document resume ed 242 309 ir 011 053
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 242 309 IR 011 053
AUTHOR Muir, WalterTITLE Computer Awareness: An Introduction for Teachers.INSTITUTION British Columbia Dept. of Education, Victoria.
Curriculum Development Branch.REPORT NO ISBN-0-7719-9159-2PUB DATE 83NOTE 59p.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)
-- Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) --Tests /Evaluation Instruments (160)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 ells Postage.DESCRIPTORS. *Computer Assisted Instruction; *Computer Literacy;
Computer Oriented Programs; Computers; *ComputerSoftware; Elementary econdary Education; Glossaries;Input Output Devices; '''Microcomputers; *ProgramDevelopment; Programing: Worksheets
IDENTIFIERS Computer Selection; *Computer Uses in Education;Software Evaluation
ABSTRACTWritten for elementary and secondary school teachers
with little or no experience with the computer, this book provides anoverview of the computer and the role it can play in the classroom.An introduction presents a brief history of computing and a briefdiscussion of computers in society and computer literacy. Individualchapters cover hardware, software and educational applications ofcomputers, including drill and practice, tutorials, computer managedinstruction, simulations, computer games, problem solving, LOGOprogramming language, word processing, the electronic blackboard,classroom testing, and vocational guidance. A chapter on using acomputer in the classroom addresses preparing yourself, establishingobjectives and learning outcomes; acquiring hardware, software, andcourseware; setting up your computer facility; planning andpresenting activities; and evaluating courseware. A brief chapter isincluded for principals and vice-principals. Thirty-two referencesare listed. Also included are a list of 19 selected periodicals and aglossary of computer terms. (LMM)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
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O
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER IERICI
is. This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.
. Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality.
Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.
COMPUTER
-811.111iFiEllESS:finFOR TEliCHEFiS
Walter MuirUniversity of Victoria
Province ofBritish ColumbiaMinistry of EducationLEARNING ASSESSMENT BRANCHANDCURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT BRANCHVICTORIA 1963
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
R.N. Grppr
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES.INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
Canadian Catakguing in Publication DataMuir, Water, 1934 -
Computer awareness
Bibliography: p.ISBN 0-7719-9159-2
1. Ccmputer-assisted instruction. 2. Computers.I. British Columbia.. Learning Assessment Branch.II. British Columbia Schools Dept. CurriculumDevelopment Branch. III. Title.
LB1028.5.M84 371.3'9445 C83-092087-0
Ministry of Education. Province of British Columbia. CanadaNo part of this publication may be reproduced in anyform without permission in writing from the publisher.
CONTENTS
ONE:
TWO:
INTRODUCTION 1
A Brief History of ComputingComputers in Society - Today & TomorrowComputer Literacy
HARDWARE 7
Input Units 7Output Units 8
The Central Processing Unit 13The Memory Unit 13
THREE: SOFTWARE 15
Programming 16
FOUR: THE ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION 23
The Computer as an Aid to Learning 23Drill & Practice 24Tutorials 24:omputer Managed Instruction 28Simulations 28Computer Games 28Problem Solving 31LOGO 33Word-processing 34The Electronic Blackboard 37Classroom Testing 38Vocational Guidance 38
FIVE: A COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM 41
Preparing Yourself 41Establishing Objectives & Learning Outcomes 41Acquiring Hardware 42Acquiring Software & Courseware 43Setting Up Your Computer Facility 44Planning and Presenting Your Activities 46Evaluating Courseware 47Some Additional Thoughts . 53
SIX: THE ADMINISTRATOR AND THE COMPUTER . . . . 55
BIBLIOGRAPHY 57
SELECTED PERIODICALS 59
GLOSSARY OF COMPUTER TERMS 61
PREFACE
We are living in the midst of the "computer revolution", andlike most revolutions, no one can predict just where it willtake us. We do know, however, that computers are here tostay. They mean business, in every sense of the word. Moreand more, our daily lives are affected by these electronicmarvels; from shopping for groceries, to paying our bills,to protecting our homes, to sorting our mail, to sawing ourlumber, to building our cars, and on, and on. The growth ofcomputer applications over the past decade is unlikeanything yet witnessed by modern civilization, and there isno apparent limit to what we can expect in the future.
Tne computer revolution seems to have caught the field ofeducation somewhat by surprise. We knew about computers, ofcourse, but because they were so expensive there seemedlittle reason to think they would come into our classrooms,at least not for some time to come. The microcomputer haschanged all that. Over the past three or four years, thesesophisticated little devices have been finding their wayinto homes, as well as schools, at an astonishing rate. Thecomputer, once the subject of science fiction, has becomecommonplace.
This book has been written for those elementary andsecondary school teachers who have had little or no
experience with computers, but are interested in knowingsomething about them and some of the things they can do.When you have finished reading the book, you should have areasonable overview of the computer and the role that it canplay in your own classroom. You should also have a goodidea as to whether or not you want to get involved in using
computers yourself.
A note of sincere appreciation is extended to the
Mathematics Advisory Committee on Assessment and ,Curriculum,of the B.C. Ministry . of Education, for the advice andsupport ,received from the Chairman and Members of the
Commit tee.
Walter Muir
Victoria, B.C.
iii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
If you are like most teachersyou are skeptical, perhaps evenapprehensive, about the arrivalof computers in our schools.There is nothing wrong with heal-thy skepticism, as long as it isbased on understanding. The pur-pose of this booklet is to reduceyour concerns about computers byinforming you about them, and bysuggesting ways in which youmight apply what computers haveto offer in your own classroom.You probably see this as a some-what overwhelming task, but, ifyou are willing to spend sometime and effort learning aboutcomputers and what they can do,you may find some genuine bene-fits, for both you and yourpupils. Be forewarned, though,computers can be addictive youneed only watch youngsters at aMICROCOMPUTER or a video game tobe convinced of that. (By theway, when you sce a capitalizedword in the text, it is usuallydefined in the Glossary at theback of this booklet.)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Our prehistoric ancestors hada very imple method of express-ing how many mastodons they hadkilled hen the hunt was overthey used their fingers, or anappropriate number of stones orsticks Then along came thatorient 1 masterpiece, the abacus.This was undoubtedly in responseto th fact that one runs out of
1
fingers when trying to representquantities greater than ten. Theabacus was a major technologicalbreakthrough and it is stilleffectively used in many parts ofthe world. The abacus has itslimitations, though, and it neverdid become popular in the westernworld. Instead, western commercedepended upon handwritten symbols--(numerals) that could be manipu-lated according to specific oper-ations (adding, subtracting, mul-tiplying and dividing).
Hand calculations, as we allknow, are slow and inaccurate andabout 1640, Blaise Pascal, abrilliant French mathematician,devised what is considered to bethe first mechanical numericalcalculator. However, unlike therapid technological developmentswe have seen over the lastdecade, Pascal's invention failedto demonstrate its usefulness atthe time and it was not widelyused.
The next notable developmentdid not take place until about1800 when Jacquard, also inFrance, invented a textile loomthat produced intricate patternsunder the control of punchedcards. This proved to be a veryimportant contribution to theindustrial revolution because itimmediately increased the effi-ciency of textile production.
About 20 years later, Babbage,in England, designed what hecalled a "differential engine."
The plan for this device is con-sidered to be the first descrip-tion of what a modern computerwould ultimately be able to do.The technology of the day, unfor-tunately, was not capable ofbuilding Babbage's engine, so itnever really left the drawingboard.
Next in the evolution of com-puters was the invention of anelectrical tabulating machine byHerman Hollerith in the UnitedStates. This device applied thepunched card concept of Jacquardto the coding of the data fromthe U.S. Census of 1890. Holler-ith's machine was able to providemuch more census information thanpreviously in about one third thetime. Indeed, without Holler-ith's invention the tabulationfor the 1890 Census would nothave been completed until wellafter the 1900 Census had beencarried out. Hollerith formed acompany to develop and sell hisinvention - this company eventu-ally became a world leader incomputers, IBM.
Several other companies wereformed to produce mechanical cal-culating equipment for the grow-ing commerce of the 20th Century.These calculators were based,essentially, on the ideas of Pas-cal, and were instrumental in
establishing a new industry whichprospered until about 1970, whenelectronic calculators came ontothe market.
In the mid 1930's researchersat several locations worked onthe idea that electronic vacuumtubes could be used to provide asubstantial increase in :.he speedwith which arithmetic calcula-tions could be carried out. Bythe early 1940's the first elec-tronic "computers ". had beenbuilt. They were huge devices
2
that required great amounts of ,
electrical energy, both to runthe computer and to keep it cool.They were also very difficult toprogram. However, the ComputerAge had begun and developments incomputer technology have sinceprogressed at an amazing rate.
The next critical event wasthe production of the transistor,about 1.450, which performed thefunction of the vacuum tube, butdid so more reliably and with theconsumption of much less electri-cal energy. Then, largely tomeet the needs of the U.S. SpaceProgram for smaller and lightercomponents, the transistor wasreplaced by the integrated cir-cuit or CHIP which has steadilybeen improved to the point wherethousands of circuits can occupyan area the size of a pinhead.
The computer of today is adirect descendant of those early 1
attempts to improve methods ofcounting and calculating. Butmodern computers can do much morethan count and calculate.
COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY TODAY ANDTOMORROW
The growing influence of com-puters in our modern society canbe seen almost everywhere. Dur-ing the past decade the cost ofcomputing has been dramaticallyreduced while the cost of humanlabor has steadily grown. It hasbeen suggested, for example, thathad the automobile industryexperienced a similar reductionin costs, a luxury car could benow bought for less than one dol-lar. This is why we are witness-ing the amazing growth of compu-ter applications in business,industry, government, and educa-tion. The range of applications
is expanding so rapidly that onlythose who work with computers ona full-time basis are able tokeep abreast of the most recentdevelopments.
