document resume ed 315 321 se 051 219 author conrey ... · title laboratory instructions and study...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 315 321 SE 051 219

AUTHOR Conrey, KathleenTITLE Laboratory Instructions and Study Guide for Human

Anatomy. Part One, Fourth Edition.PUB DATE Sep 89NOTE 91p.; For related documents, see SE 051 218-221.

Black and white illustrations will not reproduceclearly.

AVAILABLE FROM Aramaki Design and Publications, 12077 JeffersonBlvd., Culver City, CA 90506 ($7.75).

PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner,(051)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS *Anatomy; *Biological Sciences; *College Science;

Higher Education; *Human Body; *LaboratoryProcedures; Science Activities; Science Education;Secondary Education; Secondary School Science;Teaching Guides; Teaching Methods

ABSTRACTDuring the process of studying the specific course

content of human anatomy, students are being educated to expand theirvocabulary, deal successfully with complex tasks, and use a specificway of thinking. This is the first volume in a set of laboratoryinstructions and study notes which are designed to accompany alecture series in human anatomy. This volum includes investigationsof the skeleton including bones and joints; studies of themusculature of the body; and studies of the nervous system includingthe central, autonomic, motor and sensory systems. Generalinstructions and laboratory procedures are followed by illustrationsof anatomical concepts using cat and sheep organs as dissectionspecimens. Appendices include anatomical checklists and a set ofhomework sheets to accompany the laboratory exercises. (CW)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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Fourth Edition

by KATHLEEN CONREY

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

LABORATORY

INSTRUCTIONSAND STUDY GUIDE

FOR

HUMAN

ANATOMY

Part OneFourth Edition

The author is a Professor of Natural Sciences at El Camino College. She holds a master's degree

from the Department of Human Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, and has been

teaching human anatomy at the community college level since 1967.

by KATHLEEN CONREY

3

Aramaki Design & Publications12077 Jefferson Boulevard, Culver City, California

(213) 822-9800

Fourth Edition, September, 1989Copyright eb1988 by Kathleen Conrey

All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

First edition and first printing 1982

Printed in the United States of America

4

TABLE OF CONTENTSOSTEOLOGY

Bones of Pectoral Girdle & Upper LimbBones of Pelvic Girdle and Lower LimbBones of the SkeletonBows of the SkullJoints and Ligaments:

SKINNING THE CAT

1

25913

18

19

CAT MUSCLE DISSECTION INSTRUCTIONS 21Preliminaries 21Superficial Shoulder and Back 22Pectoral Muscles and Anterior Abdominal Wall 24Anterior Nee- and Head 25Deep Back and Neck 26Deep Shoulder 27Muscles of Upper Arm 28Muscles of Forearm 29Thigh and Gluteal Region 30Lower Leg Muscles 32

LABORATORY STUDY OF HUMAN MUSCLES 34

LABORATORY STUDY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 35Microscopic Study 35Peripheral Nervous System in the Cat 36Autonomic Nervous System in the Cat 38Sheep Brain 39Cow Eye 43

APPENDIX A: CHECKLISTS 45Bones 46Arthrology 51

Cat Muscles 52Human Muscles (by actions) 53Human Muscles (by regions) 57Nervous System, miscellaneous 59Sheep Brain 60Human Brain 61

Cow Eye 62

APPENDIX B: HOMEWORK 63Introductory Terminology 65Bones 66Ossification 71

Arthrology 72Muscles 73Nervous System 76

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 Table of Contents

OSTEOLOGY LABS: GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Each scheduled lab period concentrates on aparticular section of the skeleton. Lab exer-cises that are specific to the bones for that

days assignment are provided.

sa ss.

You have available for your use a bone boxcontaining one half of a disarticulatedhuman skeleton, either right or left, includ-ing half of a skull, and parts of the vertebralcolumn. There will also be one or perhapstwo articulated human skeletons in theclassroom that you may use for reference.When we study the skull you will beproidedwith whole skulls, disarticulated skulls andfetal skulls.

*z,N,b*%.MN., %-- s3 s-

While looking at the bone read its descrip-tion in your textbook and use many differentpictures of the bone from various referencebooks. Anatomy is a 3-dimensional visualsubject and you need to engage fully in thediscovery process during lab.

USE THE CHECKLISTS

Turn to the osteology checklists in theappendix. Study the articulated and disar-ticulated skeletons and skulls, and learn todistinguish all the features included on thechecklists. The checklists are like a contract;if a feature of the bone is not on your check-list you don't have to remember it.

DISTINGUISH RIGHT I LEFT

You must be able to distinguish righ fromleft on all the bones of the disarticulatedskeleton (except for the smaller bones of theface, and the bones of the hand and foot). Todo this, use the following 3 steps (in any

order). Only after applying all stepscan you decide for sure between right andleft.

STEPS:

1. Distinguish medial from lateral.

2, Distinguish superior from inferior.

3. Distinguish anterior from posterior.

Look at the X-Rays on display at the front ofthe room. The view box has only so muchroom for display at any one time. You areexpected to shuffle through the X-Rays onthe view box, taking X-Rays down and putnew ones up until you have looked throughthem all. Most of the X-Rays will havelabeled feature and many textbooks andreference books have pictures of X-Rays. Agood way to understand what you are look-ing at is to bring the actual bone to the viewbox and sight along the bone as you studythe X-Ray. Imagine that you have X-Rayeyes and can see both sides of the bone atonce.

BONE. cpM...p9$11:..10N

Adult bone is composed of mineralizedosteoid tissue. Both components of bonetogether are stronger than either componentalone.

Examine the chicken bones that have beensoaked in vinegar. The acid dissolves theminerals in the bone, leaving only osteoidtissue. Describe the bone. Can you bend it?

Next examine the chicken bones that havebeen baked. The heat has carbonized theosteoid tissue, leaving only the minerals.Will this bone bend?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 1 Ostr!olog,

Bones of Pectoral Girdle & Upper Limb1. Go through the checklist on page 46.Carefully observe the features of the bonesuntil you can easily recognize whether thebone comes from the right or the left side ofthe body. Make sure you practice thisstOciently, the more rehersals the better.

2. Palpate your own clavicle and notice thatit's superior surface is covered by skin only(no muscle attachments). The pull ofmuscles creates rough markings on bones,therefore thesuperior surfaceof the clavicle isrelatively smoothand unmarkedcompared to therougher inferiorsurface.

3. To distinguishbetween a rightand a left clav-icle, hold thebone as here di-rected, matchingit to your ownbody after eachstep.

a. The thinnerflattened end ofthe bone is thelateral end. Holdit flat.

b. Hold the sidewith rough mark-ings on both endsdown.

c. Hold themedial end of thebone so that itbulges forward.

A4. Look at the X-Ray of a broken clavicle.The clavicle serves as a strut holding theshoulder in place. A fracture of the clavicleis one of the most common skeletal injuries,and results from a direct fall on the shoulderor from a fall on the elbow with the shoulderabducted.

5. Roll the ulnar nerve against the posteriorsurface of the medial epicondyle of yourhumerus with your fingers. This is the"funny bone", so called because the ulnar

nerve is foundjust below theskin, betweenthe skin and thebone.

(medial)end

sternal(medial)

end

A SUPERIOR VIEW

rough markings madeby subclavius muscle

P'` li411 t*"

acrornial(lateral)

end

B. INFERIOR VIEW coracoid tubercle

clavicle

coracoid tubercle

coracoclavicular ligament_

coracoid scapula

C. ANTERIOR VIEW

Fig. 1- Three views of the Right Clavicle

6. Hold a matching radius andulna against oneanother andcarefully ob-serve how theyarticulate at theirproximal anddistal ends. Itshould now beclear to you whythe "ulnarnotch" belongsto the radius,and the "radialnotch" belongsto the ulna.

Lab instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 2 Osteology

Fig. 2- Posterior View of Right Scapula

coronoidfosse

ma... medial1.11/epieondyle. ......

capitulum(lateral condyle)

trochIca(medial condyle)

facetson

greatertubercle

Fig. 4- Distal End of Right Humerusanterior view

Fig. 3- Anterior View of Right Scapula

anatomicalneck

head

lesser tubercle

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 3

Lateral View

intertubercular(bicipital) groove

deltoidtuberosity

Anterior View

Fig. 5- Proximal End of Right Humerus

Osteology

Fig. 6- Distal End of Right Humerusposterior view

distal endof radius

5.

olecranonradial processnotch

sernilunarhead of radius notch

radialtuberosity

Fig. 7- Anterior View of Proximal Radiusand Ulna

coron/idprocess

ulnartuberosity

Fig. 8- Anterior view of Humerus and Ulnashowing annular ligament for head of radius

head ofulna

111

Ik;2.J. 7. 8.

styloid processof ulna

styloid processof radius

ulnar notch(on radius)

head ofulna

Fig. 9- Anterior View of Right CarpusKEY: 1. navicular 2. lunate 3. triangular 4. pisiform

5. greater multangular 6. lesser multangular 7. capitate 8. hamate

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 4 Osteology

Bones of Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb1. Go through the checklist on page 47.Carefully observe the features of the bonesuntil you can easily recognize whether thebone comes from the right or the left side ofthe body. M ike sure you practice thissufficiently, the more rehersals the better.

2. To distinguish between a right and a leftpatella:

a. Hold it so that theapex is pointingaway fromyour body andthe articularsurface isdown

b. Place it onthe table.

c. The side towhich it falls,is the side towhich itbelongs.

apex

articular facets

POSTERIOR VIEW

ANTERIOR VIEW

Fig.10.- Two Views of Right Patella

3. It is difficult to distinguish between aright and left fibula, chiefly because it is dif-ficult to distinguish anterior from posterior.Carefully observe the articulated skeletonthen practice with the disarticulated fibula.

4. While observing the articulated pelvicgirdle, locate the false pelvis and the truepelvis.

5. Carefully studyfigures 11 & 12showing theapproxi-mate linesof fusionfor thethreebones ofthe in-nomi-nate.

superiorpubic ramus

articularsurface

Fig. 11- Interior of Acetabulumshowing lines of fusion

iliopectinealline

greatersciatic notch

ischialspine

lessersciatic notch

inferiorramus of

pubis

ischialtuberosity

inferior ramus of ischium

Fig. 12- Right Innominate Bonemedial view showing lines of fusion

These lines of fusion ossify between ales 20-25.

6. To distinguish a male pelvic girdle fromthat of a female compare the subpubicangles of each to the ani,le made by spread-ing your index finger and middle finger asfar apart as you can without straining. Theangle between your two fingers will matchthe subpubic angle of a male skeleton. Seefigure 13.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 5 Osteology1

tibia

medialmalleolus

ala (wings)of sacrum

iliac crest

.0%., pubic tubercle

inferior pubic ramus

Fig. 13- Articulated Pelvic Glirdle, Anterior View

interosseusmembrane

fibula

lateralmalleolus

calcaneus

Fig. 14- Posterior Viewof Ankle

medialmalleolus

Fig. 15-- Right Tibiaposterior view

lateralcandyle

tibialtuberosity

lateralsurface

medialmalleolus

Fig. 16-- Right Tibiaanterior view

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 6

11Osteology

greatertrochanter

fovea capitis

trochanter

adductortubercle

articularsurface

forpatella

Fig. 17- Right Femuranterior view

tibial tuberosity

medialcondyle

tibialspine

lateralrondyle

Fig. 18- Superior View of Tibia

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I

fovea greatercapitis trochanter

lessertrochanter

linea

asPera

adductortubercle

lateralepicondyle

7 A. 4,

Lintercondylar fossa

lateral

condyle

Fig. 19- Right Femurposterior view

Osteology

Fig. 20- Two Dorsal Views of Right Foot

lateral longitudinal arch medial longitudinal arch

Fig. 21- Medial View and Lateral View of Right Foot

Key to Figures 20 and 21

1, navicular2. medial cuneiform3. middle cuneiform4. lateral cuneiform5. cuboid6. 1st metatarsal7. 2nd metatarsal

8. 3rd metatarsal9. proximal phalanx10. middle phalanx11. distal phalanx12. talus13. calcaneus

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 8 Osteology

1

Bones of the Axial Skeleton1. Carefully observe the parts of a typicalvertebra. The vertebra of choice for thisexercise is a midthoraic vertebra.

superior articulating process

3. On the articulated skeleton, carefully ob-serve the Wfferences between the upper,middle, and lower thoracic vertebrae. If

Fig. 22- Lateral and Superior Views of a Typical Aildthoracic Vertebra

2. Go through the checklist on page 48. Ob-serve the regional features of the vertebraevery carefully so that when challenged youwill be able to classify any disarticulatedvertebra with respect to whether it is acervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebra. Makesure you practice this skill sufficiently withthe disarticulated vertebrae.

superiorarticulating

process

transverseforamen

bifid spine

laminavertebral foramen

(spinal canal)

body

Fig. 23.- Superior View of Cervical Vertebra


handed a single thoracic vertebra be able to es-timatewhich area of the thoracic region it comesfrom. Practice this skill.

4. Be able to recognize Atlas and Axis as wellas C7 and T12. Look for transitional features onthese latter two; each one has some of thefeatures of the region above, and some of thefeatures of the region below.

transverseforamen

intervertebral notch

Fig. 24- Vertebra Prominens (C7)Lateral view showing long spinous process.

Osteology

Fig. 25- Lumbar Vertebra, Lateral View

superior articulating process

Fig. 26- Lumbar Vertebra, SuperlorView

body of sacrum

superiorarticulating

pre-rass

spinous process

articular(auricular)

surface

sacral foramens

(anterior intervertebralforamena)

Fig.'27- Anterior View of Sacrum

coccyx

Fig. 28- Lateral View of Sacrum

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 10 Osteology5

S. Look at the X-Rays of the vertebral column,including those that show examples of scoli-osis and lordosis.

111.11\:e

(secondary)1. cervical CAM ature

134-riw;_..7a _,.:rt,.44 ..

