfor the entire school or sponsor special activi-ties such as guest lectures and science fairs.

10. Invite local women chemists, doctors, physi-cists, engineers, and othe science profes-

7 8

sionals to participate in a women in sciencelecture series or career fair at your school.Contact nearby hospitals, industries, univer-sities, and professional organizations toidentify potential participants.

11. Organize a big sisters in science program. In-vite local women scientists to spend severalhours a week acting as mentors to youngwomen in your school. Activities might in-clude visiting the laboratories and workplaces of the big sisters, designing and par-ticipating in research projects, discussing ca-reer goals, and other motivational activities.Participants could meet once a month toshare their experiences, to report on on-going research projects, and to participate infield trips and other group activities.

12. Ask the admissions staff visitation team fromthe state college or university in your area tomake a special presentation on nontradi-tional opportunities for women when theyvisit your school.

13. Organize a women's tutoring program. Invitewomen students who have excelled in spe-cific mathematics or science courses in thepast to serve as experts in those cources.Experts can provide tutoiial assistance, en-couragement, and support to women cur-rently taking these courses. Advertise thetutorial, emphasize that students at all levelsof performance can benefit from it, and ar-range a nonstressful way for interested stu-dents to sign-up. Provide a convenient timeand place for experts and students to worktogether.


Association for Women in Mathematics,Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA 02181;617/235-0320. (AWM encourages women toachieve in mathematics and related careers,promotes equal opportunity for women in themathematical community, maintains speaker'sbureau of women serving a wide range of audi-ences including elementary and junior highschool students, publishes bimonthly news-letter.)

Education Development Center/Women'sEducational Equity Act Publishing Center.Write or phone the EDC/WEEP PublishingCerter, 55 Chapel St., Newton, MA 02160;800/225-3088 (toll-free) or 617/969-7100

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within Massachusetts. (In 1974, Congresspassed the Women's Edw;ational Equity Act(WEEA) to promote educational equity for girlsand women. The U.S. Department of Educa-tion has provided funds to develop a variety ofrelevant materials under this act. The Educa-tion Development Center, in collaboration withthe Center for Research on Women at Welles-ley College, reviews, publishes, and distrib-utes the materli funded under WEEA.)

EQUALS, Lawrence Hall of Science, Universityof California, Berkeley CA 94720; 415/642-1823. (EQUALS promotes participation ofwomen in mathematics and encourages entryinto nontraditional occupations and provides afull range of resources such as model work-shops, prob!em-solving, sex-fairness, and ca-reer materials for educators, parents, andothers.)

Math/Science Network, Math/Science Re-source Center, Mills College, Oakland, CA94613. (Math/Science Network promoteswomen's participation in mathematics and sci-ence, acts as a planning resource for organiza-tions such as the National Science Foundationand the National Council of Teachers of Mathe-matics, and sponsors programs and confer-ences for teachers and students throughoutthe U.S.)

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091;703/620-9840.

Project on Equal Education Rights (PEER) ofthe NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund,1413 K St. NW, 9th Floor, Washington, DC20005; 202/332-7337. (PEER works to endschool practices, policies, and attitudes thatlimit children's choices and ability to leam.)

Women and Mathematics Education, Educa-tion Department, George Mason University,Fairfax, VA 22030. (WME emphasizes theneed for elementary and secondary programsto reverse female avoidance of mathematics,and works to effect change within the mathe-matics education community.)

Publications and Resource Guides

The following resources are available fromEQUALS, Lawrence Hall of Science, Universityof California, Berkeley, CA, 94720; 415/642-1823. Make checks payable to The Regents,University of California.

EQUALS Handbook. Sex-fair mathematicsinstructional materials for teachers andcounselors at the elementary and secon-

....- 71111re

dary levels. Useful in the classroom and inworkshop Of inservice planning. Cost:$9.50 (inciudes shipping and handling).

The Family Math Book. A book designed tohelp parents help their children learn andenjoy mathematics. The book provides ac-tivities appropriate for children ages five to18, covering topics such as measurement,logical reasoning, geometry and spatialthinking, probability and statistics, estima-tion, and arithmetic. Cost $17 (includesshipping and handling).

I'm Madly in Love with Electricity and OtherComments About Their Work by Women inScience and Engineering. A career bookthat features 70 women scientists, engi-neers, and mathematicians talking abouttheir work and opportunities in their fields.Illustrated with many photographs of thewomen at woric in their laboratories and of-fices. Cost: $2.50 (includes shipping andhandling).

Math for Girls and Other Problem Solvers.Curriculum for Lawrence Hall of Sci:mcecourse, "Math for Girls," with student activi-ties and game sheets. Designed for ele-mentary and secondary tagients. Cost:$8.50 (includes shipping and handling).