The following are some aspectsof our day to day lives thatinvolve computers in one way oranother:
*Airlines - reservations, ticketpreparation, seat assignment
*Aircraft - automatic flight con-trol, landing control
*Automobiles ignition systems,status information
*Banking - accounting, fundstransfers, automatic tellers
*Business - accounting, word pro-cessing, communications
*Design buildings, bridges,roads, equipment
*Entertainment - games, movies
*Graphics - TV commercials, pho-tographic enhancement
*Home security, food prepara-tion, budgeting & accounting
*Manufacturing - process control,robot welders & assemblers
*Medicine diagnosis, patientmonitoring, record keeping
*Pharmacy - control of prescribeddrugs
*Police - data banking, identifi-cation, fingerprint analysis
*Retail - checkout scanning,inventory control
This list is far from com-plete, but it clearly illustrates
3
the extent to which computershave entered our lives. Further,it must be recognized that theinfluence of computers is reallyin its infancy. As they increasein their ability to perform moresophisticated functions, compu-ters will assume a growing rolein our society. For example,there is TELIDON, Canada's "vid-eotex" system which can provide5nformation on virtually anytopic, from airline schedules tozoo attractions. Proponents ofvideotex claim that it couldultimately supply all the infor-mation the average person wantsto know. It will also providefor shopping at home, for elec-tronic mail services, and, inci-dentally, for the education ofchildren in their own homes.
Information will continue tobe stored in computers to thepoint where virtually everythingthat is known will be found incomputer data banks. This, ifcourse, presents us with adilemma. On the one hand, humansare information seekers and com-puters do provide for the effi-cient storage and retrieval ofall sorts of data. On the other,the privacy of individuals can beeasily invaded for unscrupulousreasons un,less adequate controlsare developed. Hopefully, appro-priate actions will be taken toensure that the benefits will faroutweigh the risks.
The developing VIDEODISC tech-nology, when used under computercontrol, will become an importantcomponent in the storage andretrieval of information. It
should be possible to storecopies of all the printed materi-al ever published on as few as200 video-discs. These could bestored in a room the size of abroom closet and the informationthey contain would be available
to almost anyone.
Money, as we know it, willprobably disappear. Instead,each person will likely carry asingle plastir: card, carefullycoded for security purposes witha fingerprint or a voiceprint.These cards will allow a computerterminal at the checkout counterof any retail store to transferfunds from the bank account of
the purchaser to the store. Itwon't even be necessary for a
clerk to perform the transactionsince the customer will simplypass the merchandise over an
automatic scanner. No item in
the store will pass through theouter doors without setting offan alarm unless the checkJut ter-minal has reset the security codeembedded in the article.
computers will respond, moreand more, to simple voice com-mands. Instead of using key-boards for entry, a microphone isall that will be necessary.Information will be requested,orders for goods and serviceswill be given, and correspondencetransmitted, over telephonelines. The conversation will bewith a computer, however, notanother person.
All of this is very interest-ing, you may say, but at whatcost? Well obviously there willbe some costs, but most expertsin computer applications arguethat the advantages will far out-weigh the disadvantages. Indivi-dual freedoms may be placed atrisk through greater access topersonal data, but this should becounterbalanced by the opportu-nity for planners and politicalleaders to have more reliableinformation upon which to makeimportant decisions. Further-more, it is argued, adequate mea-sures can be taken to prevent
4
access to an individual's data bythe wrong people.
Computer crime, however, is
already a "growth" industry.What this means is that the theftof money from banks and otherfinancial institutions, throughillegal access to computers, is
steadily increasing. Greatefforts are being made to preventaccess to bank accounts by unau-thorized people. However; sincethe evidence suggests that mostof these thefts are carried outby persons who have "inside"knowledge of the system, effortsto prevent theft have not beenentirely successful.
The impact of computers onemployment patterns has alreadybeen considerable. Many rela-tively low skilled jobs, such asfiling office records and assem-bling automobiles, have been dra-matically affected by computersdesigned to perform these activi-ties much faster and with greaterprecision than humans. The cri-tical question is, how will peo-ple be trained to function effec-tively in the age of computers?Surely, this is a question aboutwhich all educators must be con-cerned.
COMPUTER LITERACY
Just as the Industrial Revolu-tion created the need for a
"literate" populace that couldunderstand and work effectivelywith machines, the Computer Revo-lution has created the need forpeople who are skilled in the useof computers. The term, "compu-ter literacy", therefore, refersto a general understanding ofcomputers, and the ability to usethem in meaningful ways.
Until the mid 1970's, mostpersons who used computers wereeither graduates of "computerscience" programs offered byuniversities and colleges, or hadbeen trained by large businessesthat required skilled program-mers. This is how the initialneeds of business and industryfor "Computer professionals" weremet.
Microcomputers, however, havegreatly broadened
, the base ofcomputer applications since theyare capable of most of the func-tions previously carried out onlyby large computers. Complexapplications, such'as bookkeepingfor small and medium sized busi-nesses, which previously wereperformed by large commercialcomputing servicos, are increas-ingly being carried out in theoffice on microcomputers. As aresult, there is a rapidly grow-ing need for computer literacy inthe general populaition.
The impact of microcomputerson the field of education hasbeen equally dramatic. When com-puter science courses were intro-duced to high schools prior 't..o
1970, only very large school dis-tricts could afford their owncomputing systems. The onlyalternative was to rent "time",if possible, on a nearby univer-sity or business computer. Thismeant that many students had noopportunity to learn about compu-ters until they attended univer-sity. Now, because of the rela-tively low cost ofmicrocomputers, virtually allnigh school students, most juniornigh students, and many elemen-tary school students have accessto the latest in computer tech -nology. It is now possible,therefore, to begin the develop-nent of computer literacy with?upils in the elementary school.
The question is, who is going toteach computer literacy? Theanswer, believe it or not, isthat every teacher is potentiallya teacher of computer literacy.First, however, teachers mustbecome confident in their ownability to use computers. Thefollowing is suggested as a basiclist of objectives for a computerliteracy program.
Specifically, the "computerliterate" teacher will have:
1. Knowledge of the history ofcomputing;
2. An understanding of the compo-nents of a computing system;
3. An awareness of how computersfunction and how they are pro-grammed;
4. An understanding of the rangeof computer applications tothe classroom, and the abilityto apply them;
5. An awareness of the sources ofhardware and software;
6. The ability to evaluate theeffectiveness of programs andapplications;
7. Knowledge of business andindustrial careers in compu-ters;
8. An awareness of the presentand possible future effects ofcomputer technology onsociety.
While this may seem to be animposing list, these objectivescan be attained by anyone who iswilling to apply the necessarytime and effort. The major pur-pose of this booklet is to assistthe teacher with no background inthe use of computers to begin to
SID
acquire a useful level o,f computerliteracy.
11
41
CHAPTER TWO
HARDWAR2.
The Nuts and Bolts of Computers
The term, HARDWARE, is used todescribe the physical componentsof a computer system; those partsthat can be seen and touched. Ascan be seen in Figure 1, thereare four main types of hardware;INPUT UNITS, OUTPUT UNITS, (whichare also called PERIPHERALS) , theCENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT or CPU,and the MEMORY UNIT.
INPUT UNITS
The computer will acceptinformation from a wide varietyof sources, as long as it arrivesin the form of numbers, lettersof the alphabet, or special char-acters such as question marks andparentheses(?), commas, and per-iods. Information enteging thecomputer is called INPUT.
With microcomputers, the mostfrequently used input unit is aKEYBOARD which is very similar tothe traditional typewriter key-board, but with a few specialkeys added. When a given key isstruck, the computer instantlystores the code corresponding tothat key in its memory. A seriesof keystrokes can input numberslike "123.45", words such as"RUN", or special characters like"(#$%0)." The sentence you arenow reading, for exam p14, wasoriginally entered into a micro-computer, through its keyboard.
t
DISK DRIVES and CASSETTE DECKSprovide input in a rather specialway. Programs and data can bestored on DISKETTES or audioCASSETTE tapes for future use.When the user wishes to retrievea program that has been storedpreviously, it is simply neces-sary to instruct the computer to"load" the program into the com\puter's memory from ether ofthese input units. Thus, pro-grams and data are quic y madeavailable for use by the ompu-ter. It should be noted thatdisk drives are usually prefe redover cassette decks in that t eyretrieve programs and data mu hfaster and are generally easieto use. However, disk drives arerather more expensive than cas-sette decks.
GAME PADDLES and JOYSTICKS arealso input units. As their namesimply, these devices permit theuser to play many of the popularcomputer games by inputtinginformation' that controls themovement of "objects" about thescreen. The principle involvedis similar to controlling theloudness or volume of.;,a radio -as the nob or gtick is moved, thecomputer recognizes differentvalues and responds to them.
CARD READERS have long beenused as input units to large com-puters. Jacquard's early
12
invention has 'remained a veryuseful method of data input.High speed card readers can pro-cess over 2,000 cards per minute.Card readers are particularlyuseful for entering large amountsof data.
OPTICAL SCANNERS permit theinput of a variety of informationsuch as the "bar code" on a
retail item, the specially formednumbers at the bottom of a bankcheque, or the print on a ordi-nary typewritten, page. Most ofthese scanners are very expensiveand are not often used withmicrocomputers at this time.
There are several other inputdevices used with microcomputersincluding GRAPHICS TABLETS whichcan convert the output screen
into an artist's canvas, and
LIGHT PENS which allow very youngchildren to communicate with thecomputer by simply pointing atvarious locations on the screen.In addition, there are MUSICSYNTHESIZERS which, when coupledwith a piano-like keyboard, cantransform a microcomputer into a
very sophisticated musicalinstrument.