2. thoracic curvature(PrinlarY)

tam

.4...50,.

iIateKt..-2-.4p,

k:

....-...,i.

:: 14- -1::.c.v.: .. 3. lumbar curvaturet:. . .... (secondary)

S. .

1*:... 4. sacral curvature

(Primary)

Fig. 30- Anterior-PosteriorView of SpineShowing Normal Vertical Alignment

Lateral deviation from the normal A-P axis is called SCOLIOSIS.

Fig. 29- Lateral View of SpineShowing Normal Adult Spinal CurvaturesAn exaggerated thoracic curvature is called KYPHOSIS.An exaggerated lumbar curvature is called LORDOSIS.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 11 1 6 Osteology

6. Carefully observe the rib cage. How manydifferent vertebrae are touched by one rib inthe cervical region? In the thoracic region? Inthe lumbar region? How many intercostalspaces are there? How many floating ribs arethere? How many false ribs?

Fig. 31- Left Ninth Ribposterior inferior view

pit

Fig. 32- Lateral View of Rib In SitySternal end of rib lies at lower level than vertebral

end. Middle of costal arch lies at a lower level thaneither end of the rib.

7. Observe the sternum. Locate the sternalangle and the jugular notch. Notice that thesternal angle is a reliable landmark for the sec-ond rib, and the jugular notch is level with thesecond thoracic vertebra.

12"

Fig. 33- Bony Thorax, Midsagittal Viewshowing levels and lengths

jugular notch

cos tochondraljoint

Fig. 34- Bony Thorax, Anterior Viewshowing levels and landmarks

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 12 17 Osteology

Bones of the Skull1. It is most important to carefully study thechecklist for the skull, pages 49 - 50.

key to Figs. 35-361. sphenoid, greater wing2. nasal3. axonal suture4. squamosal suave5. Imadokial =We6. zygomatic portion of =weal bone7. external auditory meatus8. mastoid portion of temporal bone9. styloid process of temporal bone10. mental foramen of mandible11. alveolar margins of mandible12. sagixal suture13. external occipital protuberance14. superior nuchal line15. inferior nuchal line16. occipital crest

14

Fig. 35- Lateral View of Skull

foramen alveolar margins

magnum of maxilla

Fig. 36- Posterior View of Skull

zygomaticprocess of

temporal bone

alveolar marginsof mandible

Fig. 37- View Showing Teeth in $itu


18Osteology

2. While looking at the interior of the articulated human skull learn to associate each foramenwith the structures that use it, as given in the following table:

Fig. 38- Major foramen of the Skull & the Structures That Use Them

FORAMEN USED BY :

Cribrifcem Plate Cranial Nerve I olfactory

Optic Canal Cranial Nerve II optic

uperictS Orbital Fissure Cranial Nerves III, IV, part of V & VIoccolomotor, trochlear, trig' minds abducens

Foramen RotundumForamen OvaleForamen Spinosum

Cranial Nerve V trigeminal

Internal Auditory Meatus Cranial Nerves VII & VIII facial and auditory

Jugular Foramen Cranial Nerves IX, X, XI, & Jugular VeinslossoPharYnSeal. vagus, spinal accessorY

Hypoglossal Canal Cranial Nerve XII hypoglossal

Carotid ForamenCarotid CanalForamen Lacerum

Carotid Artery

Fig. 39- Interior of the Skull Showingthe Main Fossae

superiororbital fissure

e foramen rotund=

foramen ovale

aro foramenspinosum

Fig. 40- Crescemt Shaped Chain ofForamina in Greater Wing of Sphenoid


Osteology

Fig. 41- Details of the Anterior and Middle Fosses of the Skull

mandibularnotch

mentalforamen

Fig. 42- Lateral View of Mandible Fig. 41 Medial View of Mandible


0

3. The following exercise is designed to draw your attention to special features of the articulatedskull that involve more than one bone, and hence are not part of the regular checklist. Fill in theblanks by observation and with the help of textbooks. Note that a bone is counted twice if leftand right are both involved. See the second example.

Fig 44 Parts of the Skull that Involve More Than One Bone

,.

Nasal Septum2 boles : perperxi:mlar plate of ethmoid & vomer

,

Hard Palate4 bones: palatine x 2; maxilla x 2(palatine process of the maxilla)

--.Foramen Lacerum 3 bones:

Jugular Foramen2 bones:

Foramen Spimum usually 2 bones:

Zygomatic Arch 2 bones:

Inferior Orbital Fissure

.

5 bones:

Orbital Fossa

7 bones:

Nasal Cavity

13 bones:

Choanae

5 bones:

.........................


21

Key to Fig. 45

I. frontal2. zygoma3. maxilla4. lacrimal

5. ethmoid6. spbenoif7. superior orbital fissure8. inferior orbital fissure

optic foramen

infraorbital foramen

orbital processof palatine bone

Fig. 45- Details of the Right Orbital Fosse, Anterior View


Z 2

Joints and Ligaments:

1. Use the articulated skeleton to identify

and observe the joints mentioned in your

arthrology checklist p. 51. While observing

the joint keep in mind its classification in

terms of degree of movement.

2. Locate the following specific joint fea-

tures on whatever illustrations are available

to you. Some illustrations are provided in

the book of lecture notes, but you will want

to consult other reference sources as well.

annular ligament

radial collateral ligament

ulnar collateral ligament

interosseous membrane

tibial collateral ligament

fibular collateral ligament

capsular ligament of the knee

medial meniscus

lateral meniscus

anterior cruciate ligament

posterior cruciate ligament

patellar ligament

anterior iliofemoral ligaments

sacrospinous ligament

sacrotuberous ligament

sacroiliac ligaments

Lab lurtructkons & Study Guide, Part I

3. Examine the demonstration specimen of a

cow's knee joint which has been obtained

from a local butcher shop, and dissected by

your instructor. Observe as many of the

following features as the specimen permits:

compact bone

spongy bone

yellow bone marrow

red bone marrow

epiphyseal plates

femoral condyles

articular cartilage

medial and lateral menisci

anterior cruciate ligament

posterior cruciate ligament

patellar ligament

collateral ligaments

capsular ligament

synovial membrane

synovial fluid

18 Arthrology

23

Skinning The Cat"..kh,W.,:a V.

WW:ArAV1:..k

First determine the sex of your specimenfor yourself. Do not rely on the sex deter-mination supposedly made by the biologicalsupply house. They seem to be wrong about50% of the time.

Carefully follow the directions givenbelow for removing the entire skin in onepiece. The removed whole skin will be used(like an overcoat) to wrap the cat in forstorage. The mammary glands and the mus-cle of the skin itself (cutaneous maximusand platy:ma) should come off with theskin since they are not attached to theskeleton. (They do however attach to thesuperficial muscles in the axillary and jawregions.

1. When removing the skin in the chestregion be careful not to cut or tear the thinxiphihurneralis muscle. It is best to pull theskin from anterior to posterior in this area.

2. In the axillary region the cutaneousmaximus muscle irterdigitates with.theedges of the latissimus dorsi and the pec-toralis muscles. This tends to make theanatomy of the axillary region very confus-ing because bits of cutaneous maximus maybe obscuring the underlying muscles. Thesolution to this problem is to carefully peelaway any remaining cutaneous maximus un-til the underlying muscle grain is visible andthe latissimus and pectoral muscles arepositively identified.

3. On the forelimb, crossing the front of theelbow joint is an extremely narrow and thinstraplike muscle, the brachioradialis. Watchfor it when removing the skin. It stands out

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part

from the surface of the arm and sometimesadheres to the skin and is torn in the processof removing the skin.

4. In the hindlimb and tail region leave anapron of skin around the genital area.

S. In the inguinal region you will enccunterlarge fat deposits. These masses of fat canbe removed after the skit! is off. If your catis a male, first locate the paired spermaticcords in the inguinal region and take carenot to cut them when removing the skin andfat in this area.

6. After the skin has been removed, thespecimen is perpetually at risk of drying out.It is difficult or impossible to make a gooddissection on dried out tissue. During the labperiod, cover the cat with the removed skin(when not actually dissecting.) When bag-ging the cat for storage first wrap it in theremoved skin. Check the plastic storage bagfor holes, and tie the mouth of the bagtightly with string. These precautions willhelp to keep the specimen moist.

1. Begin with the cat in the supine position.Make the first tiny opening in the skin withscissors in the midventral line. These cutsshould be made with scissors, not with theknife.

2. Next enlarge the initial opening. byinserting the closed scissors into the open-ing. Spread the scissors. The spreading tech-nique that you have just used will be usefulthroughout the dissection of the cat.

3. Once you have enlarged the initial open-ing you may then prepare the incision linefor a short distance by inserting the closedblunt scissors (or your fingers) into theopening and running them horizontally be-

19 Muscular System

4-

neath the surface of the skin to separate skinfrom body. Do not insert the point of thescissors at too steep an angle or you willdamage the superficial muscles.

4. With scissors cut the ski.. along the pre-pared incision line from the pubis to theneck and then laterally along the limbs(level with the shoulders and level with thegroin). Insert the the blunt end of the scis-sors under the skin and leave the pointed endof the scissors on top of the skin.

S. Now make circular incisions around thepaws about 2 inches from the distal ends ofthe limb. You will be leaving a covering ofskin on the paws.

6. In the neck region the skin is quite thickand difficult to work with. Run your fingers(or closed scissors) up under the skin towardthe head as high as you can all the wayaround the neck. Next, using scissors make acircular cut in tl'e neck skin about half aninch above the shoulders. You will beleaving the skin on the head for the timebeing but it is necessary to leave a loose flapof an inch or more for later access.

7. Actual lemoval of the body skin is ac-complishea by pressing against the bodywith one hand and pulling the skin awayfrom the body with the other hand. Avoidusing the scalpel or scissors until you en-counter an area that will not come free usingyour fingers and hands alone. Use thescalpel only as a last resort. When using ascalpel always hold the blade of thescalpel flat rather than vertical. Alwaysstretch and elevate the tissue beforecutting. Never cut down and never cutblindly when using a scalpel.


4Muscular System

Dissection PreliminariesThe muscles of the body are layered on top

of one another, and some of the musclelayers are quite thin. Each muscle is wrap-ped in connective tissue (fascia), and thesame connective tissue also forms fascialplanes that separate the muscles into layers.

To locate and identify a muscle you mustfirst remove enough fascia from its surfaceto allow you to clearly see the grain (fiberdirection) of the muscle. Then you mustcompare what you see before you with a"map" or illustration of the area

Once you have located a muscle, theobjective of dissection is to separate it alongits entire length, so that you can demonstrateto yourself the points of origin and insertion,and determine for yourself the shape andthickness of the muscle.

41111111111r

In doing this, Use your thumbs morethan your knife. Usually the fascial planescan be separated with your fingers orthumbs. Use the scalpel only as a lastresort.

If you adequately separate and loosen eachmuscle from its neighbors, it is only rarelythat will you need to transect or detach anymuscle in order to observe the deeper layers.In any case never do so unless you have firstdetermined the entire length of the musclefrom origin to insertion, and have alsodetermined how thick the muscle is.

For the study of muscles use the checklistas a review only. It is inappropriate to usethe check lists as a dissection guide be-cause they are broken into regions withoutregard to layers (superficial vs deep).

Follow the dissection sequence specified.Do not skip any part of the sequence be-cause the various areas blend one intoanother.

Dissect primarily the left side of the cat,doing the right side only as time permits.Most cat illustrations show of the left side ofthe body.

Position the head of the cat to your left onthe dissection table. This is the way thespecimens will be laid out for examinations,and you will find it easier to orient yourselfif you are accustomed to seeing cat inthis position.

CAT MUSCLES WITH NO HOMOLOGUE IN MAN

Peetr antebrachialis?nihumeralis

Rhomboideus Capitis(a.k.a. Levator Scapulae Dorsalis)EpitrochlearisCaudofemoralisTenuissimusExtensor Digitorum Lateralis

CAT MUSCLE NAME CHANGES

The following cat muscles are very similarto certain human muscles. When you en-counter these cat muscles it is recommendedthat you substitute the corresponding humanmuscle name in recognition of this simi-larity.

CAT MUSCLE NAME HUMAN MUSCLE NAME

Levator Scapulae Ventralis,

Levator Scapulae

Serratus Ventralis

i

Serratus Anterior,

Adductor Femoris

.

Adductor Magnus

Clavobrachialis Clavodeltoid

Fig 46- Cat Muscle Name Changes

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 21 Muscular Systemti

Dissection of Superficial Shoulder and BackMuscles

PRELIMINARIES:lb work on this area it will be necessary topeel the skin of the head upward over theears. Make a midline incision under the chinand also on the back of the neck.

1. CLAVOTRAPEZIUS:Trace the origin of this muscle all the wayto the superior nuchal line at the oack ofthe head. Elevate the muscle and separateit from underlying muscles. Separate theposterior edge from the acromiotraperius.

2. ACROMIOTRAPEZIUS:The origin of this muscle is a thinaponeurosis in the dorsal midline ofthe body between the shoulder bladeTry not to damage the aponeurosis.Separate the inferior border of thismuscle from the spinotrapezius andelevate it off of the underlyingmuscles.

acromio-deltoid

clavo-deltoid

'7

s

.

.4/ #;,; . =, .. .,

.

.A

.11": .".%*it "'r

..1.1

4

clavo-trapezius

levatorscapulae

acromio-trapczius

spino-deltoid

3. SPINOTRAPEZIUS:This is a flat triangular muscle whichoriginates in the middle of the back asa sharp pointed "V" on the surface ofthe latissimus dorsi muscle. Elevateand separate it from the latissimus.