SPACES: Solving Problems of Access toCareers in Engineering and Science. A col-lection of 32 mathematics and career class-room activities designed to help studentsdevelop problem-solving skills while learn-ing about mathematics-based fields ofstudy and work. Designed for students ingrades 4-10. Cost: $11 (includes shippingand handling).

We All Count in Family Math. A 17-minutefilm showing scenes from several FamilyMath classes taught under the direction ofthe Lawrence Hall of Science at the Univer-sity of CaliforniaBerkeley. The video dem-onstrates activities parents and children cando together in family math Available forrental or purchase. Rental fee: $27. Pur-

chase of 1/2" VHS or BETA: $62. (Bothprices include the cost of shipping andhandling.)

ReferencesArmstrong, J. M., and R. A. Price. 1982. Corre-lates and Predictors of Women's Mathematics Par-ticipation. Journal for Research in MathematicsEducation 13:99-109.

Becker, J. R. 1981. Differential Treatment of Fe-males and Males in Mathematics Classes. Joumalfor Research in Mathematics Education 12:4053.

Becker, J. R., and. J. E. Jacobs. 1983. Sex: Is Itan Issue in Mathematics? Educational Horizons.Winter.

Bums, Marilyn. 1981. Groups of Four: Solvingthe Management Problem. Learning, Sep-tember.

Campbell, Patricia B. 1986. WhIt's a Nice GirlLike You Doing in a Math Class? Women in Edu-cation. Phi Delta Kappan.

Casssrly, P. L. 1979. Helping Able Young Wom-en Take Math and Science Seriously in School.Tne College Board.

Ehrhart, Julie, and Bernice Sandler. 1987. Look-ing for More Than a Few Good Women in Tradi-tionally Male Fields. Project on the Status andEducation of Women. Association of AmericanColleges.

Haven, E. W. 1972. Factors Associated with theSelection of P 'anced Academic Courses byGirls in High School. (ERIC: Ed. 062 173).

National Science Foundation. January, 1988.Women and Minorities in Science and Engineer-ing. NSF 88-301.

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Additional Resources

Instructional MaterialsCommission on Professionals in Science andTechnology. Opportunities in Science and Engi-neering. Chartbook or slides and audiocassettetape available from the Commission on Profes-sionals in Science and Technology, 1500 Massa-chusetts Ave. N.W., Ste. 831, Wuhington, DC20005; 202/223-6995.

Education Development Center. The followingmaterials are available from the Education Devel-opment Center, 55 Chapel St., Newton, MA02160; 800/225-3088.

Sandra, Zella, Dee and Claire: Four Womenin Science. Grade level 7-12. Film.

Count Me In: Educating Women for Sci-ence and Math. Videocassette.

Equality in Science: Formula for ChangingSex Bias. Sex Stereotyping in Education.Audiocassette add guide.

How High the Sky? How Far Ele Moon?Grade level K-12. Curriculum resource withfour audiocassettes.

Sex Stereotyping in Math Doesn't Add Up.Audiocassette lnd guide.

The Math-Science Connection: EducatingYoung Women for Today. Film or videocas-sette for teachers, parents, and communityleaders.

Tuggar War. Film (engineering).

Guidance Associates, Inc. Challenging Careers:New Opportunities for Women. Catalyst. Filmstripand guide available from Guidance Associates,Inc., C,:mmunications Park, Box 300, WhitePlains, NY 10602.

Modern Talking Pictures. Science: Women'sWork. Film available from Modem Talking PicturesService, 5000 Park St. North, St. Petersburg, FL33709.

National Women's History Project. Numerous re-sources for curriculum and project ideas. ContactNational Women's History Project, Box 3716,Santa Rosa, CA 95402; 707/526-5974.

Research Triangle Institute. Explodng Careers inScience and Engineering. Slides, audiocassette,

posters, activity guide. Available from Iris Weiss,Research Triangle Institute, P.O. Box 12194, Re-search mangle Par*, NC 27709.

ThomasJohn W. Making Changes: A Futures-Oriented Course in Inventive Problem Solving.Available kom ETC Pubkations, Palm Spdngs,CA 92263.

University of Kansas. COMETS: Career-OrientedModules to Explore Topics in Science. Twenty-four modules including biographical sketches ofwomen in science careers and accompanying lan-guage arts activities for junior high school-age stu-dents. Available from the Department of Curricu-lum and Instruction, University of Kansas,Bailey Hall, Lawrence, KA 60045. ERIC: 226-984-1933.

PublicationsAmerican Association _: the Advancement ofScience. Bibliography on Women in Science, En-gineering, and Mathematics. Available from theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofSciences 1776 Massachusetts Ave. N.W., Wash-ington, DC 20036.