OUTPUT UNITS
Information leaving a computeris called OUTPUT. Most microcom-puters, and indeed most computersof any size, use a televisionscreen, or MONITOR, as the mainoutput unit. These are alsocalled CATHODE RAY TUBES, (CRTs) ,or VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINALS(VDTs) . 'They have the advantageof very quickly presenting the
results of the computer's activ-ity. Many CRTs are capable ofproviding output in variouscolors, while others have blackand white or green and white
screens.-_ The major_disadvantageof the CRT is that it can. present 41only a limited amount of data atone time, and when the power isshut off the display disappears.Output to a CRT is sometimesreferred to as SOFTCOPY.
When more permanent output, orHARDCOPY, is required from the
computer, it is usually directedto a PRINTER. There are severaltypes of printers, the most com-mon of which, as far as microcom-puters are concerned, is known asthe "dot matrix" printer. These
devices, which can print up to600 words per minute, form char-acters by press:ng a set of nee-dles forming th,?. desired shapeagainst a carbon ribbon which, in
turn, presses against the paper.In addition to printing numbers,letters, and special characters,these printers can also outputgraphic designs, some examples of
which follow. Other printers are Alvery much like typewriters con-nected to the computer. Theseproduce output that is exactly asyou would obtain from a type-
writer. What you are reading nowwas originally output onto a high
quality printer of this type.
Large computing centres, whichproduce great amounts of printed__output, now use "ink jet" -and
"laser" printers that can outputin the order of 20,000 lines per
minute.
Disk drives and audio cassettedecks are output as well as input
devices. Here again, disk drivesare much easier to use than cas-settes. However, both are capa-ble of storing programs and verylarge sets of data for futureuse. Each side of a diskette, orFLOPPY DISK as it is also called,
is capable of storing over
500,000 letters or characters.This total storage capacity of 11
more than one million letters is
8 13
GAME PADDLES KEYBOARD
CARD READER
n mu 14
CASSETTE DECK
0 Ma Dow0000 dIDeldllbae 11, MN gp.
INPUT UNITS
DISK DRIVE
CENTRALPROCESSING
UNIT.11 1 4 Inn In
MEMORY
DISK DRIVE
mm DCASSETTE DECK
NN1''/PSPEAKER
OUTPUT UNITS
CATHODERAY
TUBE
Figure 1. A Microcomputer System
9 14
PRINTER
. . .
. : .........
. iti. .. : .
111.7"'" . ..
, . . : . .... : ":
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:11'..tvv ':..iiti t t (Ate: ii4)Vj'A.
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.7116=";7"4.4
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Figure 2. Graphics Output By A Dot-matrix Printer
15.
approximately the equivalent of alengthy book.
Other output devices include;PLOTTERS which can "draw" precisedesigns, such as the plans for abuilding, and can do so in sev-eral colors, SPEAKERS which pro-vide "sound effects", and musicsynthesizers which output musicinto a regular stereo system.Computers can also synthesize thesounds of a human voice to permitdirect communication with humansover the telephone. Many otheroutput devices perform a varietyof special functions, and moreare steadily being developed.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNT
The "brain" of every computeris the Central Processing Unit,or the CPU as it is most fre-quently called. The CPU is a
specially designed integratedcircuit, or MICROPROCESSOR, thatcontrols all of the activitiesperformed by the computer. TheCPU has two basic components: a
"control unit" which responds toinstructions provided by a pro-gram; and an "arithmetic unit"which performs the required cal-culations at extremely highspeed. The microcomputer becamepossible only after a reliableand inexpensive CPU was devel-oped. The CPU for a microcompu-ter can cost as little as $10; aremarkable price for such a sop-histicated piece of hardware,since the CPU in most microcompu-ters can perform as many as500,000 calculations in a singlesecond. While that is very fast,the CPUs of the world's fastestcomputers are over 1,000 timesfaster. It is this fantasticspeed that distinguishes thecapability of the computer. fromthat of humans. Keep Lnimind,
13
however, that computers can'tthink for themselves; they dependentirely on human programmers forthe "intelligence" they appear tohave.
THE MEMORY UNIT
There are two types of memoryin most microcomputers. Thefirst is called "read onlymemory", or ROM, and it remainsin the computer even after thepower has been shut off. ROMchips contain special programsthat are prepared by the peoplewho manufacture the computer.When you switch on the power to acomputer, the programs in ROMrespond automatically to bringthe computer to a state of readi-ness. In other words, ROM pro-vides for the basic functions ofthe computer. Hand-held calcula-tors also operate by means of ROMchips.
The second type, "randomaccess memory" or RAM, is used tostore programs and data that areinput into the computer. Thecontents of RAM, however, is lostthe instant the computer isturned off. For this reason, theinformation contained in RAM isusually stored, prior to turningoff the power, either on a disk-ette or a cassette. RAM, then,is designed to hold informationonly during the time that thecomputer is functioning. Eachpiece of information stored inRAM can be identified and oper-ated upon by the CPU. Programsand data are stored in RAM at thesame time. When programs operateon data, the computer is doingits job.
The memory capacity of a com-puter is usually described interms of the amount of RAM its
16
memory unit contains. In mostmicrocomputers, each memory loca-tion in RAM is capable of storingone character (the word "charac-ter", for example contains ninecharacters count them!). Incomputer terminology, the amountof RAM required to represent onecharacter is called a' BYTE. Abyte is composed of eight BITs,or Binary digITs, which representthe unique -code for each charac-ter as a series of l's and 0's.The letter "A", for example, canbe represented as 01000001 in thecomputer's memory, and the letter"B" as 01000010, etc. A "kilo-byte", or K, of memory contains1024 bytes (1024 is equal to 2
raised to the 10th power). Mostof the microcomputers now in ourschools contain from 16K (16,384)to 64K (65,536) bytes of RAM.
14
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Arrange a visit to the class-room of a teacher who is pre-sently using a microcomputer.Observe how the computer is beingused in the classroom and get asmuch information as you can fromthe teacher ,and the pupils.
2. Visit a nearby business orindustrial firm that uses a com-puter. ,You will find that mostpeople who work with computersare very pleased to talk aboutthem and how they use them intheir businesses.
3. Begin reading computer publi-cations that are directed atteachers. A list of some ofthese can be found in the Appen-dix.
17
CHAPTER THREE
SOFTWARE
The Means to an End
Without a specific set ofnstructions in its memory, a
omputer cannot accomplish any-hing. This is where SOFTWAREnters the picture. Softwareefers to any PROGRAM that is
tored in a computer thatnstructs it to perform a givenask. When you reserve an air-ine flight, for example, a pro-ram first of all determinesbether.there is room for you onhe flights you want. If theres room, the program then asksor your name, address, businessthone number, home phone number,md method of payment. It then:onfirms your reservation and can,mmediately print your ticket on
nearby printer. On the daybat you travel, the check-inittendant enters your name intothe computer which re-confirms'our reservation, gives you your;eat selection, and then adds'our name to the passenger list.thiS occurs because a program waslesigned and written by a human)ROGRAMMER.
A computer program is a proce-lure, or ALGORITHM, that.nstructs the computer in everyletail of its task. To accom-dish this, a programmer will userie of the many COMPUTERLANGUAGES that are available. As:ar as microcomputers are con-:erned, the most frequently used.anguage is BASIC (Beginnersill-purpose Symbolic Instruction
%.
Code).
BASIC was developed in theearly 1960's as a computer lan-guage that could be used by peo-ple who were not "computer scien-tists." Also, it was designed tobe an "interactive" language thatpermitted both programmers andusers to sit at a keyboard .andcommunicate directly with thecomputer. The interactive con-cept is commonplace now, but itwas a major breakthrough in the
-evolution of computers. The factthat BASIC is the language ofmost microcomputer programs todayis a reflection of this earlierdevelopment.
There are, however, severaldifferent "dialects" of BASIC.Each microcomputer manufacturertends to have its own version ofBASIC, and programs that willfunction on one computer will notnormally do so on another. Theneed for "compatible" softwarelargely explains why a givenschool, school district, or evenan entire province, will seem toprefer one model of microcomputerover another. It is simply toodifficult and expensive to main-tain a full range of software fortwo or more models of microcompu-ter. Fortunately, it now appearsthat some microcomputer manufac-turers are beginning to movetoward a degree of software com-patibiliEy by means of
15
18
"translation" devices.
PROGRAMMING
Most microcomputers are capa-b e of performing a broad rangeof\"arithmetic", "logical", and"process" operations. Arithmeticope ations refer to addition,sub raction, multiplication,divi ion, exponentiation, and thelike. Logical operations includedeter ining whether one value isequal of greater than, or lessthan, other. And process oper-ations nvolve input to and out-put from the computer.
A com etent programmer willhave a t orough knowledge of a
computer anguage including itsvocabulary (the symbols it uses)and its s ntax (its rules ofexpression) . In many ways,learning a omputer language is
like learning a common languagesuch as Engli or French.
Before a pr\ogram is written,some thought must be given to theprocedure that the computer is
expected to follow. A FLOWCHARTshould be developrogrammer in wrgram. This is sian outline of awriting an essayoutline.
d to guide theting the pro-ilar to makingopic and thenbased on the
Following, is a flowchart fora simple program that will calcu-late the average of a set of fivenumbers. When the flowchart iscomplete, the programmer can thentranslate it into one of severalprogramming languages, in thiscase BASIC. A LISTING of the
program that will instruct thecomputer to calculate the averageis on the page following theflowchart. At the bottom of thepage are two examples of input to
16
and output from the computer, as
the program was run. You shouldbe able to follow the flowchartsince it is composed of wordscommon to all of us. The shapeof each box in the flowchartindicates the type of operationcontained in it. The arrowsindicate the direction of "flow."