4. CLAVODELTOID(CLAVOBRACHIALIS): Fig. 47-

This muscle looks like an extension ofthe clavotrapezius, but if you will Ftbduct theshoulder you will observe a crease over theclavicle which marks the end cc the cla-votrapezius and the beginning L the clavo-deltoid. The clavodeltoid partially overlapsthe pectoralis major. Carefully elevate thefascia this area until the edge of thecia _aeltoid is clearly seen. Clear the cla-vodeltoid completely

lateralhead oftriceps

posteriorhead (.4triceps

spinatus

teresmajor

latissimusdorsi

X V sPint!"trapenus

6\)

Superficial Back and Shoulder Musclesof the Cat, dorsal view

5. ACROMIODELTOID:In the cat the acromiodeltoid is a completelyseparate muscle though it is partially over-lapped by the clavodeltoid. Clear all sur-rounding connective tissue from the bordersof the muscle. It comes to a point on thelateral surface of the humerus.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 22 Muscular System

6. SPINODELTOID:In the cat the spinodeltoid is also a com-pletely separate muscle. Look for it lateralto the acromio-trapezius and posterior to theacromio-deltoid. Clear all surroundingconnective tissue from the borders of themuscle.

Pell"

2

3

7. LATISSIMUS DORSI:This large flat muscle originates as an apo-neurosis in the low back region and insertson the humerus. It's anterior ventral edgefuses with the edge of the pectoralis minormuscle. Separate this area of fusion andcompletely loosen and free all surfaces andborders of this muscle.

8. TERES MAJOR:This muscle originates on the border of thescapula and inserts on the medial surface ofthe humerus by a common tendon with thelatissimus dorsi.

17 1615

Key to Figure 48

1. ternporalis2. parotid salivary gland3. sternomastoid4. clavotrapezius5. levator scapulae6. acromiotrapezius7. spinodeltoid8. spinotraperius9. latissimus dorsi

10. posterior head of triceps11. pectoralis minor12. lateral head of triceps

13. clavodeltoid14. acromiodeltoid15. submandibular salivary gland16. anterior facial vein17. masseter

14

13

12

J

10.r*or _or -orm---."

v"vegS1X-41*.P_ 1;v1r

1: " A . 11'r etvi 'r

;TAW 4 r.....7441111.1.,::

Fig. 48- Superficial Back, Neck, and Shoulder Musclesof the Cat, lateral view

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 23 Muscular System

Dissection of the Pectoral and AnteriorAbdominal Wail Muscles:

4N% *VI'A11S

A14:::1. PECTOANTEBRACHIALIS:

There is no homologue for this muscle inman. '1 his is a very thin straplike musclelying on the surface of the pectoralis major.It is especially thin in young animals. It Pect7alis

inserts on the fascia of the forearm (ante-major

brachium) below the elbow. Loosen thismuscle completely from the underlyingmuscle all the way from origin to insertion.Sever the insertion.

sterna-mastoid

cleido-mastoid

2. PECTORALIS MAJOR:

There is a superficial head and a deep headwhich overlap one another but are consid-ered to be one muscle. In the cat thismuscle is smaller than the pectoralis minor.

3. PECTORALIS MINOR:

This is the largest chest muscle in the cat.The insertion of this muscle in the cat is nothomologous to that in man. In the cat thepectoralis major only partly overlaps the

clavotrapezius

crease markingposition of clavicle

clavodeltoid

pectoanti-brachialis

pectoralisminor

xiphi- - -

humeralis

epitrochlearis

triceps brachiilong head

latissimus dorsi

pectoralis minor. The different fiber di- Fig. 49- Pectoral Region, and Upper Arm of the Catrections of the two muscles will be your ventral view, superficial muscles.main guide to distinguishing between them

4. XVIIIHUMERALIS:

There is no homologue for this muscle inman. The fibers of this muscle run at anangle to and underneath pectoralis minor.

ERIOR ABDOMINAL OVAL.

1. EXTERNAL OBLIQUE:

The fibers pass downward toward themidline from origin to insertion. The ventralportion of the muscle is an aponeurosis..Transect the muscle on the side of theabdomen, and at right angles to the grain inorder to expose the next deeper layer whosefibers run at a different angle. Proceedslowly and carefully as this is a difficultmaneuver.


2. INTERNAL OBLIQUE:

In the cat the fibers run almost transverselyrather than obliquely. The ventral portion isan aponeurosis. Transect this muscle on theside of the abdomen. It is very thin and thismaneuver is even more difficult to do than itwas for the external oblique.

3. TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS:

This is the deepest layer, it is very thin andlies directly over the parietal peritoneum.Do not transect.

4. RECTUS ABDOMINIS:

This is a narrow strap of muscle sandwichedbetween the aponeurosis of the obliquemuscles. Do not dissect this muscle.

24 Muscular System

29

Anterior Neck and Head

PRELIMINARIES:Loosen additional skin up to the jaw on

both sides of the neck.

On the left side remove skin from the jawto the temple. The fascia is verythick in this area Clean thefascia off of the externaljugular vein, leaving thelymph nodes attached.

Elevate the externaljugular vein off of theunderlying muscles withoutcutting it. Clean the lymph nodesuper-ficial fascia (paire,d)

off of the musclesunder the vein.

digastric

parotidsalivary

Sland

Locate andexpose the sub-mandib-ularsalivary glandand theparotid salivary gland.

submandibularsalivary gland

clavotrapezius

sternomastoid

3. STERNOHYOID:These are two narrow straps of muscle oneither side of the midline in the anteriorneck, deep to the sternomastoid. With scis-

sors separate them in the midline and ex-pose the trachea beneath them.

4. DIGASTRIC:

Separate the digas-trics. They followthe line of thejaw on both sidesof the neck.

mylohyoid

masseter

1

Yrj

facial vein

5. MYLOHYOID:This muscleis deep tothe digas-trics; it's

fibersexternal jugular vein run

cleidomastoid trans-versely

across themidline.

transverse jugular vein

stemohyoid

clavodeltoid %

SOO

50- AnteriorLocate the following

Fig. Ne

and separate them cleanlyfrom origin to insertion:

1. STERNOMASTOID:This is a broad strap of muscle that extendsfrom sternum to mastoid process of temporalbone, running underneath the submandibularand parotid salivary glands. In the cat thesternomastoids are united at the sternum.With scissors separate the two sides in themidline and trim the anterior border to makea clean straight edge.

2. CLEIDOMASTOID:In cats this is separate fromthe sternomas-toid. It is largely overlapped by the cla-votrapezius. Separate it cleanly from all sur-rounding muscles and fascia.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 25 ,

ck Region of the Catstructures 6. MASSETER:

Locate thismuscle deep to the parotid glands. The ductof the parotid passes over the surface of thismuscle on it's way to the mouth. If you areextremely careful and a little lucky you willfind this duct.

7. AURICULARIS:This is a superficial muscle attached to theexternal cartilage of the ear and used in catsto move the ear.

8. TEMPORALIS:Find this muscle high on the side of thehead, deep to the auricularis muscle. It isbest distinguished from the a-ricularismuscles by its fiber direction. It inserts onthe coronoid process of the mandible.

Muscular System

Dissection of the Deep Back and Neck Muscles

1. LEVATOR SCAPULAE:

In the cat this muscle lies deep to the cla-votrapezius, anterior to the acromiotrapeziusand at right angles to the spinodeltoid.Locate it and clear it from origin to inser-tion.

2. SPLENIUS CAPMS:This muscle lies deep to the clavotrapezius.It inserts on the back of the head.

3. RHOMBOIDS:

Transect the acromiotrapezius and reflect it;the rhomboids lie deep to it. Extend theforelimb of the cat to imitate the position ofthe arm in man, and you will see that the

rhomboids now appear much the same asthey do in man. There is no homologue inman for the thin straplike rhomboideuscapitis (levator scapulae dorsalis). Therhomboideus major in cats is smaller thanthe rhomboideus minor and is named byposition rather than size.

4. SERRATUS ANTERIOR:

This a fan shaped muscle with the appear-ance of a serrated edge where the individualslips of origin arise from the anterior sur-faces of the first ten ribs.

Fig. 51- Deep Back and Neck Left Side, Lateral ViewTrapezius and Latissimus dorsi have been removed.


31Muscular System

Dissection of Deep Shoulder Muscles

1. INFRASPINATUS:

This muscle is partly obscured by the spi-nodeltoid, which in cats originates in partfrom the surface of the infraspinatus (theirbeing insufficient room for it on the spine ofthe scapula). Sever the origin of the spinod-eltoid and lift it off of the infraspinatus.Also sever the origin of acromiodeltoid andreflect it so that the entire extent of in-fraspinatus can be seen. Follow it all theway to the insertion on the head of thehumerus.

2. TERES MINOR:If you followed the instructions in theprevious paragraph you should now be able

to locate teres minor. It is very small andlies right next to the insertion of the infraspi-natus. Teres minor also inserts on the headof the humerus just one position below theinfraspinatus' insertion.

3. SUPRASPINATUS:Supraspinatus occupies the supraspinousfossa of the scapula. Examine it's insertionat the top of the humerus (greater tubercle).

4. SUBSCAPULARIS:Subscapularis occupies the subscapular.fossa on the ventral surface of the scapula. Itinserts on the greater tubercle of thehumerus.

medial head oftriceps brachii

posterior head oftriceps brachii

spine of the scapula

infraspinatus

teres major

rhomboideus major

scrratus anterior

Fig. 52- Muscles of Deep Shoulder and Upper Arm of the Catleft side, dorsal view

Trapezius, Deltoid, and lateral head of Triceps Brachii have been removed.


Dissection of the Arm and Forearm Muscles4

EXTENSORS

1. EPITROCHLIARIS

The epitrochliaris is a thin flat muscle im-mediately beneath the fascia. The muscleoriginates from the surface of the latissimusdorsi and inserts on the olecranon process ofthe ulna; it has no human homologue.Detach the insertion of this muscle.

2. TRICEPS BRACHII:

In the cat the three heads of the triceps looklike three separate muscles. Indentify each

parta. The long head is the largest and mostposterior. Its origin is the scapula, and its in-sertion is on the olecranon process.b. The lateral head originates on the upperend of the humerus and inserts on theolecranon process. Bisect this head in orderto see the medial head of the triceps and theanconeus muscle. supraspinatusc. The medial head lies deep tothe lateral head. It is long andslender.

3. ANCONEUS:

The anconeus muscle also liesdeep to the lateral head of thetriceps. It is small, flat, and tri-angular in shape, andusually has a charac-teristic dark or pinkishcolor that is helpful inrecognition.

LEXORSi

1. BICEPS BRACHII:The biceps brachii is foundon the ventral surface ofthe brachium, somewhathidden by the insertion ofthe pectoralis maior.


subscapularis

insertion forserratus anterior

g,it A 0::12",er."4 ?" f '

.

2. BRACHIALIS:

Brachialis is on the lateral surface of thebrachium, ventral to the triceps. Notice thatthe pointed lower end of the acromiodeltoidinsertion points to the brachialis. This fta-ture is helpful for the positive identificationof brachialis. The lower end of brachial i3 isoverlapped by the brachioradialis.

3. BRACHIORADIALIS

Brachioradialis in the cat is a flat narrowribbon of muscle that arises from the lateralsurface of the brachialis. It inserts on thestyloid process of the radius.

4. PRONATOR TERES:

Pronator teres arises from the medial epi-condyle of the humerus and inserts on theradius. Look for it on the anterior medialside of the elbow joint.

. .e0

' --1":74.1.,1414.41T

head of humerus

coracobrachialis

Weep; brachii

teres major

.

posterior head oftriceps brachii

medial head oftriceps brachii medial epicondylc

of humerus

pronatorlens

Fig. 53- Muscles of Deep Shoulder and Upper Arm of the Catventral view, left side

Serrates anterior bar been detatehed from vertebral border of scapula.-,- ^ - ^ - - -^ - _I

33 Muscular System

LEXORS

\N

1. FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS:

Flexor carpi radialis lies next to the pronatorteres.

2. PALMARIS LONGUS:

In the cat thismuscle is muchlarger and moreimportant than it isin man. It is thelargest of theflexors and insertson all the digits,therefore it is nothomologous toman. In man thepalmaris longusinserts on the pal-mar aponeurosis, and isabsent in some people.

3. FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS:

This muscle is seen next to the palmarislongus. It forms the lateral border of theforearm.

.XTENSORS

Vlt."41

Fig. 54 Flexor Compartment, Left Forelimb

extensor carpi radialisbrevis

brachioradislis

1. EXTENSOR CARPI

RADIALIS LONGUS:

This is a narrow muscle,that lies next to the bra-chioradialis on the dorsalside of the forearm.

2. EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS

lies next to the longus.

3. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM COMMUNIS

lies next to the extensor carpi radialis.Notice the tendons of insertion that spreadout to all four digits.

extensor carpi ulna ris

extensor digitorum lateralis

extensor carpi radialis longus

extensor digitorum communis

Fig. 55- Extensor Compartment, Left Forelimb

4. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LATERAL'S

This muscle has no homologue in man.

5. EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS

This muscle lies next to the extensor digito-rum lateralis

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 293 4

Muscular System

Dissection of theThigh and Gluteal RegionAzN,""WIC.M.M

Nk,.11:1V

Start by separating the more obviousmuscles. Do not remove any blood vesselsfrom the thigh. Remove as much fatand fascia from the glutealregion, close to the tail, as pos-sible.