American College Testing Program. Women inScionce and Technology: Careers for Today andTomorrow. Available from American College Test-ing Program Publications, P.O. Box 168, IowaCity, IA 52240.

Center for Sex Equity in Schools. Women, Mathand Science: A Resource Manual. 1982. Avail-able from the Center for Sex Equity in Schools,1046 School of Education, University of Michi-gan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.

EQUALS. An Annotated Bibliography to AssistElementary and Se Adaty School Thachers inSex-Fair Counseling and Instruction. Availablefrom EQUALS, Lawrence Hall of Science, Univer-srty of California, Ber!celey, CA 94720.

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Ehrhart, Julie Kuhn, and Bernice R. Sandler.Looking for More than a Few Good Women inTraditionally Male Fields. Project on the Statusand Education of Women, 1987. Available fromthe Association of American Colleges,1818 R. r..N.W., Washington, DC 20009; 202/387-1300.

Ember lin, Diane. Contributions of Wemen: Sci-ence. Minneapolis: Dillon Press, 1977.

Gornick, Vivian. Women in Science: Portraitsfrom a World in Transition. New York: Simon andSchuster, 1988.

Humphreys, S., ed. Womer and Minorities in Sci-ence: Strategies for Increasing Participation.Boulder: Westvievr Press, 1982.

National Coundl of Teachers of Mathematics. Eq-uity in Mathematics Project Resource List. Avai-lable from the National Council of Teachers ofMathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA22091.

Osen, Lynn. Women in Mathematics. Cam-bridge: MIT Press,1974.

Smith, W., and K. Stroup. Science Career Explo-ration for Women. Available from the National Sci-ence Teachers Association, 1742 ConnecticutAve. N.W., Washington, DC 20009.

Tobias, Sheila. Overcoming Math Anxiety. Bos-ton: Houghton Mifflin, 1978.

U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Sta-tistics. Occupational Outlook Handbook. Wash-ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Re-vised biennially.

Organizations and AssociationsAmerican Association for the Advancement ofScience. Library, 1333 H St. N.W., Washington,DC 20005, 202/326-6400.

. National Network of Minority Women inScience, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. N.W.. Wash-ington, DC 20036.

. Office of Opportunities in Science, 1776Massachusetts Ave. N.W., Washington, DC20036.

Association for Women in Mathematics, Women'sResearch Center, Box 178, Wellesley College,Wellesley, MA 02181; 617/235-0320.

Association for Women in Science, 2401 VirginiaAve. N.W., Ste. 303, Washington, DC 20037;202/833-1998.

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Commission on Professionals in Science andTechnology, 1500 Massachusetts Ave. N.W.,Ste. 831, Washington, DC 20005; 202/223-6995.

Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18thSt. N.W., Washington DC 20036; 202/387-5200.

National Research Council: Committee on Educa-tion and Employment of Women in Science andEngineering, JH-710, 2101 Constitution Ave.N.W., Washington, DC 20418; 202/334-2000.

National Science Foundation, 1800 G St. N.W.,Washington, DC 20550; 202/357-7748.

Women and Mathematics Education (WME), De-partment of Education, 3307 Robinson, GeorgeMason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax,VA 22030; 703/323-2421.

CompetitionsScience Olympiada competition for junior highschool-age students focusing entirely on scien-tific projects For information contact Dr. GeraldPutz, Director, Science Olympiad, Macomb Inter-mediate School District, 44001 Garfield Road, Mt.Clemens, MI 48044.

Future Problem Solvinga national interschoolprogram that encourages students to think diver-gently about social problems and about the usesof technologies to solve them. For informationcontact Anne B. Crabbe, Future Problem SolvingProgram, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402;319/299-8688.

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Also from AlT

AIT currently Weis over 145 series with more than 2,100 pro-

grams in every subject area for students of all ages.

For further information or to request an AIT Catalog, call or

write

Agency for Instructional TechnologyBox ABloomington, IN 47402-0120Telephone: 800/457-4509 or 812/339-2203

In Canada: 416/963-5979

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Evolving from a television library begun in 1962, the nonprofitAmerican-Canadian Agency for Instructional Technology (AIT)was established in 1973 to strengthen education through technol-ogy. All' pursues its mission through the development and distribu-tion of video and computer programs and printed materials in asso-ciation with state and provincial education agencies. In addition,All- acquires, enhances, and distributes programs produced byothers. AIT programs are used in schools throughout the UnitedStates and Canada. The agency is based 'n Bloomington, Indiana.

Agency tor Instructional TechnologyBox A, Bloomington, IN 47402

Appendix 16

END

U.S. Dept. of Education

Office of EducationResearch and

Improvement (OERI)

ERIC

Date Filmed

March 21,1991

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