Now, if you look at the pro-gram listing, you should be ableto follow the translation of theflowchart into the BASIC lan-guage. First, note the numbersthat increase from 10, 20, to140, 150. These are called"statement numbers", and theytell the computer the order inwhich the statements are to be
interpreted. The first fivestatements (10 to 50) are remarks(REMs) which provideDOCUMENTATION for the program;that is, they describe what theprogram is intended to do. REMs,by the way, are. ignored by the'computer, since they are onlyintended for the ubc of humans.The remaining statements (60 to150) correspond directly with theflowchart.
Beneath the program is whatyou would obtain if you were toRUN the program and enter, insuccession, the numbers 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5. The question marks (?)indicate when the programrequires a number to be input.The calculated "average" (3) is
then printed and the programstops. The second example calcu-lates the average of --a -completely_different set of numbers.
If you have understood this,you are well on your way tobecoming a computer programmer.When you have access to a micro-computer, you should try out yournew found skill. Simply type instatements numbered 60 through'150 from the program listing, and
19
A FLOWCHART
To Calculate the Average of Five Numbers
( START
7LET,"SUM"
EQUAL "0"
LET"COUNTER"EQUAL "0"
/AINPUTNUMBER
ith
ADD VALUEOF. NUMBERTO "SUM"
TT "NO"
IF "YES"
DIVIDE"SUM" BY "5"
TO FORM "AVERAGE"
/PRINTAVERAGE"
( STOP )17 20
THE PROGRAM LISTING
10 REM ****************************20 REM * THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES *
.30 REM * THE AVERAGE OF 5 NUMBERS *40 REM ****************************50 REM60 LET SUM = 070 LET COUNTER = 080 INPUT NUMBER90 LET SUM = SUM + NUMBER
100 LET COUNTER = COUNTER + 1110 IF COUNTER = 5 THEN GOTO 130120 IF COUNTER <> 5 THEN GOTO 80130 LET AVERAGE = SUM / 5140 PRINT "THE AVERAGE IS "; AVERAGE150 END
RUN the Program a couple of times,and this is what will happen!
RUN RUN?1 ?75?2 ?116?3 ?375?4 ?567?5 ?1098THE AVERAGE IS 3 THE AVERAGE IS 446.2
RUN the program. If you havetyped correctly, it should givejou identical results.
BASIC is only one of severalprogramming languages that areavailable for microcomputers.)ther languages include, FORTRAN,(FORmula TRANslation) , which isfiery similar to BASIC, PASCAL,(named for the mathematician) ,?ILOT, (Programmed Inquiry,earning Or Teaching),, and LOGO,i language specially designed to?emit very young children to)rogram computers. PILOT andJOGO are described more fully inThapter Four.
This booklet is not intended:o teach you how to program a;omputer. The fact is, YOU DON'T!AVE TO WRITE YOUR OWN PROGRAMSCO USE A MICROCOMPUTER3FFECTIVELY IN YOUR CLASSROOM.Mere are literally thousands ofiseful programs already writtenor most microcomputers. How-wer, there are obvious advan-:ages in knowing' something about)rogramming, if only to betterinderstand how a computer worksfind to recognize the effort:equired to write a good program.lost manufacturers of microcompu-:ers provide tutorial booklets:hat take you by the hand through:he intricacies of programming.:n addition, there are manyexcellent books on the market:hat do the same. Some of theseLre included in the Bibliography.soll should also consider' enroll-.ng in a course or workshop thatrill more formally introduce you:o the use of computers. These'ire offered through school dis-tricts, teachers' associations,.nstitutes, colleges, and univer-dties. In the meantime, if youead on in this book you shouldbtain an overview of what compu-,ers can do, and how you can usehem in your own classroom.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Develop a flowchart for anactivity you do on a regularbasis such as starting and driv-ing your car to work, or lookinga word up in the dictionary. Youmay be surprised how easy it isto overlook an essential compo-nent.
2. Contact a colleague or friendwho has a microcomputer and havehim or her assist: you in writinga short program. If you show aninterest in programming, most"programmers" are pleased tohelp.
21 22
CHAPTER FOUR
THE ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
THE COMPUTER AS AN AID TOLEARNING
COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION(CAI) has been used very success-fully by universities, by busi-ness and industry, and by themilitary, since the 1960's. Atmany universities, completecourses, taken for credit, aretaught by CAI. PLATO, which wasdeveloped at the University ofIllinois, is one of the most com-prehensive CAI systems availabletoday; it can be purchased as acomplete.package, including com-puter, peripherals, and programs,for about $3 million. PLATO sys-tems, in use throughout NorthAmerica, provide effectiveinstruction in medicine, engi-neering, physics, chemistry,creative writing, and many otherdisciplines. For example, medi-cal students can examine, diag-nose, and prescribe remedies for"patients" who exist only in thecomputer. The students ulti-mately do the same for realpatients, but only after theyhave mastered the procedures onthe computer.
Other CAI systems are used bycomputer manLfacturers to updatetheir technicians in the mainte-nance and repair of new equip-ment, by airlines to trainpilots, and by the military tointroduce recruits to the princi-ples of modern warfare, to men-tion but a few.
The high costs of hardware and
1.:::
23
software have generally preventedthe public schools from using CAIextensively. Only very largeschool districts have been ableto establish CAI systems in theirschools. The arrival of themicrocomputer,.however, has sig-nificantly reduced the cost ofCAI. Now, many sophisticated CAIprograms are within the financialresources of most school dis-tricts.
CAI is but one of severalterms which are used to describethe interaction, of a learner witha computer. Other terms you willencounter include, COMPUTER AIDEDLEARNING (CAL), COMPUTER BASEDINSTRUCTION (CBI) , and COMPUTERENHANCED LEARNING (CEL). For thepurposes of this presentation,the term CAI will be used toinclude all of these.
A large amount of researchinto CAI has been carried outover the past 20 years, most ofwhich has shown that well-de-signed CAI is at least as effec-tive as the traditional. methodsof lecturing and note taking.CAI also has been shown to bemore efficient in that identicalmaterial can be learned in aslittle as half the time. Afurther benefit, particularly toslower learners, is provided bythe fact that CAI allows eachlearner to proceed at his or herown rate while the computer actsas a patient tutor.
There are other facets to the
23
use of computers that can comple-ment the teacher's role in theclassroom. The remainder of thischapter provides an overview ofthese.
DRILL AND PRACTICEV
How often have you thought,"If only I had the time to goover several examples of thisconcept with Johnny?" Often a
CAI program can give Johnny mostof the individual attention heneeds to acquire basic skills, inarithmetic for example, and freeyou from the feeling that he isbeing neglected.
DRILL AND PRACTICE is consideredto be the lowest level of CAI,but it is probably the one mostfrequently used by classroomteachers. There are several rea-sons for this: useful programsare relatively easy to create;there are many programs availableto teachers at relatively lowcost; they are relatively easy touse; and they are effective whenused properly.
Drill and practice routinesare used mainly in the develop-ment of basic skills in suchareas as vocabulary, spelling,arithmetic operations, geometricand algebraic relationships,balancing chemical equations,etc. In other words, in circum-stances where repetition canimprove the learning of opera-tions and concepts.
In the typical drill and prac-tice sequence a \question is pre-sented to the student and thecomputer waits for a response tobe made. The response is immedi-ately evaluated by the computerprogram as to its correctnessand, on the .basis of that,
24
feedback is given to the student.If the response is correct, posi-tive reinforcement is given ver-bally, graphically, auditorilly,or in some combination, and theprogram proceeds to the nextquestion. If the response isincorrect, the student is soinformed and the question is pre-sented again. If, after the sec-ond or third attempt the studenthas not provided the correct res-ponse, the program usually pre-sents the correct response whichmay be accompanied by suggestionsas to why the student may nothave understood the concept.,Examples of drill and practiceexercises, as the learner wouldsee them on the CRT screen, fol-low.
TUTORIALS
When a learner is presented g
with new information by a compu-ter and is regularly tested todetermine whether the informationhas been learned, then CAI isfunctioning in the TUTORIAL mode.This, of course, is very similarto the situation where a studenthas direct interaction with ahuman tutor. The effectivenessof CAI as a tutor depends on theattention to detail given tocreating the learning program.The best tutorials are capable oftaking a learner from virtuallyno knowledge of a topic to a veryhigh level of understanding. Inother words, CAI tutorials canprovide for a total learningexperience. Many CAI tutorials,however, are little more than"page turners"; programs thatsimply present verbal materialthat could be effectively pre-sented in a textbook, at lesscost. In planning CAI sequences,the question that should alwaysbe asked is, "can CAI improve
24
EXAMPLES OF DRILL AND PRACTICE QUESTI
Which word is correctly spelled?
1. computir
2. computer
3. computar
Enter your choice --> 2
YoU are correct!
Subtraction:
25 - 16 = ?
Enter your answer --> 11
That is not correct!!!
Try again --> 9
Now you've got it!
On which date did Canadian Confederationtake place?
I. July 1st, 1864
2. January 1st, 1867
3. July 1st, 1867
Enter your choice --> 2
That is not correct, but you are withinsix months of the correct date.
Try again --> 3
That's correct very good.
25 25
upon the learning that would oth-erwise *cur?" If the answer isno, it is probably better to usea traditional approach. However,if the answer seems to be yes,try it, and evaluate the results.
A person who creates CAI tuto-rials is called an "author",since the process of programmingis very much like writing a text-book. Therefore, instead ofusing a programming language, theauthor of CAI materials writes inan "authoring language." Author-ing languages have been speciallydesigned to facilitate the crea-tion of CAI programs and theytend to be much easier to use forthis purpose than are programminglanguages, such as BASIC. Pro-grams written for CAI are gener-ally referred to as COURSEWARErather than software, to distin-guish the purpose CAI from othercomputer applications. A relatedterm, LESSONWARE, refers tocourseware designed for a singlelesson.