The tough thick fascia encas-ing the thigh is called thefascia lata. The strongestpart of this fascia is found onthe anterior and lateral sur-faces of the thigh, and this part iscalled the iliotibial band. Lift thefascia and with scissors trim theedges of the iliotibial band. Detachthe insertion of the iliotibial band fromthe lateral knee area and reflect it.

mo-peer

pectinous

imps

.act

"VnIS j

3. GRAMS:This muscle very much resembles the sartoriusin that it also is broad, thin, and flat. How ever,gracilis runs straight down the medial surface

of the thigh from the crotch to theftsgina"bfique knee. Detach the insertion ofnous snottialis gracilis from the medial knee.

mum= 4. BICEPS FEMORIS:

This is a massive muscle on theposterolateral surface of the

thigh. Free the borders ofthis muscle, and elevate it

off of the surface of theunderlying muscles.

Identify the large sciatic

nerve which runs deep tothe biceps, and take care

not to damage the nerve.Detach the insertion of the

biceps from the lateralknee. Clearly demon-

Fig. 56- Superficial Thigh Muscles strate the origin at the

Left Leg, Medial Viewischial tuberosity.

SUPERFICIALMUSCLES:

1. TENSOR FASCIA LATA:

This is a muscle embedded inthe proximal end of the iliotib-ial band of fascia. Elevate the iliotibialband forcefully and you will see themuscle. Part of the musclealso overlaps the gluteus me-dius. Detach this part fromthe gluteus medius.

onnitsulinasus

tensor fasclata

ilio tibialtract

2. SARTORIUS:

This is the broad, thin, flatmuscle, which is the mostsuperficial muscle in theanterior and medialthigh region. It runs onthe diagonal from lateralthigh to medial knee..Detach the insertion of thesartorius at the medialknee.

is1

I:1 1.111

1.iv #..,

9:;11*//#/7/f

tit//if ill. at

.: 1/.4'

/

A.." biceps4/1. gI' femoris.v. _rte .`0,19tX./

gluteusmedius

gluteusmaximus

kR %),,Ns gastrocnemius

t

Fig. 57- Superficial Thigh MusclesLeft Leg, LateralView

5. CAUDOFEMORALIS:

Separate the caudo-femoralis muscle fromthe anterior border of thebiceps. In man thismuscle would be part ofthe gluteus maximus.

6. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS:

The gluteus maximus isimmediately anterior tothe caudofemoralis. Ina is it is quite small,smaller than the gluteusmedius. Notice that thesciatic nerve emergesfrom underneath thegluteus maximus on itspassage into the poste-rior thigh.


4. GLUTEUS MEDIUS.

This muscle is partly overlapped by twoneighboring muscles, the gluteus maximusposteriorly, and the tensor fascia lata muscleanteriorly. Separate the three muscles sothat they are clearly distinct.

1. SEMIMEMBRANOSUS:Return to the posteromedial thigh, andlocate semimembranosus, which is a mas-sive muscle beneath the gracilis. Do notdetach this muscle. Trace it to the ischialtuberosity, which is also the origin for thebiceps femoris and the semitendinosus. Inhumans this muscle is strictly a posteriorthigh muscle. In cats it is so large that itoccupies much of the medial thigh.

2. SEMITENDINOSUS:

This musae lies close upon the sem-imembranosus in the posterior thigh,medial side. Do not detach it. Trace itto it's origin.

3. ADDUCTOR MAGNUS:

This muscle is large and triangularshaped, and is seen in the medial thighanterior to the setnimembranosus.

4. ADDUCTOR LONGUS:

This muscle lies parallel to and an-terior to the adductor magnus in themedial thigh. It is quite small.

5. PECTINEUS:

Look high in the thigh, above (anteriorto) adductor longus, and just medial tothe femoral artery, vein and nerve.

6. ILIOPSOAS:

Look just lateral to the femoral artery, veinand nerve in the anterior thigh. The musclewill look very small at first. It is actuallyjust the distal end of a very large musclewhich is emerging from the body cavity. Tosee more of it use a probe to push against thebody wall in the groin region.

QUM t1. VASTUS LATERALIS:This is a very large muscle covering theanterolateral surface of the thigh. It partlyoverlaps the rectus femoris.

2. RECTUS FEMORIS:

Look medial to the vastus lateralis. It isoverlapped by both vastus lateralis andvastus medialis. Transect the rectus femoris.

3. VASTUS MEDIALIS:

Look medial to the rectus femoris.

4. VASTUS INTERMEDIUS:

Look deep to the rectus femoris. It is often adarker or pinker color than the neighboringmuscles.

iliopsoas

Fig. 58- DeepThigh MusclesLeft Leg, Medial View


Dissection of the Lower Leg Muscles

1. GASTROCNEMIUS:

This is the large superficial muscle of thecalf. Free all surfaces of the muscle, andfollow it from origin on the femur to inser-tion as part of the tendocalcaneus (Achilles'L idon).

2. SOLEUS:

In the cat the soleus is a small muscle. Lookfor it deep to the gastrocnemius on the lat-eral side of the leg. It joins the tendocal-caneus, but does not cross the knee jointsince it originates on the fibula..

3. PLANTARIS:

Behind the knee the plantaris lies betweenthe two heads of the gastrocnemius. It thenpasses deep to the gastrocnemius and liesbetween the gastrocnemius and soleus. Inthe cat the plantaris is larger than the soleus.Like the soleus it too joins the tend: vl-caneus It can best be seen on the medialside of the leg since on the lateral side of theleg it is fused with the gastrocnemius.

ANTERIOR CRURAL GROUP:

1. TIBIALIS ANTERIOR:

This muscle lies just lateral to the tibia in theanterior leg. Notice that it inserts at the baseof the 1st metatarsal on the medial side ofthe foot, just as it does in man.

2. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM:

Observe the tendons of this muscle as theyspread out to the toes on the top surface ofthe foot. Notice the retinaculum whichholds the tendons down at the ankle.

3. EXTENSOR HALLUCIS:

This muscle is absent in the cat.

tATEWORUP.M..GROUP:

PERONEUS LONGUS, BREVIS, & TERTIUS:Observe their tendons on the lateral side ofthe ankle. They are arranged just as they arein man, with peroneus tertius passing infront of the lateral malleolus, and the otherspassing behind the lateral malleolus. Care-fully peel away the connective tissue whichkeeps the tendons of the longus and brevisbehind the malleolus. Lift the tendons outindividually with a blunt probe.

MEDIAL CRURAL GROUP:

Observe that these tendons pass behind themedial malleolus of the ankle, just as theydo in man. Carefully peel away the fasciawhich keeps these tendons in place so thatyou can observe them individually. Liftthem out from behind the malleolus withyour blunt probe. Peel the fascia away fromthe bottom of the foot and observe the broadflat ligament that serves as a spring for thearch of the foot.

1. FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS, & FLEXORHALLUCIS LONGUS.

Flexor digitorum longus lies anterior to theplantaris on the medial side of the lower leg.Its tendon passes behind the medial malleo-lus at the ankle and fuses with the tendon ofthe larger flexor hallucis longus on theplantar surface of the foot. The commontendon then divides and is distributed to allof the toes. In humans the tendon of flexorhallucis longus stays separate.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 32 37 Muscular System

2. TIBIALIS POSTERIOR:

The tendon of this muscle lies anterior tothat of flexor digitorum as they both passbehind the medial malleolus. Find thetendon first, because the muscle itself is hardto see since it is small and flat and com-pletely hidden deep to the flexor digitorum.

3. POPLITEUS :

The popliteus forms the floor of the pop-liteal fossa. It is a small muscle in humans,but a large one in the cat. Look for it deep tothe lateral head of the gastrocnemius.

semimembraaosus

semitenclinosus

gastrocnemius tl

plantarissoleus

flexor digitorumlongus

flexor hallucislongus tibialis

anterior

extensordigitorum

tibialisposterior

Fig. 59- Muscles & Tendons of Lower LegMedial View, Left Leg

tibialis anterior

peroneus brevis

peroneus longus

peroneus tertius

' I;10

.10*Al

01..

biceps fantasia

gastrocnernius

soleus

tendocalcaneus

retbuteulum

lateralmalleolus

extensordi eitorum

Fig. 60- Muscles & Tendons of Lower LegLateralView, Left Leg


Suggestions for Laboratory Study of HumanMuscles

;.:Ncr.::.-:;;;:Sx1K,N....,... 4.',..Z,..1.

r 1

,;:k

I3 ),,L.., , ',S5sx.,-.,6:;; ..:Sxx:;,".,....,,,, .,,,:,.:;',>-,;;N:::,:q.::::,:,:,:*.:,):,,N4s,,,,nz.z.,:::;:,,,rz.N.s.:;:,Nssy,,:..x.;;;;NN,:.

The three attributes of a muscle that areusually emphasized in a lecture and inreference books are action, origin, and in-sertion. Of these three the most importantattribute is action, however action usuallycannot be understood (let alone remem-bered) unless origin and insertion are firstclearly located.

If you are having difficulty understandinghow a particular muscle does w:tat it is saidto do, locate its origin and insertion on thelaboratory skeleton and visualize how theskeleton will move when the insertion isbrought closer to the origin. It is also veryhelpful to take note of the grain (fiber direc-tion) of the muscle, and which side ofa jointthe muscle crosses. (anterior, posterior,medial, or lateral).

IN &1 E

The origin is the fixed end, or at least theless moveable end, usually the proximal end.

The insertion is the end which is mostmoveable, usually the distal end.

Vo.

The action of a muscle refers to the kind ofmovement that a muscle causes at a joint.

Muscles do work only when they contractor shorten. A muscle which is beingstretched is not doing work. Stretching ispassive.

The prime mover is the primary agentcausing any given movement.

A synergist is a muscle which is function-ing to steady a movement or help accom-plish a movement by another muscle.Synergists cooperate with one another at thesame joint which , i.e. cause the same or asimilar action at that joint

An antagonist is a muscle whose move-ment counteracts the action of any givenprime mover. Antagonists are on oppositesides of a joint from one another. When theprime mover is working the antagonist mustrelax.

TWO HELPFUL CHECKLISTS FOR HUMANMUSCLES ARE INCLUDED IN THE APPENDIX :

Two checklists for human muscles areincluded in the Appendix. The checklist onpages 53-56 is a summary of the majorhuman muscles arranged into groups ac-cording to their most important actions. Thesecond checklist, on pages 57-58 arrangesthe human muscles by body region.


39Muscular System

Laboratory Study of Nerve Cells & Spinal Cord'''.V...',.

--N,:tk-ss....,s,::ty,:s..,:.;::,0%-.A., .k.

Using low power on the compound micro-scope identify the following:

1. EPINEURIUM;

the connective tissue sheath around theoutside of the nerve.2. PERINEUFUUM;

the connective tissue surrounding thebundles (fasciculi) of nerve fibers.3. ENDONEURIUM;

the connective tissue surrounding eachindividual nerve fiber.

Using high power identify the following:

4. AXON (AXIS CYLINDER)

5. MYELIN SHEATH

6. NEURILEMMA

7. NUCLEUS OF A SCHWANN CELL:

(seen in the neurilemma region)

NE

Using low power on the compound micro-scope identify the following:

1. AXON

2. MYELIN

3. NODES OF RANVIER4. NEURILEMMA

ADDI. .1

Examine any other nervous system slidesthat are available to you such as a spinalcord smear (showing large anterior horncells), a motor nerve ending (motor endplate), a muscle spindle (stretch receptor),and various brain cell preparations. Nervecells do not stain well, and thus historicallythe nervous system has been difficult tostudy microscopically.


0 ..._,I

Using the dissectirt; microscope, identifythe following:

1. VENTRAL HORN

2. DORSAL HORN

3. DORSAL ROOT GANGLION4. ROOTS OF THE SPINAL NERVE

5. CENTRAL CANAL

6. CENTRAL GRAY MATTER7. DORSAL MEDIAN SEPTUM

5. VENTRAL MEDIAN FISSURE9. LATERAL HORN (IF PRESENT)

10. ANTERIOR HORN CELLS

"-:`,

Examine a model of the spinal cord incross section. Identify all of the items on thespinal cord checklist on page 59.

ANervous System

Dissection of Cat Peripheral Nervous System.-..:::,:f::::::;:,;:',.;:.:,,,,,,x,-..s.:k:Ns.,:,,,';',';:kist.-11::.

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.:::,,::::::.;;,a3:§;:::*:WM:14...,,\,<§::....,-k44,ws.,,..., -:,

Opening the Visceral Cavities:In order to proceed with the following dissec-tion of the peripheral and autonomic nerves itwill be necessary to open the visceral cavity ofthe cat.

With the cat in the supine position elevate afold of the body wall in the abdominal region.Insert the point of a scissors through the bodywall and make a midventral incision. Enlargethe incision enough to be able to locate thediaphragm by inserting your finger into theincision. Extend the incision from the pubicregion to the diaphragm.

Again insert the point of the scissors throughthe body wall this time above the diaphragmand next to the sternum. Extend the incisionanteriorly until you reach the top of the ster-num.

In the pelvic region cut from the midline later-ally on both sides. Cut the diaphragm freefrom its attachment to the anterior body wall.Bend the chest wall laterally until you haveadequate access to the chest cavity (some ribswill have to be cracked).

,ss

CERVICAL PLEXUS

PHRENIC NERVES...

Locate these nerves in the mediastinum ofthe chest. They )ass between the pericar-dium and the pleura on each side of thechest, and end on the diaphragm. Clear themof fat and excess connective tissue, and tracethem to their origin in the cervical region. Inhumans the phrenic is mostly C4, with somecontribution from C3 and C5. In cats thephrenic is formed by C5 and C6.

This plexus supplies the muscles and skin ofthe anterior compartment of the upper arm.It was exposed during the dissection of themuscles of the chest and arm. If more expo-sure is needed. cut carefully through thepectoralis group io the axillary region,looking for the strollg white cords which arethe nerves. You are responsible for identifi-cation of the four tet ninal branches of theplexus. Elevate the ventral portion of theplexus with a proty, and look for a formationwhich resembles ele capitol letter M.

MUSCULOCUTANEOOUS NERVEThis is a small nerve, the most lateral nerveof the M formation. It passes along thelower edge of the biceps brachii muscle, andsupplies the biceps, coracobrachialis, andbrachialis muscles.

MEDIAN NERVE

This nerve forms the middle bar of the M. Ittravels with the brachial artery, and togetherthey pass through the humerus (supra-condyloid foramen, not present in the hu-man) to reach the forearm. The mediannerve supplies muscles in the forearm andhand, anterior compartment, radial side.

ULNAR NERVE

This nerve forms the most medial branch ofthe M. It passes over the medial epicondyleof the humerus, protected by skin only (the"funny bone"), into the forearm, where itsupplies forearm and hand muscles of theanterior compartment, ulnar side.

RADIAL NERVE

This is the largest of the four terminalbranches of the brachial plexus. It is also themost posterior in position, and it supplies allof the posterior compartment muscles ofboth arm and forearm.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 3641

Nervous System

There are twelve pair of these emergingfrom the vertebral column in the dorsalregion of the thoracic cavity, passing be-tween and parallel to the ribs, traveling withthe intercostal arteries and veins. They sup-ply the intercostal muscles.

SCIATIC NERVE

This is the largest of the peripheral nerves. Itcan be observed in the gluteal and dorsalthigh regions, emerging from beneath thegluteus maximus and quadratus lumborummuscles and traveling beneath the bicepsfemoris muscle of the thigh. It supplies themuscles of the dorsal thigh and all of thelower leg, splitting into two branches, tibialand peroneal, in the popliteal fossa.

FEMORAL NERVELook for this nerve in the inguinal region,ventral thigh, traveling with the femoralartery and vein. It supplies the ventral thighmuscles.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 37 Nervous Systeme4

Dissection of the Autonomic Nervous System inthe Cat

SYMPATHETIC TRUNK IN THE THORAX

Push the lung out of the way and examinethe surface of the vertebral column beneaththe parietal pleura. There are two of thesetrunks, one on each side of the thoracic well,lying near the heads of the ribs. Each is quitedelicate, looking like white thread. Most ofthe ganglia are quite small, hardly visible tothe naked eye. You may use the dissectingscope to examine them more closely, andwith luck may be able to see the rami corn-tnunicantes connecting the ganglia to thespinal nerves.

VAGUS NERVE IN THE THORAX

Pick up the carotid artery in the neck. Lookfor a nerve adhering closely to the artery andrunning parallel to it. This is the vago-sympathetic trunk. The vagus separatesfrom the sympathetic trunk just beforeentering the thorax, at the level of the firstrib.

Each vagus gives off a recurrent laryngealbranch headed for the larynx. The left re-current laryngeal nerve hooks around theaortic arch. The right recurrent laryngealnerve hooks around the subclavian artery.

SYMPATHETIC TRUNK IN THE ABDOMEN

Follow the thoracic sympathetic trunksthrough the diaphragm to observe the ab-dominal portion. Here the two sympathetictrunks lie near one another on the surface ofthe vertebral bodies near the midline. Theyare concealed by the psoas muscles, andthey gradually become smaller and harder tosee its they descend toward the lumbarregion.

VAGUS NERVE IN THE ABDOMEN

The main descending portion of each vagusin the mediastinum gives off many branchesto heart and lungs. Below the root of thelung each vagus forms a dorsal and ventralbranch which then unite, penetrating thediaphragm along with the esophagus andforming a plexus on both the lesser and thegreater curvatures of the stomach. Thisplexus also blends with the solar (celiac)plexus of the sympathetic division. Fibersfrom this plexus extend to the abdominalviscera as far as the transverse colon.

COLLATERAL GANGLIA:There are three major sympathetic gangliafound in the abdominal cavity They areeasy to locate due to the fact that they lieclose to the artery for which each is named,just at the point where the artery branchesoff of the abdominal aorta. The first two lieso close to one another that they are spokenof jointly as the solar plexus.

Observation of the ganglia may optionallybe reserved until such time as the abdominalarteries are dissected. The ganglia aredescribed here for the sake of completeness.

1. CELIAC GANGLION:

Look for it at the base of the celiac artery.

2. SUPERIOR MESENTERIC GANGLION:

Look for it at the base of the superiormesenteric artery.

3. INFERIOR MESENTERIC GANGLION:

Look for it at the base of the inferior mes-enteric artery.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 38 43 Nervous System

Laboratory Study of the Sheep BrainThe sheep brain is much larger than the catbrain, and is therefore very much moreconvenient to work with. Study the intact(whole) brain first, and then follow instruc-tions for cutting it in half through the mid-sagittal plane.

DURA MATER

The dura mater is most likely missing,having been left behind in the sheep's skullwhen the brain was removed. The only pieceof dura still sure to be present is the pituitarydiaphragm (diaphragms sellae) surround-ing the infundibulum of the pituitary In theinferior surface of the brain.

Remove the pituitary gland, taking care toleave the cranial nerves attached to the brainstem. Use scissors to cut the cranial nervesfree from the diaphragms sellae.

PIA MATER

The pia matter is present clinging to thesurface of the brain, but is too delicate to bevisible.

ARACHNOID MATER

The arachnoid mater is the layer of menin-ges most in evidence. Identification can beconfirmed by noticing that the membranestretches from the top of one gyrus to the topof the neighboring gyrus; it does not dipdown into the sulci as it would if it were piamater.

SUBARACHNOID SPACE

The subarachnoid space is any space under-lying the arachnoid membrane. Some ofthese spaces are larger than others and hencehave names. Identify the following:

1. CISTERNA MAGNA:

The cisterna magna is located on the dorsalsurface of the brain at the lower edge of thecerebellum, next to the spinal cord.

*1T-- E

The pontine cistern is seen on the ventralsurface of the brain stem at the lower edgeof the pons.

3. INTERPEDUNCULAR CISTERN:

The interpeduncular cistern is seen on theventral surface of the brain stem at theupperedge of the pons.

4. SUPERIOR CISTERN:

The superior cistern is seen on the dorsalsurface of the brain superior to the cerebel-lum and between the cerebellum and occipi-tal lobe.

1. MEDIAN LONGITUDINAL FISSURE:

The median longitudinal fissure is the sameas themidsagittal fissure.

2. TRANSVERSE FSSURE :

The transverse fissure is between cerebellumand occipital lobe.

3. LATERAL (SYLVIAN) FISSURE

The lateral fissure is very shallow in thesheep brain due to the small size of thetemporal lobe.

CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA

Separate the transverse fissure widely andlook down at the surface of the midbrain; thefour rounded swellings are the corporaquadrigemina, i.e.the two superior colliculiand the two inferior colliculi. The pinealbody is also visible between the two supe-rior colliculi.

LATERAL GENICULATE BODIES

Bend the temporal lobe of the cerebrumaway from the midbrain, and trace the optictracts from the optic chiasm to the dorsalsurface of the brain stem. They will leadyou directly to the lateral geniculate bodiesof the thalamus.


44Nervous System

CORPUS CALLOSUM

Look down into the raidsagittal fissure tosee the corpus callosum.

CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES :

Theo are three: middle, superior, andinferior. The middle peduncle connects thepons to the cerebellum; the superiorpeduncle connects the corpora quadrigeminato the cerebellum, and the inferior peduncleconnects the spinal cord to the cerebellum.

VEIWIWOIV1 BODY OF CEREBELLUM

The vermiform body is a midline structureon the posterior surface of the -.=bellum.

PINEAL BODY

The pineal body can be seen on the dorsalsurface of the brain just anterior to thecorpora quadrigemina.

Refer to Fig. 56 and identify the following:

1. OLFACTORY BULBS

2. OLFACTORY TRACTS

3. OLFACTORY TRIME:

The olfactory trigone (also called the ante-rior perforate substance) is the area of cortexfound between the olfactory tracts.

4 OPTIC NERVES

5. OPTIC CHIASM

6. OPTIC TRACTS

7. iNFUNDIBULUM

The infundibulum is also called the stalk ofthe pituitary.

8. MAMMILLARY BODY

This is the only part of the hypothalamusvisable from the outside of the intact brain.

UNCUS

The uncus is gray matter (cortex) belongingto the temporal lobe. Follow the olfactorytracts to the uncus.

10. CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES

These white matter structures belong to themidbrain. They connect the forebrain to thehind brain.

11. POW

12. MEDULLA

13. PYRAMIDS OF THE MEDULLA

The pyramids are two faint swellings barelyvisable on the inferior surface of the meulla.

14. CRANIAL NERVES:

Try to identify all XII pair of cranial nerves.(IX & X are usually not visible)

16. BASILAR ARTERY & CIRCLE OF WILLIS

The basilar artery is the midline artery seennr: the inferior surface of the medulla andpons.The rime of Willis is seen in thevicinity of the cerebral peduncles.

Review your work to this point by wing thechecklist for the whole sheep brain foundin the appendix on page 60.

To make a sagittal section follow theseInstructions: Rest your whole brain on itsdorsal surface on a cutting board. Use alarge carving knife (not a scalpel). Line theknife up exactly in the midline. Make oneslow steady continuous slicing motion, withthe knife moving from anterior to posterior,making every effort to stay exactly in themidline at all times. Study both halves sincethe midline structures will usually show upbetter on one side than on the other.

At this point in your work turn to the check-list for the sheep brain in sagittal sectionfound in the appendix. Using the checklisten page 60 and Fig. 56, identify all thestructures mentioned.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 40 Nervous System

FIG

,

56 SH

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Lab

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Part I 41 N

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FIG. 57. SHEEP BRAIN, MIDSAGITTAL VIEW1. corpus callosurn2. pineal body3. superior colliculus4. inferior colliculus5. cerebral aqueduct6. cerebral peduncles7. arbor vitae of cerebellum8. IVth ventricle9. medulla

10. ports


11. marnmillary body12. infundibulum13. optic chiasm14. hypothalamus & Ilird ventricle15. anterior commissure16. interventricular foramen17. fornix18. septum pellucidum19 cingutate gyros20. mass. intermedia of thalamus

47 Nervous System

Laboratory Dissection of the Cow Eye

The cow eye is quite large and almostidentical to the human eye, and hence is asuitable subject for dissection. The preserva-tives will have qffected the otherwise trans-parent cornea and lens to varying degreesso that these structures will appear translu-cent or opaque rather than transparent.

The outside surface of your specimen hasmuch attached fat which helps to cushionthe eye in it's bony fossa. You will also notethe presence of several extrinsic musclesattached to the eyeball. Trim away the fatand muscles and identify the following:

1. SCLERA:

the tough white external tunic of the eye

2. CORNEA:

the transparent portion of the sclera in theanterior position.

3, CONJUNCTIVA:

A continuous layer of epithelium coveringthe anterior surface of the cornea and sclera,and the under surface of the eyelids. In hu-mans it is transparent, in cows, it is pig-mented so that no "white of the eye" shows.

4. OPTIC NERVE:

located at the posterior pole of the eyeball.

INTER T

To examine the internal anatomy of the eyeuse scissors to puncture the sclera 1/4 inchoutside the edge of the cornea. Make a cir-cular (360 degree) incision following theedge of the cornea. Grasp the edges of theincision and separate the front of the eyefrom the back of the eye.

Identify the following on the anteriorrtion of the specimen:

1. SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS:

transparent threads attaching lens to ciliarybody; stretch them and they will break.Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 43

2. LENS:

remove it and observe that it magnifies print.

3. CILIARY BODY:

black, resembling the gills of a mushroom.

4. IRIS:

observe closely to identify circular andradial muscles

5. PUPIL:

the hole in the middle of the iris.

& ANTERIOR CHAMBER:

the space in front of the iris.

7. POSTERIOR CHAMBER:

the space behind the iris.

7,Identify the following on the posterior'on of the specimen:., :

1. VITREOUS HUMOR:

remove it from the vitreous chamber andobserve that it magnifies print; it's functionis to hold the retina smooth against thechoroid layer.

2. RETINA:

the white inner tunic that collapses as thevitreous humor is removed.

OPTIC DISC:

the attachment point for the retina; the pointat which optic nerve exits from the eye.

4. CHOROID LAYER:

the black pigmented middle tunic of the eye.

5. TAPETUM LUCIDUM:

An iridesce at portion of the choroid layer, isnot present in humans. It is this structurewhich causes the eyes of some animals toshine with reflected light when caught in theglare of headlights at night. It is a special ad-aptation for vision in dim light that works byreflecting light back onto the retina thatwould otherwise escape.

6. SCLERA:

the "whites of the eye"

48 Nervous System

APPENDIX A

CHECKLISTS

One of the greatest difficulties encountered by any studentof anatomy is that the amount of material in the variousreference books is so overwhelming that left to himself orherself the student cannot decide what to study and whatto leave alone. One of the chief _functions of the checklistsprovided here is that they serve to set boundaries for thestudent so that he or she will not become bogged down bythis familiar dilemma. 5-fowever, you are evected to knowthe checklist thoroughly, andyou would be well advised torehearse the fist frequently, untilyou know it 's details'from memory.