When an author prepares CAItutorials, he or she will developan "instructional sequence" thatpresents the learning activities.The following figure illustratesan instructional sequence that isoften used for CAI tutorials.The intent of the instructionalsequence is to present informa-tion systematically, ask ques-tions based on the information,evaluate the student's responses,and provide for additional infor-mation if the student's responsesare not correct. The evidence isthat, as long as the materialbeing presented is new and chal-lenging, the average learner willexhibit greater concentrationwhile interacting with a computer
27
than in \he general classroomsetting.
NATAL, the'"NATional AuthoringLanguage", was developed by theNational Research Council ofCanada to provide educators witha powerful authoring language.NATAL is capable of recordingevery response given, by everylearner and then providing thehuman instructor of the coursewith a summary of the responses.In this way, the instructor notonly-monitors the progress cf allstudents through the course, butalso evaluates thc: performance ofthe tutorial itself, so thatappropriate improvements to, theprogram can be made. NATAL alsokeeps a record of each student'sprogress through the tutorial and"remembers" where he or she wasat "signoff" and returns there atthe next "signon." It also per-mits tests to be administered,automatically, when a student hascompleted a unit of study. Onthe basis of the test results thestudent may either continue on tothe next unit of study, or may be"branched" to a remedial sequenceif a preset criterion has notbeen achieved.
PILOT, "Programmed Inquiry,Learning Or Teaching, is anauthoring language that was ori-'ginally designed for medium andlarge computers. However, it hasrecently been adapted to run onmicrocomputers. PILOT has fewerthan 20 commands for the authorto use, in contrast to over 100commands that the programmer of
BASIC must learn. A briefsequence of PILOT instructionsmay be seen under the figure ofthe instructional sequence.
26
COMPUTER MANAGED INSTRUCTION
Many teachers have applied theprinciples of Individually Pre-scribed Instruction (IPI) , or therelated Mastery Learning Model,in their classrooms. Thisinvolves breaking the content tobe learned into relatively smallpackages or "learning modules."Each module is comprised of a
variety of learning experiencessuch as reading a specified num-ber of pages in a resource book,library research, watching a
videotape, etc. Students pro-ceeds independently through suc-cessive modules and are tested atthe completion of each to deter-mine whether the minimum criter-ion has been achieved. A majorproblem with IPI has been thehuge amount of "paperwork"required to record the progressof each student. Computers offerthe solution since they tire-lessly perform such clericaltasks as prescribing learningactivities on a daily or weeklybasis and administering the cri-terion tests -at -- the completion ofeach module. Finally, they canrecord the results of the testand 'direct the student to thenext set of learning activities.COMPUTER MANAGED INSTRUCTION(CMI) refers to the use of thecomputer in this way.
There are a number of CAIpackages available for microcom-puters that are advertised as"management" programs. Most ofthese are either drill and prac-tice or tutorial programs thatsimply keep a record of the stu-dent's progress. They are not,however, examples of CMI in thebroad sense since they rarely, ifever, direct the student toactivities that are not computerbased. CMI programming is verycomplex and requires largeamounts of memory and disk
28
storage to function effectively,and microcomputers are unable to Ameet these requirements at this
time. However, future develop-ments in hardware will undoubted-ly permit the implementation ofCMI on microcomputers.
SIMULATIONS
Webster's dictionary defines aSIMULATION as, "the imitativerepresentation of the functioningof one system or process by meansof the functioning of another,[for example] a computer simula-tion of an industrial process."For more than 25 years, computershave been used to simulate agreat variety of phenomenaincluding the growth of theworld's population, the economies.of nations, the ecology of vastland areas, chemical reactions atvery high temperatures and pres-sures, the flight of a jumbo jet,and the functioning of the humanbrain, to mention but a few. It
has been suggested that the com-puter's most important attributeis the opportunity it presents todevelop and test complex modelsand theories that otherwise can-not be investigated.
Many simulations have beenprogrammed for classroom use.Among these are natural foodchains in lakes and forests,stellar constellations, physicsand chemistry experiments, genet-ics laboratories, automotiveengines, small businesses, andmany others. Well-designed com-puter simulations can help teach-ers provide students with uniquelearning experiences.
COMPUTER GAMES
Most "computer games" are'simulations of real or imagined
27
THE TUTORIAL MODE
Present
Information
Ask
Questions
Judge
Responses
Give
Feedback
IncorrectResponse
Sequence
(Remedial
The Instructional Sequence
[From Gagne, Wager, & Rojas (1981).]
A SHORT TUTORIAL SEQUENCE IN PILOT
Next
<<,;?Sequence
*MOUNT
T: Canada's highest mountainT: is Mount Logan in the Yukon.T:T: Mount Robson, in B.C., is theT: highest mountain in theT: Canadian Rockies.T:T: What is the name of Canada'sT: highest mountain?T:A:M: Mount LoganTY: That's correct.JN3: NEXT
TN: No - try again.JN: MOUNT
*NEXT
(Label for this sequence.)
(Display this text onthe screen.)
(Ask this question.)
(Wait for an answer.)(Match answer to this.)(If correct, type this.)(Jump to NEXT label afterthree incorrect answers.)(If incorrect, type this.)(Then jump back to MOUNT.)
(Label for next sequence.)
29 2
situations. They almost invaria-bly require an intense concentra-tion on the part of persons play-ing the game; Many games haveseveral levels of difficulty thatrange from "beginner" to "mas-ter", so that skill developmentcan progress gradually. Some ofthe most imaginative and attrac-tive programs for microcomputersare games, and many have estab-lished standards of excellence ingeneral programming techniques.
Whether or not students shouldbe allowed to play computer gamesin the school is a rather contro-versial issue at this time.There are teachers who firmlystate that, "games have no placein the school environment sincethe kids get more than enough ofthem at the video-game parlor."Others, unfortunately, permitstudents to play games indiscri-minately, as long as they don'tcreate a disturbance. These arethe extreme positions; the opti-mum falls somewhere between.
It is obvious that computergames are fun. There seems nological reason not to take advan-tage of the strong motivationthat computer games have tooffer. Many games, such as"Chess", "Adventure" and "Dun-geons and Dragons", involve theapplication of complex logicalrelationships. Further, manycomputer games require a veryhigh degree of "eye-hand coordi-nation." Thus, elementary schoolpupils with psychomotor difficul-ties can often be assisted intheir development through compu-ter games. This is not to sug-gest that games are necessary tothe effective use of computers inthe classroom, but rather thatthere can be substantial benefitsif they are used thoughtfully.
Remember that the computer is
not a toy; it is a very powerfultool that should be used to itspotential. The teacher's respon-sibility is to ensure that it isused properly and with benefit toall students. This should be acriterion against which to judgewhether games, or any otherapplications for that matter, canbe justified.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Pupils of today must becomeequipped to meet the challengesthat will face them in thefuture. The use of the computeras a "problem solving" tooloffers excellent opportunitiesfor the development of thinkingskills that will carry over intoadult life. Moursund (1981b)describes the computer as a"brain extender" that has thecapacity to supplement mentalfunctions of humans in usefulways. In other words, the compu-ter greatly increases our abilityto perform calculations and tostore and retrieve information.
Problem solving has been animportant part of mathematics andscience curricula for many years.Applications of mathematical con-cepts to the real world can befound in almost every currentmathematics publication, includ-ing textbooks and periodicalssuch as the "Arithmetic Teacher"and the "Mathematics Teacher."Science courses, too, attempt tolink basic scientific principlesto practical applications inlaboratories. Most other sub-jects, however, have not appliedproblem solving techniques to thesame extent.
What the 'computer has to offeris its ability to process infor-mation speedily and accurately,
31
29
and'to do so according to a spe-cific set of instructions, or
algorithm. The type of informa-tion to be processed can varygreatly since the computer isable to process words as easilyas it can numbers, and it canalso draw pictures and makesounds. There is virtually nolimit to the variety of problemsto which the computer can beapplied. Moreover, a child canbe introduced to the process ofsolving problems with computersin the -primary grades:
The following is a short listof topics for computer-basedproblem solving activities:
* solving mathematical problems
* balancing a chequebook
* generating metric conversions
* summarizing statistical data
* drawing graphical figures
creating a spelling game
* composing a piece of music
* recording historical events
You may feel that a computeris hardly necessary to accomplishmost of these activities, andthat is quite true. What theinvolvement of the computer addsis the requirement of a carefullyprepared plan of action in solv-ing the problem; a haphazardapproach will seldom be success-ful. As the student worksthrough the problem, the processof solving it becomes the focus;the problem itself is incidental.Important, also, is the fact thatthe student will learn how to usecomputers.
The following steps describe a
32
general procedure that can beused to solve a specific problem: 1
1. ANALYZE THE PROBLEM. Thisinvolves breaking the problemdown into its component parts.The student will then deter-mine the additional informa-tion and resources needed toproceed. This will likelyinvolve consulting referencematerials such as computermanuals, textbooks, and peri-odicals. Thus, the student's
-baseiv-ill beexpanded.
2. DEVELOP AN ALGORITHM. Creat-ing the procedure by which theproblem will be solved is pro-bably the most important step.It is here that the student'sknowledge of the subject mat-ter will be directly applied.Each detail of the procedureshould be clearly stated. Arelatively simple problem, i
such as calculating the areaof a rectangle, could be dealtwith as a single procedure. Amore complex problem, rrice----
providing for a broad varietyof metric conversions, couldrequire several "sub-algor-ithms" to be developed by a
group of students as separate"modules", and finally mergedto provide a single comprehen-sive solution.