9Appendix A Checklists

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Bones .q list: Pelvic Girdle & Lower Limb

INNOMINATE BONEacetabulumobturator foramengreater sciatic notchlesser sciatic notchiliopectineal line (arcuate line)pelvic brim (pelvic inlet)

ILIUM

auricular (articular) surfaceanterior superior iliac spineanterior inferior iliac spineiliac crestiliac fossa

ISCHIUM

ischial tuberosityischial spineinferior ramus of the ischiumsuperior ramus of the ischium

PUBIS

pubic arch (subpubic angle)pubic tuberclepubic symphysis (symphysis pubis)inferior ramus of the pubissuperior ramus of the pubis

FEMURheadneckgreater trochanterlesser trochanterlinea asperamedial and lateral condylesmedial and lateral epicondylesadductor tubercleintercondylar fossapatellar surfacefovea capitis (for ligamenturn teres)

TIBIAmedial and lateral condylesintercondylar eminance or tibial spinetibial tuberositymedial malleolus

FIBULAheadlateral malleolus

PATELLAarticular surface (2 large facets)apex

TARSUScalcaneustalusnavicularcuneiforms (medial, intermediate, lateral)cuboid (distal row, lateral side)

METATARSUS(one through five)

PHALANGES(proximal, medial, distal, except big toe hasonly two)

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 47 Appendix A - Checklists

Bones list: Axial SkeletonNcl n

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VERTEBRAL PARTS(nid-thonicic )body of the vertebratransverse processspinous process2 superior articular processes2 inferior articular processeslaminapediclevertebral archvertebral foramenintervertebral foramenaintervertebral notches

VERTEBRAL REGIONS(special regional features)

CERVICAL REGIONtransverse foramena on all 7 vertebraebifid spine on most.

Atlas (C1):anterior archposterior archbody is absent.

Axis(C2)dens (odontoid process).

Vertebra Prominens (C7)prominent spinous process.

THORACIC REGION2 facets or 4 demifacets on body of verte-

bra for head of rib1 facet on transverse process for rib tu-

bercleintervertebral articulations permit lateral

rotation

LUMBAR REGIONmassive bodythick rectangular spinous processthin bladelike transverse processesinterlocking intervertebral articulations

SACRAL REGIONnote surface for articulation with ilium

COCCYX3-5 rudimentary, nodular appearing verte-brae)

STERNUMmanunriumbodyxiphoid processsternal anglesuprasternal notch (jugular notch)facets for claviclefacets for costal cartilages 1-7

RIBSheadneckbodyangletuberclecostal groovearticulations

HYOID BONE:the only nonarticulating bone in the body.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix A - Checklists

Bones .g list: Skull

FRONTAL BONE:supraorbital foramenfrontal sinus

OCCIPITAL BONE:external occipital crestexternal occipital protuberancesuperior nuchal lineinferior nuchal lineoccipital condylesforamen magnumhypoglossal foramen

TEMPORAL BONES (2):squamous portionpetrous portionmastoid processstyloid processzygomatic processcarotid foramencarotid canalforamen lacerum (in part)stylomastoid foramenmastoid air cellsexternal auditory meatusinternal auditory meatusauditory canal

PARIETAL BONES (2)

SPHENOID BONE (1):sella turcicaanterior clinoid processes (2)posterior clinoid processes (2)lateral pterygoid processes (2)medial pterygoid processes (2)greater wings (ala) (2)lesser wings (ala) (2)superior orbital fissure (2)optic canal (2)optic foramen (2)foramen lacerum (in part)foramen ovale (2)

foramen spinosumforamen rotundum (2)sphenoid sinuses (2)

ETHMOID BONE (1):crista gallicribriform plateperpendicular platesuperior conchae (2)middle conchae (2)olfactory foramena

FACIAL BONES

ZYGOMATIC (2)

LACRIMAL (2)

NASAL (2)

MAXILLARY (2):alveolar marginspalatine processzygomatic processlacrimal groovemaxillary sinusinfraorbital foramenincisive foramen

PALATINE (2)horizontal processorbital process

INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE (2)

HOMER (1)

MANDIBLE (1):coronoid processcondyloid processangleramusmental symphysismental foramenmandibular foramenmandibular notchalveolar margins

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 49 Appendix A - Checklists

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FIND THE FOLLOWING JOINTS ON

THE ARTICULATED SKELETON.

tempromandibular

atlantooccipital

atlantoaxial

acromioclavicular

sternoclavicular

sternal angle

sternochondral

costochondral

costovertebral

costotransverse

glenohumeral

humeroulnar

radiohumeral

proximal radioulnar

distal radioulnar

intermediate radioulnar

radiocarpal

femeropatellar

proximal tibiofibular

distal tibiofibular

intermediate tibiofibular

symphyzis pubis

sacroiliac

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I SI Appendix A Checklists

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FACIAL EXPRESSION

frontalisoccipitaliscorrugatorprocerusorbicularis oculinasalislevator labii superioris(quadratus labii superioris)levator anguli oriszygomaticus majorrisoriusorbicularis orisdepressor anguli orisdepressor labii inferiorismentalisbuccinatorplatysma

MASTICATION (JAW)

temporalismassetermedial pterygoidlateral pterygoid

ELEVATE LARYNX

(for speech and swallowing)stylohyoiddigastricmylohyoid

DEPRESS LARYNX(for speech and swallowing)sternohyoidomohyoidthyrohyoid

EXTEND NECK (HEAD )

trapezius (clavo)semispinalis capitissplenius capitis (x2)levator scapulae (x2 reversed)


ANTERI R FL ION F HEAD ECK)

stemocleidotnastoid (x2)

LATERAL FLEXION OF HEAD (NECK)

trapezius (clavo)levator scapulae (reversed)

ROTATE HEAD (NECK)

sternocleido mastoidsplenius capitis

4:4

EXTEND TRUNK (SPINE)

erector spine group

ANTERIOR FLEXION OF TRUNK (SPINE)

rectus abdominispsoas major (and minor)iliacus

LATERAL FLEXION OF TRUNK (SPINE)

quadratus lumborum

ROTATE TRUNK (SPINE)external obliqueinternal obliquetransversus abdominis

COMPRESS ABDOMEN

rectus abdominisexternal obliqueinternal obliquetransversus abdominis

BREATHING

diaphragmexternal intercostalsinternal intercostalsscalenii

PECTORAL GIRDLE ANDUPPER LIMB

MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SCAPULA

ELEVATE SCAPULA

trapezius (clavo)levator scapulae

Muscular System

ADDUCT SCAPULA

(retution)trapezius (acromio)rhomboids (major & minor)

DEPRESS SCAPULA

trapezius (wino)pectoralis minor

ABDUCT SCAPULA

setratus anterior

MUSCLES ACTING ON SHOULDER

FLEX ARM

pectoralis majorcoracobrachialisdeltoid (clavo)

EXTEND ARM

latissimus dorsiteres majordeltoid (spino)

ABDUCT ARM

supraspinatusdeltoid (acromio)

ADDUCT ARM

latissimus dorsiteres majorpectoralis majorcoracobrachialisdeltoid (spino & clavo)

LATERAL ROTATION OF ARM

infraspinatusteres minordeltoid (spino)

MEDIAL ROTATION OF ARM

subscapularislatissimus dorsiteres majorpectoralis majordeltoid (clavo)

MUSCLES ACTING ON THE ELBOW

FLEX FOREARM

biceps brachii.brachialisbrachioradialispronator teres


triceps brachiianconeus

PRONATE FOREARM

pronator terespronator quadratus

SUPINATE FOREARM

biceps brachiibrachioradialissupinator

MUSCLES ACTING ON WRIST AND

FINGERS

PALMAR FLEX ION OF WRIST

palmaris longusflexor carpi ulnarisflexor carpi radialisflexor digitorum: superficial/deep

EXTENSION (DORSIFLEX ) OF WRIST

extensor carpi radialis longusextensor carpi radialis brevisextensor carpi ulnarisextensor digiti minimiextensor digitorum communisextensor pollicis longus & brevis

ABDUCT WRIST

flexor carpi radialisextensor carpi radialis longusextensor carpi radialis brevis

ADDUCT WRIST

flexor carpi ulnarisextensor carpi ulnaris

FLEX FINGERS

flexor digitorum superficial/deep

EXTEND FINGERS

extensor digitorum communisextensor digiti minimiextensor pollicis longus & brevis

Muscular System

*1 ,NiL

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MUSCLES ACTING ON HIP JOINT

FLEX THIGH

IliopsoasTensor fascia lataSartoriusGluteus mediusRectus femoris

EXTEND THIGH

Gluteus maximusGluteus mediusHamstring group:

Biceps femorisSemitendinosusSemimembranosus

ABDUCT 'THIGH

Gluteus mediusGluteus minimusTensor fascia lataSartorius

ADDUCT THIGH

Adductor group:GracilisPectineusAdductor magnusAdductor longusAdductor brevis

LATERAL ROTATION OF THIGH

Gluteus maximusGluteus mediusSartorius6 Deep gluteal muscles

MEDIAL ROTATION OF THIGH

Gluteus mediusGluteus minimus

MUSCLES ACTING ON KNEE JOINT

FLEX KNEE

Hamstring group:Biceps femorisSemitendinosusSemimembranosus

Sartorius;Gastrocr emius


PlantarisPopliteus

EXTEND KNEE

Quadriceps femoris:Rectus femorisVastus lateralisVastus intermediusVastus medialis

BRACE KNEE (MEDIAL SIDE)

SartoriusGracilisSemitendinosusSemimembranosus

BRACE KNEE (LATERAL SIDE)

Biceps femorisTensor fascia lataGluteus maximus

BRACE KNEE (ANTERIOR)

Quadriceps femoris:Rectus femorisVastus lateralisVastus intermediusVastus medialis

MUSCLES ACTING ON ANKLE AND

TOES

FLEX ANKLE

(dorsiflex)Tibialis anteriorExtensor digitorum longusExtensor hallucis longusPeroneus tertius

EXTEND ANKLE

(plantar flex)Tibialis posteriorPeroneus longusPeroneus brevisGastrocnemiusSoleusPlantarir.Flexor hallucis longusFlexor digitorum longus

FLEX TOES

Flexor hallucis longusFlexor digitorum longus

Muscular System

EXTEND TOES

Extensor digitorum longusExtensor hallucis longus

INVERT ANKLE

Ilbialis anteriorTibia lis posterior

EVERT ANKLE

Peroneus longusPeroneus brevisPeroneus tertius


CMuscular System

Muscles -V list: Human Muscles Listed by RegionN.Nfd. $,

FACEfrontalisoccipitaliscorrugatorprocerusorbicularis oculinasalislevator labii superioris(quadratus labii superioris)levator anguli oriszygomaticus majorrisoriusorbicularis orisdepressor anguli orisdepressor labii inferiorismentalisbuccinatorplatysma

JAWtemporalismassetermedial pterygoidlateral pterygoid

ANTERIOR NECK STRAP MUSCLES

SUFRAHYOID GROUP

stylohyoiddigastricmylohyoid

INFRAHYOID GROUP

sternohyoidomohyoidthyrohyoid

POSTERIOR TRIANGLE OF NECK

BORDERS OF THE TRIANGLE

stemocleidomastoidtrapezius

CONTENTS OF THE TRIANGLE

splenius capitis


levator scapulaescalenus posteriorscalenus medialscalenus anterior

DEEP MUSCLES OF BACK & NECKerector spinae : .

semispinalis capitisspleneus capitus

ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALLrectus abdominisexternal obliqueinternal obliquetransversus abdominis

POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALLiliopsoas:

psoas majorpsoas minoriliacus

quadratus lumborum

MOORING MUSCLES OF SCAPULAtrapeziusrhomboid majorrhomboid minorlevator scapulaeserratus anteriorpectoralis minor

ROTATOR CUFF GROUPsupraspinatusinfraspinatusteres minorsubscapularis

61Appendis A Checklists

BETTER LEVERAGE AT SHOULDERdeltoidlatissimus dorsiteres majorpectoralis majorcoracobrachialis

ARM(Muscles which act on the elbow joint)

biceps brachiibrachialisbrachioradialispronator terestriceps brachiianconeussupinatorpronator quadratus

ANTERIOR FOREARM(Muscles which act on the wrist & fingers)

palmaris longusflexor carpi ulnarisflexor carpi radialisflexor digitorum superficiais and profundus

POSTERIOR FOREARM(Muscles which act on the wrist & fing.as)

extensor carpi radialis longusextensor carpi radialis brevisextensor digitorum communis and indicis

extensor digiti minimiextensor carpi ulnaris

THUMBextensor pollicis longusextensor pollicis brevisabductor pollicis longusflexor pollicis longus

PELVIC GIRDLE ANDOWER LIMB

GLUTEAL REGIONgluteus maximusgluteus mediusgluteus minimustensor fascia latadeep gluteal group

POSTERIOR THIGH (HAMSTRINGS)biceps femorissemitendinosussemimembranosus

MEDIAL THIGH (ADDUCTORS)gracingadductor magnusadductor longusadductor brevispectineus

ANTERIOR THIGHiliopsoassartoriusquadriceps femoris

rectus femorisvastus lateralsvastus mediansvastus intermedius

ANTERIOR LEGtibialis anteriorextensor hallucisextensor digitorumperoneus tertius

LATERAL CRURAL GROUPperoneus longusperoneus brevis

POSTERIOR LEGSUPERFICIAL GROUP

gastrocnemiussoleus

plantdrispopliteus

DEEP GROUP

tibialis posteriorflexor digitorumflexor hallucis longus

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix A - Checklists

e

Nervous System lists: Miscellaneous Lists

MICROSCOPE WORK REVIEW

PERIPHERAL NERVE SLIDES:epineuriumperineuriurnendoneuriumaxonmyelinneurilemmaSchwann cell nucleusnode of Ranvier

SPINAL CORD SLIDES:ventral hornventral horn cellsdorsal hornlateral horn (if present)dorsal root ganglionroots of the spinal nervecentral canaldorsal median septumventral median fissure

SPINAL CORD MODELdorsal median septumventral median sulcusdorsal white column (funiculus)ventral white columnlateral white columncentral canal of spinal corddorsal white commissureventral white commissuredorsal hornlateral hornanterior (ventral) horndorsal root of spinal nervedorsal root ganglionmixed spinal nerveventral root of spinal nerve

CAT : PERIPHERALNERVOUS SYSTEM

phrenic nervebrachial plexus

musculocutaneous nervemedian nerveulnar nerveradial nerve

intercostal nervessciatic nervefemoral nerve

CAT: AUTONOMICNERVOUS SYSTEM

sympathetic trunkvagus nerve

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 59 Appendix A - Checklists6 3

Nervous System lists: Sheep Brain

MISCELLANEOUSMENINGES:

duraarachnid

SUBARACHNOID SPACES

cisterna magnapontine cisterninterpeduncular cisternsuperior cistern

CRANIAL NERVES,

all 12 pair (IX & X may not be visable)

FISSURES

median longitudinal fissuretransverse fissurelateral (Sylvian) fissure

IRHOMBENCEPHALONMETENCEPHALON

cerebellar pedunclesmiddle pedunclesuperior peduncleinferior pedunclevermiform body of cerebellumpons

MYLENCEPHALON

medullapyramids of medulla

ESENCEPHALON 1

cerebral pedunclescorpora quadrigemina

ROS ENCEPHALONTELENCEPHALON

olfactory bulbsolfactory tractsolfactory trigone, ( anterior perforate substance)

uncus

DIENCEPHALON

corpus callosumpineal bodylateral geniculate bodies of thalamus

optic nervesoptic chiasmoptic tractsinfundibulummammillary body of hypothalamus

MISCELLANEOUSlateral ventricleIlIrd ventricleforamen of Monrocerebral aqueductIVth ventricle

OHOMBENCEPHALONMETENCEPHALON

cerebellar cortexarbor vitaesuperior cerebellar pedunclesinferior cerebellar pedunclespons

MYLENCEPHALON

medulla oblongata

MESENCEPHALONcorpora quadrigeminasuperior colliculiinferior colliculicerebral peduncles

ROSENCEPH ALONTELENCEPHALON

cerebral cortex

DIENCEPHALON

corpus callosumseptum pellucidurr,fomixthalamuslateral geniculate body of the thalamusmassa intermedia of the thalamushypothalamusinfundibulummammillary bodypineal bodyoptic chiasm

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 60 Appendix A - Checklists64

Nervous System lists: Human Brain ModelsMISCELLANEOUScranial nerves I-XIIventricles I-IVforamen of Monrocerebral aqueduct

RHOMBENCEPHALONMYELENCEPHALONmedulla oblongatapyramids of the medulladecussation of the pyramids

METENCEPHALONcerebellumcerebellar cortexarbor vitaeponscerebellar pedunclessuperior pedunclemiddle peduncleinferior peduncle

MESENCEPHALONCerebral PedunclesCorpora Quadrigeminasuperior colliculiinferior colliculi

PROSENCEPHALONTELENCEPHALONolfactory bulbsolfactory tractsolfactory trigoneuncuscingulate gyrus (above and parallel to the corpuscallosum)

hippocampus

LOBES

frontal lobeparietal lobeoccipital lobetemporal lobe

FISSURES

midsagittal fissurecentnl fissure (of Rolando)'lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure)parieto-occipital fissure (midsagival view)calcarine fissure (midsagittal view at rightangles to parieto-occipital fissure, extending to tipof occipital pole)cingulate fissure (midsagittal view abovecingulate gyrus, which is above the corpus callosum)'collateral fissure (inferior view, runs the lengthof temporal lobe)

CORTEX

precentral gyrus (motor)'prefrontal cortex (emotional control, thinking,planning)

postcentral gyrus (sensory)'visual cortex (walls of calcarine fissure)'visual association areas'motor speech area (frontal lobe just aboveSylvian fissure)

'speech association areas'hearing projection cortex'hearing association areas'olfactory discrimination cortex (uncus andcingulate gyrus)

DIENCEPHALONthalamuslateral geniculate bodiesmedial geniculate bodiesepithalamus (pineal body)hypothalamusmammillary bodies (two)fomixBASAL NUCLEI

caudate nucleuslentiform nucleuscorpora striata

TRACTS (WHITE MATER )

internal capsulecorona radiatacorpus callosumanterior commissure

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 61 Appendix A - Checklists

C5

3-

4 4

I .

;';'

11

0

'.

;

.

.

: . . 6

4

.

APPENDIX BHomework

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 63 Appendix B. Homework

67

Introductory Homework: Terminology

1. Fill in the blanks in the chart with the correct directional term for the human and for the cat.The body parts are often found in different positions in the human as compared to the cat. Forexample, in humans the ventral surface faces anteriorly, whereas in the cat the ventral surface isinferior.

Body Partor Surface

Term Describing PositionHuman Cat

ventral anterior

dorsal

cephalic

caudal

2. Fill in the blanks in the chart with a synonym for the body plane. The synonym will be differ-ent for the human and for the cat. For example: In humans the frontal plane is also the coronalplane, but in the cat the frontal plane is the same asthe plane.

Plane110111=10Synonym

111111MINIMINV

Human Cat

frontal coronal

transverse

3. Fill in the blanks with the term which bestdescribes the position stipulated (assumethat the person is in standard anatomicalposition unless the word always is used).

a. the spine is to the umbilicus.

b. the knee is always to the hip.

c. thumb is always to the elbow.

4. The serous membrane lining the thoraciccavity is called the:

(2 words)

5. The serous membrane lining the abdomi-nal cavity is called the:

6. The serous membrane covering theoutside of the lungs is called the:

(2 words)

7. What is the difference between a sagittaland a midsagittal section?


esAppendix B- Homework

Osteology Homework: Pectoral Girdle & UpperLimb

1. Look up "fractures" in your medicaldictionary, and define the following kinds: lunate

pollex

compound styloid

greenstick trochlea

2, If you fall and catch yourself on the heelof your hand with the arm extended stiffly,the fracture most likely to result is calledCones' Fracture. Look it up in the dictionry.What bone is involved and where is thebreak?

3. What is the difference be- A =n the surgi-cal neck and the anatomical heck of thehumerus?

4. Look up the following terms in yourmedical dictionary. Jot down some notes t.,nthe meanings of the Latin or Greek roots.Notice how these will help you relate to thetopic of study.

capitulum

condyle

coracoid

epicondyle

aamate (hamatum)


5. What are nutrient foramena?

NOTES:

_66 6) Appendix B- Homework

Osteology Homework: Pelvic Girdle & LowerLimb

NOTES:1. Look up the following terms in yourmedical dictionary. Jot down some notes onthe meanings of the Latin or Greek roots.Notice how these will help you relate to thetopic of study.

acetabulum

articular

aspera (as in Linea aspera)

auricular

cuboid

fossa

fovea

hal lux

innominate

popliteal

ramus

2. What is the fovea capitis? Where is it?

3. What is the ligamentum teres (ligamen-turn capitis)?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 67#.1

Appendix B- Homework

Osteology Homework: Axial Skeleton

curvatures o e tspine. Label the "secondary" curvatures?.Label the primary (fetal ) curvatures.

2. Define:

kyphosis

lordosis

scoliosis

3. Where precisely are the intervertebraldiscs found; what is their function?

4. What are the annulus fibrosus and thenucleus pulposus of a vertebral disc?

5. A laminectomy is done in order to gainaccess to a herniated disc. What does the"lamina" part of this term refer to?

NOTES:

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 68 I Appendix B. Homework

Osteology Homework: the Skull1. Look up the following terms in yourmedical dictionary. Jot down some notes onthe meanings of the Latin or Greek roots.Notice how these will help you relate to thetopic of study.

ala

alveolar

carotid (carotic)

coronoid

cribriform

crista galli

glossa- (glossal)

incisive

jugular

lacerum (lacerate)

lacrimal

mental

nuchal

petrous

pterygoid

sella turcica

septum

sphenoid (sphcno-)

squamous

vomer

2. What are Wormian bones?

3. What is the difference between the par-anasal sinuses and the venous sinuses of thebrain. Name each.

4. Why doesn't the fetal skull have a mas-toid process? Be clear about the differencebetween cause and effect.

5. Which of the fontanels stays "open" thelongest? When does it close?

6. The sigmoid sinus exits the skull throughthe jugular foramen, and enters the neck.What is this vein called in the neck?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 69 Appendix B- Homework

7 2

7. Fill in the spaces on the chart to show what bones are present in the structure listed on the left.The number of bones is given in parentheses. If the same bone is present twice (for example,both palatine bones) it is counted twice. The second problem is an example of this.

PROBLEM ANSWER

1. nasal septum(2 bones)

2. hard palate(4 bones)

3. inf.orbital fissure(5 bones)

4. foramen lacerum(3 bones)

5. jugular foramen(2 bones)

6. orbital fossa(7 bones)

7. foramen spinosum(usually 2 bones)

8. zygomatic arch(2 bones)

9. nasal cavity(13 bones)

10. choanae(4 bones)

Lab instructions & Study Guide, Part I 70 7 3 Appendix B- Homework

Osteology Homework: Ossification

1. Find the following terms in your medicaldictionary. Take notes on the Latin or Greekroots. Notice how these meanings will helpyou relate to the topic.

rancellous

chondroblast;

chondrocyte

diaphysisembryonic (embryologic)

endochondral

epiphysis (epiphyseal plate)

hemopoiesis; (haemo-; hemato-)

hypertrophic

intramembranous

necrosis (necrotic)

osteoblast;

osteoclast

osteocyte;

osteogenic

periosteal bud

periosteum

spicule

2. Give a precise definition of diffusion.

3. Name three things that interfere withdiffusion of nutrients to the cells in thecenter of the cartilage precursor.

4. a. Why is the periosteal bud importantb. Why doesn't it invade the cartilageprecursor earlier?

5. What causes the epiphyseal plate to close?

6. What is the cause of pituitary dwarfism?

7. Compare giantism and acromegaly.

8. List the sequence of events in er.dochon-dral ossification in correct order. Memorizethese.

9. List the cause effect relationships for theabove (#8.) from memory:

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 71 Appendix B. Homework74

Osteology Homework: Arthrology

1. Look up the following ?erms in yourmedical dictionary. Jot down some notes onthe meanings of the Latin or Greek roots.Notice how these will he?p you relate to thetopic of study.

amphi-

annular

arthralgia

arthritis

arthro-

bursitis

intracapsular

meniscus

retinaculum

synovial

tendosynivitis

2. Classify each of the following joints usingboth of the following schemes:

I. FibrousIL CartilagenousIII. Synovial

humero-ulnar

costochondral joints

radiohumeral

sterno chondral

proximal radio-ulnar

MUMS

distal radio-ulnar

radiocarpal

femeropatellar

atlanto-occipital

distal tibiofibular

atlanto-axial

3. Give specific examples of each of the fol-lowing types of joints:

ball and socket joint

symphysis joint

hinge joint

gliding joint

A. Synarthrosis pivot jointB. AmphiarthrosisC. Diarthrosis

acromioclavicular

interosseous membrane

sterno clavicular

symphysis pubis

glenohumeral

tempromandibular

4. What joint is moving when you nod yourhead yes?

5. What joint is moving when you shakeyour head no?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 72 J Appendix B- Homework

Myology Homework. Look up the following terms in your

medical dictionary. Jot down some notes onthe meanings of the Latin or Greek roots.

anconeus

antibrachiuni

biceps

cleido

aura

fascia

gracile

nucha

pectoral (pectus)

peroneal

planta

platy-

popliteal

profunda

quadrate

quadriceps

rectus

sartorius

serrate

soleus

splenium

teres


2. Define aponeurosis?

3. Define the following in terms of musclefunction:

a. origin

b. insertion

c. action

it. In terms of muscle function:

define synergist

define antagonist

4. There are different but equivalent ways ofnaming specific muscle actions. As ex-amples, fill in the blanks of the followingexercise.

a. Flexion of the hip, = flexion of the

, = flexion of the

b. Extension of the knee, = extension of the

= extension of the

c. Abduction of the arm, = abduction of the

= abduction of the

d. Flexion of the forearm = flexion ofthe , = flexion of the

5. Name the muscles that move the man-dible?

73 p4 Appendix 8- Homework

6. Regarding the muscles of facial expres-sion, which ones are for:

Smiling

Grimacing

Frowning

Kissing

Other

7. The extensor muscles of the weightbearing joints are called posture musclesbecause they are antigravity muscles. Namethe following:

a. four posture muscles of the head andneck:

b. posture muscle group of the spinal col-umn:

8. Which muscles compress the abdomen(for urinati ',n, defecation, vomiting, parturi-tion, sneezing, coughing)

9. Name a synergist of the rhomboid

muscles.

10. Regarding the muscles which move theelbow, which ones are for

a. Pronation (Medial Rotation) :

b.Supination (Lateral Rotation):

11. Name a flexor muscle and an extensormuscle, both of which abduct the wrist:

12. Name a flexor muscle and an extensormuscle, both of which adduct thewrist:

13. Some muscles cause actions at morethan one joint. Name the muscle or musclegroup:a. that crosses the shoulder joint and theelbow joint:

b. that flexes the elbow and supinates thearm:

c. that flexes the elbow and pronates theann.

d. that weakly flexes the elbow and stronglyflexes the wrist and fingers:

14.. Name a synergist of the gluteus maxi-mus.