3. PREPARE A FLOWCHART. Theadvantage of a flowchart isthat it provides a "picture"of the procedure to beapplied. It permits theteacher to check the algorithmfor accuracy at an intermedi-ate point. If deficienciesare found, the student can beassisted in modifying thealgorithm before the nextstep. The flowchart can beexpressed either by flowchart-ing symbols, or by a set of
30
written statements whichdescribes the algorithm inwords.
4. WRITE THE PROGRAM. The f lowchart must then be translatedinto the language of the com-puter. This requires a mini-mal understanding of a compu-ter language by the teacher,and by the students. Teachersshould enlist the aid of thosestudents who have alreadydeveloped some programmingskills -to assist those stu-dents experiencing difficul-ties. The idea of having stu-dents teach students (peerteaching) has much to offer,both for the learner and thetutor.
5. DEBUG THE PROGRAM. Removingthe errors from a computerprogram provides the learnerwith another opportunity foranalytical thinking. Unlikehumans, who can often "fill inthe blanks" when incompleteinformation is given, the com-puter makes no assumptionsabout what the programmerintended. Every little detailof the program must be cor-rect. Fortunately for theprogrammer, most computer lan-guages automatically identifyerrors in syntax. Once thesyntax errors have been debug-ged, the computer will produceanswers, right or wrong. If
the program is not preciselycorrect, the young programmerwill soon know about GIGO;Garbage In - Garbage Out.
6. DOCUMENT THE PROGRAM. Oncethe student and the teacherare satisfied that the programhas correctly solved the prob-lem, the student should for-mally "document", or describe,the program. Good documenta-tion is critical to the future
33.
use of a computer program.Documentation can be includedin the program itself by meansof remarks (REMs) . Many pro-grams are also documented in aprinted "manual", particularlyif they are to be used by oth-ers. Modifications to a pro-gram at some future time, evenby the original programmer,are much easier to carry outif appropriate documentationhas been included.
These steps can be applted---solving virtually any problem inany subject area. The challengeto teachers is to identify appro-priate problems and to assisttheir students in solving them.
LOGO
Students at the upper elemen-tary levels, and beyond, havelittle difficulty in learningenough of the BASIC language tosolve complex problems. This isnot eft-6 case with primary Stu-dents, however, since the degreeof abstraction required to pro-gram the computer is generallybeyond their developmental level.In an effort to permit primarystudents to solve meaningfulproblems on the computer, arather different computer lan-guage, LOGO, has been developedat the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT) by SeymourPapert and his associates(Papert, 1980). They suggestthat even before a child enterskindergarten, he or she can pro-gram a computer to perform mean-ingful tasks and, thus, solveproblems.
The initial focus of the groupat MIT was on the use of a compu-terized "turtle", a toy on wheelsthat could move about a large
31
sheet of paper on command anddraw geometrical shapes by.meansof an attached pen. A square,for example, would result whenthe turtle was instructed to do a'series of four equal forwardmovements interrupted by threeright-angle turns. As the childprogressed, more and more complexfigures would be drawn. Theirresearch with many young childrenhas indicated that "turtlegraph-ics", as they called the proce-dure, was easily understood bymost
They then took their idea onestep farther and developed LOGOas a computer language, so thatturtlegraphics could be performeddirectly on a computer screen.On the screen, the student ispresented with an "arrowhead" inplace of the turtle. The arrow-head indicates both the positionof the turtle and the directionin which it will move. Follow-ing, are three examples of LOGOprograms and the figures theywill generate on the computerscreen. As you can see, the com-mands simply direct the movementof -the arrowhead on the screenand the figure is drawn accord-ingly. Papert suggests that thechild's experiences with LOGOencourages him or her to "thinkabout thinking" at a much earlierage.
While very complex figures canbe created using LOGO, it canalso perform complex calculationsand handle strings of words, muchas BASIC and other computer lan-guages. LOGO is now availablefor use on several microcompu-ters. You will be surprised athow easy it is to learn and use.
WORD-PROCESSING
34
Ior several years, businessand government offices have beenusing compC:ers, rather thantypewriters, for many applica-tions that require repeated useof the same document. For exam-ple, lengthy letters and reportswhich must be drafted and re-drafted can be prepared on a com-puter in a fraction of the time.Also, most newspaper articles arenow composed by the reporter sit-ting at a "video display termi-nal" (VDT). and entering the arti-cle directly- into the computer.When the entry is complete, thecomputer automatically checks thereporter's spelling and then thearticle is immediately availablefor insertion in the next editionof the paper. WORD-PROCESSING isthe term used to describe thisgrowing use of computers. Word-processing can greatly reduce thetime required to prepare docu-ments while improving the appear-ance of the finished product.
Word-processing uses the com-puter's ability to store informa-tion-Words) in its memoryl-RA-M)--.Once it has been entered, the
information can be modified byinsertions or deletions while theremainder of the information is
automatically adjusted to acceptthe changes. The edited versioncan then be output onto a printerin the desired format. It is
also possible to save the infor-mation on a diskette or cassettefor future use. This book, forexample, was prepared on a word-processor.
There are several specializedword-processors available. Theseare advertised for use in busi-ness offices and they cost fromabout $6,000 to over $100,000,depending on the size and com-plexity of the system. However,anyone who has a microcomputeravailable can usually convert it
32
THREE SIMPLE LOGO PROGRAMS
The Program The Result
SQUARE [This is the nameof the procedure]
FORWARD 100 [Screen Units]RIGHT 90 [Degrees of Arc]FORWARD 100RIGHT 90FORWARD- 10 0RIGHT 90
FORWARD 100END
ISOSCELESRIGHT 45FORWARD 70.7RIGHT 90
FORWARD 70.7RIGHT 135FORWARD 100
END
COMBINESQUARE [Note that thisRIGHT 90 program is aISOSCELES combination of
END the first two.]
35
33
into a word-processor for thecost of a software package; from$75 to $250 depending on thepackage selected. Therefore, anyschool that has a microcomputercan provide word-processingexperiences for its students.
Teachers of business educationare aware of word-processors andare now introducing their stu-dents to them. Other teachers,particularly of the language artsand social studies, should alsorecognize the potential benefitsof word-processing for their stu-dents. Students at both elemen-tary and secondary levels, whoreluctantly produce essays andreports in illegible handwriting,are very often capable of produc-ing much better work on a word-processor.
Many elementary teachers useword-processing as the means ofintroducing their students to thecomputer. A majority of word-processors are even easier to usethan typewriters. Most primarylevel students, and virtually allintermediate and higher students,have little difficulty in acquir-ing the necessary,,ekills.
THE ELECTRONIC BLACKBOARD
The computer's ability tostore and retrieve informationcan be used with a group of stu-dents or an entire class. Withappropriate cable connections, acomputer's output can be fed intoone or more television sets atonce to, provide the teacher withan ELECTRONIC BLACKBOARD. Printand graphic materials can be pre-pared in advance, stored on adiskette, and then presented asmany times as necessary. More-over, the materials can bequickly modified and updated.
37
Programming for the electronicblackboard is relatively easy; itis simply a matter of enteringthe textual material into a ser-ies of PRINT statements. Thepresentation sequence is thencontrolled by a routine whichpermits the teacher to advance tothe next step in the sequence bysimply touching a key on the com-puter's keyboard. With a printerattached to the computer notes,identical to those appearing onthe screen, can be printed toprovide copies for the class. Tomake it even simpler, softwarepackages are available that pro-vide "shells" into which theteacher can enter the informationto be presented. The programwill then generate large charac-ters that can be more easily seenby the viewers. Graphical illus-trations can also be output ontothe screen as part of thesequence. The content of virtu-ally any subject can be presentedin this way.
An alternative for teachers oflanguages, in working throughspecific examples of writing withtheir classes, is to use a word-processor as an electronic black-board. For example, a faultycomposition can be displayed, endthen gradually improved with theparticipation of the entireclass. The teacher, or one ofthe students, can easily make theappropriate changes to the textas the discussion proceeds. Thecorrected version can then beprinted and distributed to theclass.
The classroom of the futurewill very likely have large dis-play panels to present outputfrom computers and videodiscs.The technology is already availa-ble to accomplish this, but it isstill very expensive.
34
CLASSROOM TESTING
Computers have been used toscore and analyze educationaltests for over 20 years. Schooldistricts have usually contractedwith various testing services toadminister, score, and report onthe results of achievement test-ing in the schools. These test-ing services have made an impor-tant contribution by providingschools with useful informationon the progress of their pupils.There are, however, two majorproblems associated with the useof testing services for classroompurposes: the first is that youusually are obliged to use a
"standardized" test which mightnot adequately cover the objec-tives of your course; and thesecond is the necessary delay ofat least a week in getting yourtest results back from the test-ing service.
With a microcomputer it ispossible to administer your owntests and receive the results onthe day the test was adminis-tered. This can be done eitherby having each student sit at thecomputer and `answer the questions"on-line", or by having the classrespond to the test on computercards which can be quicklyentered into the computer througha card reader for scoring andanalysis. A growing number of
secondary schools have a cardreader attached to a microcompu-ter, with programs for scoringand analyzing classroom tests.
On-line testing has the advan-tage of being able to provideboth the student and the teacherwith immediate feedback on thestudent's performance. This typeof testing is not difficult toprogram, but it is rather timeconsuming. However, help is
available in the form of software
38
packages that provide "programshells" into which the teachercan enter his or her own testitems. This type of testing canbe particularly useful in supportof the mastery learning approachto instruction.
Microcomputers are being usedto store "item banks" in varioussubject areas and grade levels.These may be purchased on disk-ettes complete with items and theprograms necessary for selectingthe items, wiimting-the test4-and-modifying the items. Usefulitems may be retained for futuretests while faulty items can bemodified or discarded, and newitems added. The main advantageis the speed with which tests canbe created. All the teacher needdo is specify the items to beincluded in the test and the com-puter will print two versions ofthe test; one that can be used asthe "master" for copying, and onethat indicates the keyed res-ponses for the teacher's refer-ence. Item banks can remove muchof the effort required to createclassroom achievement tests andcan help to improve their qual-ity.