15. Name an antagonist of the iliopsoasmuscle.

16. Name an antagonist of the quadricepsfemoris group.

17. Name the posture muscles of the hipjoint:

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 74 Appendix B- Homework"7

18. Name the posture muscles of the kneejoint

19. Name the muscles which brace theextended knee.

20. Regarding the muscles which move theankle, which ones are for

Eversion:

Inversion:

21. Some muscles cause actions at morethan one joint. Name the musc'e or musclegroup:

a. that causes flexion of the hip and exten-sion of the knee:

b. that causes extension of the hip andflexion of the knee:

c. that flexes the spine and flexes the hip

22. Name a muscle that extends the ankleand flexes the toes.

23. Name a muscle that flexes the ankle andextends the toes.

NOTES:


Nervous System Homework: Introduction. Define the following divisions of the

nervous system.a. Central Nervous System (CNS)

b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

c. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

2. Find the following nervous system termsin your medical dictionary. Jot down somenotes on the meanings of the roots.

afferent

efferent

facilitation

a

impulse

inhibition

internuncial

myelin

synapse

3. Draw a diagram of the anatomy of asynapse, and describe how an impulsescrosses the synapse.

4. True or False: At a nerve-nerve synapseimpulses pass from the axLn of a neuron tothe axon of the next neuron. Explain

5. True or False: Dendrites can be thought ofas being extensions of the surface area of theaxons.

6. True or False: Axons carry impulsestoward their cell body.

7. Name the glia and their functions.

8. Clearly distinguish between (define):

endoneurium

perineurium

epineurium

9. Explain the "jelly roil" theory of myelinformation. Make a clear distinction betweenmyelin and neurilemma.

10. True or False: Myelin helps with nerveregeneration. Explain.

11. Compare and contrast the followingpairs of terms:

white matter / gray mater

nerve / tract

nucleus / ganglion

receptors I effectors

afferent / efferent nerves


Nervous System Homework: Spinal Cord andPeripheral Nerves

1. Find the following nervous system termsin your medical dictionary. Jot down somenotes on the meanings of theroots.cauda

cisterna

conus

equinia

filum

phrenic

plexus

reflex

sciatic

wrist drop

2. T1 isn't grouped with the intercostalnerves. What is it part of?

3. Compare and contrast: sensory, motor,and internuncial neurons, relating each totheir role in the nervous system.

4. Compare and contrast Anterior HornCells to Lateral Horn Cells.

5. Explain the process which creates thecauda equina.

6. What is the filum terminale?

7. Where is the conus medullaris?

8. Why are spinal taps done at the L4-L5level of the spinal cord?

9. How many pairs of spinal nerves arethere?

10. List the number of spinal nerves that exitfrom each region of the spinal cord.

11. Name the four major nerve plexuses andlist the spinal nerves that feed into each.


SAppendix B- Homework

12. Name the major peripheral nervesarising from each of the plexuses, and namethe parts of the body served by each nerve.

13. Name the largest of the peripheralnerves.

14. Damage to which terminal nerve wouldresult in:

death by suffocation

inability to extend the hip joint

wrist drop

ankle drop

15. True or False: The ascending and de-scending pathways of the spinal cord arelocated in the white mater (not gray mater)of the cord. Explain

16. True or False:The spinal cord extends tothe base of the 5th sacral vertebra. Explain

17. True or False: In a reflex arc impulsespass from an internuncial neuron to a sen-sory neuron. Explain

18. True or False: A lumbar puncture in-volves removing cerebral spinal fluid from asubarachnoid space. Explain


19. True or False: The dorsal horn of thespinal cord contains the cell bodies of motorneurons. Explain

20. True or False: The posterior horn of thespinal cord contains cell bodies of pregan-glionic neurons of the sympathetic nervoussystem. Explain

21. True or False: The radial nerve is abranch of the brachial plexus.

22. True or False: The phrenic nerve is abranch of the cervical plexus. Explain

23. True or False: When giving intramuscu-lar injections, it is important to know thelocation of the sciatic nerve in the femoralregion. Explain.

24. Practice drawing the cross szction of thespinal cord free hand until you can do itquickly; label it.

78 Appendix B- Homework

81

Homework: Autonomic Nervous S stem1. Fin the ollowing terms in your medicaldictionary. Write notes on the Latin andGreek roots.

autonomous

collateral

ejaculation

homeostasis

hypo-

hypothalamic

para-

parasympathotnime tic

paravertebral

peristalsis

ramus

splanchna

sympathomimetic

vaso-

vasoconstrictive

2. How is motor supply to skeletal muscledifferent from motor supply to smoothmuscle?

3. Clearly distinguish between preganglionicand postganglionic motor nerves.

4. Draw a :gram showing a white ramuscommunicans and a gray ramuscommunicans.

5. With words, clearly define the differencesbetween a white and a gray ramus communi-cans.

6. What is a splanchnic nerve?

7. "Thoracolumbar" is a synonym for thesympathetic system, and "craniosacral" is asynonym for the parasympathetic system.Explain why.

8. Explain why "adrenergic " refers to thesympathetic system, and "cholinergic" refersto the parasympathetic system.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 79 Appendix B. Homework

62

9. What cranial nerves carry parasympa-thetic motor neurons? Give the nerve byname and number (Roman numeral).

10. True or False: Cell bodies ofpreganglionic neurons of the sympatheticdivision of the autonomic nervous systemare located in the lateral he m of the spinalcord.

11. True or False: The pupil of the eyedilates due to stimulation of the craniosac-ral division of the autonomic nervoussystem.

12. Preganglionic sympathetic axons maypass through the chain gangliawithout synapsing. True or F ie?

13.True or Falser. The vomiting center is inthe medulla oblongata.

14. On a separate piece of paper create achart in which you compare and contrast thesympathetic and parasympathetic systemswith reference to the following topics:

location of the ganglionrelative length of the postganglionic neuronrelative length of the preganglionic neuronlocatia of the cell body of the pregan-

glionic neuronneurotransmitter chemical used at the

postganglionic synapsegeneral physiologic action (summary

statement)hypothalamic control centers

15. Create another chart comparing the twosystems as to details of physiologic action.Include the following target organs andfunctions:

blood vessels of the skin and musclesblood vessels of the viscera.heart raterespiration ratebronchiole constrictionpupil of the eyepiloerectionsweat glandssaliva secretionother G. 1. Tract secretionsurinary sphincteranal sphinctersexual functions (ere'tion and ejaculation)

Lab lob actions & Study Guide, Part l SO )endix B. Homework

Nervous System Homework: Cranial Nervesterms in your

dictionary. Notice the Latin and Greek roots.You may find it helpful to write some notesen your findings.

abducens

abduct

extrinsic

glosso-

intrinsic

oculomotor

ophthalmic

proprioception

somatic

tic douloureux

trigeminy

trochlea

vagus

visceral

2. True or False: The auditory nerve alsocar es impulses regulating balance.

3 True or False: The glonsopharyngealnerve connects to most of the internalviscera.

4. Which two cranial nerves are motor to theface?

5. Which are for taste, and also innerva asalivary gland? (It is impossible to swallowdry items, they must be moistened.)


6. What four nerves help with swallowing?

7. What four nerves are parasympatheticmotor nerves?

8. What three nerves help with speech (twovia the vocal cords and one via the tongue)?

9.. Which three nerves help to move theeyeball around?

NOTES:

Appendix 13- Homework

Homework: Meninges, Ventricles, CerebralSpinal Fluid

e o owing terms in your . ere is e cerebrospmal fluid made'/dictionary. Notice the Latin and Greek roots.You may find it helpful to write some noteson your findings. 6. What is cerebrospinal fluid for?

aqueous

arachnoid

cephalic (cephalo-)

cerebrospinal

falx

granulation

hydro-

pia

tentoritun

trabecula

villus (villi)

2. True or False: The dura mater is the layerof the meninges closest to the surface of thebrain and spinal cord.

3. True or False: The pia mater forms thefloor of the subarachnoid spaces.

4. How many are there (one or two) of eachof the following:

Lateral ventricle

IIIrd Ventricle

IVth Ventricle

Foramen of Monro

Aqueduct of Sylvius

Foramen of Magendie

Foramen of Luschka


7. What is a synonym for "spinal tap"?

8. What is the immediate cause of hydro-cephalus?

9. Trace a molecule of CSF circulating fromthe lateral ventricle to the jugular vein.

82 v 5 Appendix B- Homework

Nervous System Homework: Th e HutnanBrain1. Find the following terms in your medical meta-dictionary and take brief notes on theirmeanings as these will help you remember myelo-

the information on the brain.

accommodation

amygdala

aphasia

tabor

archi-

Broca's area

callosum

caudate

chiasma

circadian rhythms

collateral

colliculus

corona

corticospinal

decussation

discrimination

encephalo-

encephalogram

fornix

geminate

geniculate (geniculum)

gonadotrophin -riotropin)

hippocampal

insular

lentiform

meso-

Lab Instructions & Study r.'1, ide, Part I

neo-

paleo

pallium

para-

peduncle

perforate

phren-

pineal

presby-

presbyophrenia

presbyopia

proso-

putamen

quadri-

radiate

reticular

rhinal

spinothalamic

stapedius

stria

supra-

tele-

tympanum

uncus

vitae

Wernicke's area

83

66Appendix B. Homework

2. Briefly summarize the functions of thefollowing major structures:

medulla (gray matter)

pyramids of the medulla (white matter)

pons, gray matter

pons, white matter

cerebellum, gray matter

superior colliculi

thalamus

lateral geniculate body

hypothalamus

3. Name the lobes of the telencephalon.

4. Name the subcortical nuclei (gray matter)of the telencephalon.

5. Name six white matter structures of thetelencephalon.

6. Name the parts of the diencephalon.


7. What cranial nerves are attached to themedulla?

8. What cranial nerves are attached to thepons?

9. What cranial nerves are attached to thecerebral peduncles (midbrain)?

10. What cranial nerve is attached to thediencephalon?

11. What cranial nerve is attached to thetelencephalon?

12. What are the parts of the corpora striata?

13. Name one major commissure tract of thebrain and give it's function.

14. Name one major descending tract of thebrain and give it's function.

15. Name one major ascending tract of thebrain and give it's function.

16. Why is the cerebral cortex convoluted?

18. True or False: The motor area of thecerebral cortex in the parietal lobe. Ex-plain.

kl"


a7

19. True or False: The thalamus has acontrol center for body temperature.

20. True or False: The thalamus receivespain and temperature information. Explain.

21. True or False: The surfaces of all partsof the brain are gray matter. Explain.

22. True or False: The surface of the spinalcord is gray matter.

23. True or False: The respiratory controlcenter and the heart rate control center are inthe medulla.

24. True or False: The hypothalamus is thenext higher level of control over the me-dulla.

25. True or False: The limbic system caninfluence the hypothalamus.

26. True or False: Our emotions can influ-ence the functions of the autonomic nervoussystem. Give an example.

27. True or False: The cortex can influencethe limbic system. Give an example.

28. True or False: The cortex can influencfthe hypothalamus. Give an example.

29. True or False: It is possible to learnsome measure of voluntary control over thefunctions of the autonomic nervous system.Explain.

30. True or False: Injury to one of the areasof the brain concerned with (language) willprobably result in some type of aphasia.


31. True or False: The lateral spinothalamictract carries information regarding pain.

32. True or False: The ventrospinothalamictract carries information regarding tempera-ture.

33. True or False: The staggering gate of thealcoholic is due to brain damage in thecerebellum.

34. True or False: In order to be fully con-scious of pain one's cerebral cortex must beintact.


88

Nervous. System Homework: The Eye1. Look up the following words in yourmedical cyclopedic dictionary, being alertfor root meanings that apply to this unit ofstudy.

accommodation, visual

atrophy

exophthalmos

fovea

glaucoma

hypermetropia

hyperopia

intraocular

lutea

macula

myopia

opthalmoscope

presbyopia

rhodopsin

2. Trace the pathway of light through theeye, listing all the structures in sequencethrough which the light passes to reach therods and cones of the retina.

3. Using the list generated in #2 above, statethe effect (if any) that each structure has onthe bending of light rays.

In terms cause/ , state whathappens to the curvature of the lens. whenthe ciliary muscles contract and when theyrelax. Why is this different in presbyopia.

5. Explain the relationship between eyeballlength and focusing difficulties in myopiaand hyperopia.

6. Name the three layers of the wall of theeye and the function of each.

7. Clearly distinguish between the blind spotand the macula lutea.


e0Appendix B- Homework

Nervous. System Homework: The Eye1. Look up the following words in youmedical cyclopedic dictionary, being alertfor root meanings that apply to this unit ofstudy.

accommodation, visual

atrophy

exophthalmos

fovea

glaucoma

hypermetropia

hyperopia

intraocular

lutea

macula

myopia

opthalmoscope

presbyopia

rhodopsin

2. Trace the pathway of light through theeye, listing all the structures in sequencethrough which the light passes to reach therods and cones of the retina.

3. Using the list generated in #2 above, statethe effect (if any) that each structure has onthe bending of light rays.

4. In terms state whathappens to the curvature of the lens. whenthe ciliary muscles contract and when theyrelax. Why is this different in presbyopia.

5. Explain the relationship between eyeballlength and focusing difficulties in myopiaand hyperopia.

6. Name the three layers of the wall of theeye and the function of each.

7. Clearly distinguish between the blind spotand the macula lutea.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix B. Homework

Nervous System Homework: The Ear1. Look the following words up in yourmedical dictionary, being alert 3 rootmeanings useful in the present context.

ambient

ambient pressure

auricle

cerumen

cochlea

fenestra

fenestra cochlea

incur

lith-

malleus

ossicles

otitis media

oto-

otolith

otopharyngeal tube

pinna

scala

stapes

tectorial

tympanum

utricle

2. Explain the function of the Eustachiantuoe in relation to ambient pressure changes.

Lab Instructions & Study Gukie, Part I SS

3. List the sequence of events by which asound wave is changed into nerve stimula-tion.

5. How will different loudnesses affect theorgan of hearing?

6. How will different pitches affect theorgan of hearing?

7. Describe how the semicircular canalswork.

7. Describe how the utricle and saccule workfor detection of gravity when you are notmoving (how do you know up from down?).Secondly, how do they register a change inhead position?

Appendix B. Homework

document resume ed 315 321 se 051 219 author conrey ... · title laboratory instructions and study...

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