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
High school students, as theyapproach graduation, are facedwith a bewildering array of voca-tional opportunities. Many, of
course, determine for themselveswhat careers they wish to pursueand make their own plans. Forthe majority, however, a selec-tion must be made from among thecareer possibilities available tothem. This means obtaininginformation on careers, matchinginterests and abilities with a
broad range of opportunities, andidentifying a reasonable set of
35
possibilities for closer consid-eration. This process can becarried out by reading pamphletsand then discussing the resultsof reading with a vocationalcounsellor in the school; or itcan be done by direct interactionwith a computer.
A number of computer-basedcareer planning programs areavailable. The program used mostfrequently in Canada is calledCHOICES, which was developed withthe support of the federalgovernment. CHOICES was origi-nally designed to operate onlarge mainframe computers, but is
now available for microcomputers,also. lid use the program, thestudent sits at the computerkeyboard and responds to a seriesof questions that gradually iden-tifies a set of vocations thatmatch the student's interests and'abilities.abilities. When the session,which may last a half hour ormore, is concluded, the studenttakes the printout and discussesthe information with the schoolcounsellor. Thus, computer-basedcareer counselling offers eachstudent an up-to-date set ofvocational choices which havebeen "tailored" to suit his orher particular needs.
3639 \,
CHAPTER FIVE
A COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM
PREPARING YOURSELF
Introducing a microcomputerinto your classroom requires thesame careful consideration youwould give to any new teachingtechnique. You should have afairly clear idea of what youwant to use it for, and suffi-cient knowledge to be able to useit effectively. This will likelyrequire sane in-service training,so that you will have the confi-dence to move ahead with planningand implementation.
Probably the best person totalk to is one of your fellowteachers who is already usingcomputers effectively. If thereis no one active in your ownschool, ask around. Most compu-ter-using teachers are pleased toshow you what they are doing andwill give you many useful sugges-tions based on their experiences.To get started, you should attendan introductory workshop on com-puters in education. These areusually sponsored by the localProfessional Development Commit-tee, or the school district. Youmight Len consider enrolling ina week-long workshop, or perhapsa credit course at a college oruniversity.
If you follow through on thesesuggestions you'll be pleasedwith the knowledge and confidenceyou have gained, the contacts youhave made with other teachers,and the enthusiasm you havedeveloped for using computers in
I
41
your own classroom.
ESTABLISHING OBJECTIVES ANDLEARNING OUTCOMES
Long before you first bring amicrocomputer through your class-room door, you should have devel-oped a plan of action for therole you want it to play. Theexperience of others indicatesthat without such a plan thepotential benefits will notlikely be achieved and you willbe unhappy with the results.
You should first carry out areview of the learning experi-ences you currently provide your.pupils. You should be able toidentify several topics thatcould be enhanced by the use ofthe computer. You can then for-mulate the general objectives ofyour computer-based program. Atthis point it is probably wise tohave more objectives in mind thanyou will ultimately use. Useyour imagination and creativity,and don't be limited by theapplications you have seen;develop some of your own. Any ofthe techniques discussed in Chap-ter Four can be adapted to meetyour particular needs.
You should then specify, asclearly as possible, the learningoutcomes you would expect toobserve if the application issuccessful. Doing this will helpyou plan the learning activities
37
for your class. It will alsoprovide the basis for evaluatingthe achievement of your pupilsand, therefore, the success ofyour application. Your lists ofobjectives and expected outcomeswill, in addition, help to spe-cify the hardware and softwareyou will require.
ACQUIRING HARDWARE
Most secondary schools alreadyhave one or more microcomputers.These are most frequently usedfor computer science courses andadministrative applications, butmore and more are finding theirway into other classrooms. Thereare relatively fewer microcompu-ters in the elementary schools,and seldom is there more than onecomputer per school. This meansthat you will either have toshale an existing facility withother teachers, or plan to obtainone for yourself. For beginners,it is highly desirable to workwith sc,leone who is alreadyinvolved in using computers.However, if your school does notyet have a microcomputer youmight consider organizing aneffort to acquire one. The fol-lowing should help you to developa plan of action.
Many teachers, with a highpersonal interest in computers,have purchased their own equip-ment and made it available totheir pupils. However, since amicrocomputer system can costanywhere from $600 to $6000, it
is unlikely you will want to buyone with funds from your own sav-ings account. This means thatyou may have to- convince yourfellow teachers, your principal,and perhaps the central schooladminist'ration, of the benefitsof ,having a microcomputer in your
42
school.
If you have carefully statedyour goals and objectives, theyshould help in illustrating yourintent to others. This, coupledwith the prevailing high interestin computers, will help to just-ify the purchase. And, when yougain the support of one or morecolleagues who are also inter-ested in using computers, youwill further strengthen yourposition. Once you let yourinterests be known, you willlikely discover several fellowteachers who are willing tobecome involved.
The next step is to consult alocal expert on the capabilitiesand costs of the microcomputersystems that are available.These include models manufacturedby Apple, Atari, Commodore, IBM,Monroe-Litton, Radio Shack, andTexas Instruments, to name a fewof the more popular systems.Some computer stores carry theproducts of only one manufacturerwhile others carry several. Withyour set of objectives in handyou should request that each ofseveral vendors provide you witha written quotation. The quota-tion should include specifica-ti,,ns of the equipment to be pur-chased, the costs, warranties,servicing arrangements, manuals,textbooks, and software support.Obtain as many of these quota-tions as you can, since there canbe considerable variation in
costs, even within the same pro-duct line. Then, if possible,sit down with someone who hassome experience in using compu-ters, together with your inter-ested colleagues, and place thequotations in an order of prefer-ence. Cost should not be the
sole basis for your selection;the availability of high qualitysoftware is equally important.
38
If you have done your homeworkwell, you should have a clearstatement of the costs involved.A direct appeal to the schooldistrict may be sufficient toobtain the funds you need. How-ever, if support trom the dis-trict is not available, you stillhave an alternative. Many parentand teacher groups have success-fully raised funds to purchasecomputer equipment, particularlyin the elementary schools. Atthe secondary level, the stu-dents, with teacher support, arecapable of raising funds with carwashes, bottle drives, and thelike. The amount to aim for,initially, is from $2000 to$3000. This should provide youwith the, microcomputer, one diskdrive, and a color TV or MONITOR.A printer will cost an additional$500 to $1500, depending on thequality of output you want.Additional costs to bear in mindinclude: blank diskettes. (approx-imately $2.50 each), paper forthe printer, maintenance and ser-vicing, and the costs of softwareand courseware.
ACQUIRING SOFTWARE AND COURSEWARE
Once you have resolved thedifficulties associated with get-ting the hardware you willrequire, the matter of acquiringuseful software and coursewareremains. There are severalsources to consider, the mostconvenient of which is a fellowteacher who is already using pro-grams that are appropriate towhat you have in mind. Failingthat, you will have to do somesearching on your own.
In British Columbia, the Pro-vincial Educational Media Centre(PEMC) has the responsibility to
4) 43
acquire and distribute software,at cost, to the schools of theprovince. If your school doesnot have a list of software cur-rently available from thissource, you should write to thePEMC, at 7351 Elmbridge Way,Richmond, B.C., V6X 1B8, toobtain a copy. Most other pro-vinces have a similar serviceavailable to teachers.
Another source of informationabout microcomputer software isthe "JEM Reference Manual", (For-man, Crawford, & Tennant, 1981).This document cont-ins a course-ware index sub-divided by sub-ject, an extensive set of repro-ductions of publisher'scatalogues, a list of publishersand distributors of courseware, alist of books on computers, alist of computer magazines andperiodicals, and a list of hard-ware accessories. It should benoted that the 'materialsdescribed in the JEM Manual arelargely specific to the Apple IIPlus microcomputer. The JEMManual is 'available from: JEMResearch, Discovery Park, Univer-sity of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700,Victoria, V8W 2Y2.
Software and courseware infor-mation is also available from theComputer Using Educators of B.C.(CUEBC) , a Provincial SpecialistAssociation (PSA) of the B.C.Teachers' Federation. Informa-tion about the services availableto teachers from CUEBC may beobtained from the BCTF offices inVancouver.
Computer stores are alsoimportant sources of software.In addition to the packages theyhave on hand, most computerstores have catalogues thatdescribe the software and course-ware available for the computersthey sell.
39
The cost of microcomputersoftware and courseware variesgreatly; from the price of theblank diskette on which the pro-grams are copied for you, to$1000 and more. The age old say-ing, "buyer beware", applies tothe purchase of software, how-ever. One usually expects thecost of something to relateclosely to its quality. However,some of the best Computer soft-ware is relatively inexpensivewhile some of the poorest carriesa rather high price tag. Mostsoftware vendors do not offer youa money-back guarantee, and youare usually obliged to buy thepaCkage before you can try itout. The reason for this, ofcourse, is that most programs canbe copied and the vendor is sim-*ply protecting his financialinterests. This means, however,that you should be confident thatthe package will perform accord-ing to your specifications beforeyou purchase it. If you cannothave the software on a trialbasis you should talk to someonewho has already used it. Mostvendors will give you a list ofpersons who have purchased theirsoftware. The courseware alsomay have been evaluated andreported in some of the publica-tions listed in the Bibliography.
At the present time, teachersin British Columbia can request acourseware evaluation through thefacilities of the PEMC. Whereverpossible, the PEMC will obtainprograms and have them evaluatedby teachers in the field. Moreinformation on this service willbe found later in the section onCourseware Evaluation.
Finally, a note on copyingsoftware that has been coprighted. Even though many softg4-ware vendors "lock" their disk-ettes, and thus make copying
44
difficult, the contents of mostdiskettes can be copied by meansof specially designed copy pro-grams, and they frequently are.Computer software is copyrightedto protect the interests og thedeveloper in essentially the sameway as are books, magazines, andother publications. Failure toobserve the copyright laws canresult in legal action, and suchaction is occurring with increas-ing frequency. You should beaware of this and avoid the riskof placing yourself in a diffi-cult legal position.
SETTING UP YOUR COMPUTER FACILITY
Unlike larger computers, whichmust be set up in a permanentlocation, most microcomputers canbe moved about quickly and easilyby one or two people. Of course,the smoother the move the bettersince delicate electronic compo-nents don't respond well to roughtreatment. With reasonable care,however, microcomputers travelwell.
If the computer is to beshared by two or more teachers,it is desirable to have itmounted on a rubber-wheeledtable. The school district'smaintenance shop could probablybuild one for you at a reasonablecost. As long as you don't have'to move the computer betweenfloors, the table can be rolledfrom one classroom to another ina matter of minutes. If it iswell designed, the mobile tablecan serve as the "learning sta-tion' itself, thus avoiding theneed for a special location ineach Loom. The width of thetable should permit it to moveeasily through classroom doors,and the length should- be suffi-cient to contain all of the
40
computer components with a smallarea on both sides of the compu-ter keyboard for manuals andnotebooks. A top surface ofabout 60cm by 120cm (2' by 4')
would be adequate for most micro-computer systems. If you intendto have a more permanent setup,regular tables will be suffi-cient.
It is probably best to havethe computer at the rear of theclassroom. This will minimizedisruptions to the class, whilepermitting you to monitor studentactivity at the computer. Thereshould be enough floor space topermit up to three pupils to sitat the computer at one time.
Many schools have an areadesignated for computers with theexpectation that most student usewill take place there. This canvary from a small room with asingle computer, to an area inthe library, to a speciallydesigned computer studies labora-tory with several systemsinstalled. If a single facilityis to be shared among several'teachers it will be important toset up an access schedule that isfair to all. Ideally, a teachershould have regular access tothree or four computers in theclassroom, however, most teacherswill have irregular access to onesystem.
It is very important at theoutset to establish rules andregulations regarding the ,use ofthe computer. Most students willfollow them to the letter as longas they are clearly stated andconsistently maintained. Care inthe use of the equipment isessential and the most effectivemeans of disciplining those whobeak the rules is to deny themthe privilege of using the compu-ter for a specified time. If
45
access to the computer is to bepermitted , outside of regularschool hours, arrangements shouldbe made to ensure that a respon-sible adult is in attendance;often parents are willing toassist in this.
This brings us to consider thesecurity of your computer. As weall know, schools are frequentvictims of vandalism and theft.To reduce the possibility oftheft, every piece of equipmentshould be clearly identified withpermanent markings. An inventoryof hardware and software shouldbe maintained, including modeland serial numbers, and replace-ment costs; the computer can beused to do this. You should alsoconfirm that the computer equip-ment is insured for theft anddamage.
Most microcomputers are veryreliable when used properly.However, they do "go down" fromtime to time for a variety ofreasons,, This means that youwill be without your system forthe time required to repair it.If there isn't L, "backup" systemavailable in your school, thecomputer store may be able tolend you one.
The costs of repairing a com-puter system can be considerable,with the labor charge usuallymuch higher than that forreplaced components. After thewarranty period expires, usuallyin 90 days, most computer storeswill offer a "service contract"that covers virtually all servicecosts. These contracts, however,can be expensive so you shouldconsider the advantages anddisadvantages of purchasing one.Alternatively, your school dis7trict may already have a servicefacility available to you. If
there are several computers in
41
the school, it is probably wiseto identify someone to coordinatethe maintenance requirements.
PLANNING AND PRESENTING YOURCOMPUTER-BASED ACTIVITY
,You now want to make sure thesoftware you plan to use will dowhat you want it to. The onlyway to be sure is to try out theentire program yourself underconditions similar to those yourstudents will experience; inother words, a "dry run." Thiswill help you to evaluate the
quality of the software and toestimate the amount of timerequired to complete the program.If you are satisfied with theresults, you can proceed with theimplementation. A word to the
wise; don't be too ambitious, a
few modest successes at the out-set are preferable to a majorundertaking that fails.
If your pupils have had no
previous formal experience withcomputers, you will have to makethe necessary introductions.Each pupil should have a clearunderstanding of how to handlediskettes, how to switch the sys-tem on, how to use the keyboardand other input/output devicessuch as game paddles and prin-ters, and how to shut the systemdown. They should also know thatthe teacher must be consultedwhenever a difficulty arises, andnot to attempt to "fix" the prob-lem themselves.
What you do next depends verylargely on the activity you havein mind. If your plan is to usea courseware package, such as adrill and practice routine or atutorial, it is important to dis-cuss with your pupils how thecomputer activity relates to what
46
they have been studying, and howthey are to use the program.Then you will have to scheduleeach pupil's time on the compu-ter. While we normally(think ofhaving one student on the compu-ter at a time, for some activi-ties it may be more effective tohave two pupils working together,since they can assist each otherin understanding what is beingpresented. Whichever approachyou use, your pupils should begiven sufficient time to completethe learning task. You will wantto monitor the progress of eachpupil to ensure that time spenton the computer is being usedeffectively.
If the courseware has an
achievement test built into it,
you can use the results to evalu-ate the effectiveness of the
activity. However, if a test isnot included, you should considerpreparing one yourself, just asyou would for any regular unit ofstudy. Wherever possible, you,
should follow the computer activ-ity with class discussions aimedat integrating it with the
broader unit of study. Finally,comments on the activity by theclass can be very helpful in
planning future improvements.
If you plan to use a word-pro-cessor, it will first be neces-sary to instruct the class in theconcepts and techniques involved.Most pupils, from grades two orthree, have little difficulty inlearning how to use a word-pro-cessor. Once pupils have learnedthe few commands necessary tooperate it, they can proceed with
relatively little supervision.Formal typing skills are notnecessary at the outset, sinceeven the youngest childrenquickly acquire a reasonable com-petency with the keyboard. Plan-ning for word-processing
42
activities differs little fromthat required for any writingexercise. When the initial draftof an essay has been entered,`saved on diskette, and printed,it is then simply a matter ofworking through successive draftsto the finished product..
If you plan to introduce yourpupils to problem solving via thecomputer, it will be necessary tobegin with some preliminaryinstruction in computer program-ming. Whether you use BASIC orLOGO, or another language, beginwith a very few elementary opera-tions and start your pupils onvery simple problems. As pro-gramming skills develop, theproblems can become more complex.It is possible that some of yourpupils have already developedskills in programming, perhapssomewhat beyond your own. Don'tfeel threatened by this, butrather, take advantage of it byhaving these pupils assist you inteaching others.
Scheduling time on the compu-ter requires that you be syste-matic and consistent. It is pro-bably best, at the outset, toassign equal time slots of 15 or20 minutes to each pupil on aregular basis. A copy of theschedule should be posted nearthe computer, and you should keepa backup copy yourself. You willprobably find that the scheduleis .carefully observed. Thealternative is to let the pupilsschedule themselves. This issomething that older students cando as long as the conditions arecarefully laid out. In eithercase you will want to check theschedule regularly to ensure thatevery pupil gets his or her fairShare of computer time.
47
43
EVALUATING COURSEWARE
It has already been noted thatthe quality of courseware availa-ble at this time varies greatly.Some authorities have estimatedthat at least two-thirds of thecourseware on the market is notworth using, and some users, per-haps with higher expectations,place this closer to 90%.Regardless of which figure is themore accurate, the conclusion isthat courseware should not bepurchased without assurances thatit will serve the purposes forwhich it is intended. It isimportant, therefore, thatcourseware be evaluated by thosewho actually use it, and that theresults of these evaluations bemade available to other users.
A number of educationalauthorities have establishedcourseware evaluation services toassist teachers. In BritishColumbia, the Provincial Educa-tional Media Centre (PEMC) , pro-vides a Courseware EvaluationService in parallel with its res-ponsibility to acquire and dis-tribute high quality courseware.The PEMC involves computer-usingteachers throughout the provincein field-testing and evaluatingcomputer-based materials. 'As
many as 100 teachers have volUn-teered to take part in the evalu-ation process; you can contactthe PEMC to obtain the names ofevaluators near you. Coursewareis evaluated according to a stan-dard "PEMC Microware Specifica-tions Form" which can be seen onthe pages following. An "Evalua-tor's Guide" is available toassist the evaluator in using theForm. Both the Form and theGuide can be obtained from thePEMC.
The results of these course-ware evaluations are published
regularly by the PEMC in "Evalua-tions: Microware", which is dis-tributed to computer-using teach-ers and school district ResourceCentres. You can be placed onthe mailing list by contactingthe PEMC directly.
On the basis of the evalua-tions submitted by the panel mem-bers, one of the following deci-sions may be made:
1. The package is not recommendedfor purchase;
2. The package is recommended forpurchase if the producer makeschanges;
3. The package is recommended forpurchase;
4. Where the package is of parti-cularly high quality, the PEMCwill attempt to acquire thesights to copy and distributeit as supplementary to theprovincial curriculum;
5. The package may be recommendedto the Curriculum Branch ofthe Ministry of Education tobe considered for authoriza-tion or prescription.
If you study the MicrowareSpecifications Form carefully,you should be able to recognizethe criteria against whichcourseware is to be evaluated.The following is a summary of themain points that should beincluded in an evaluation:
1. A description of the content,method of presentation, andequipment required;
2. An indication of the targetpopulation;
3. A statement of instructionalobjectives;
48
4, An indication of prerequisiteskills;
5. A description of supplementarymaterials that accompany thecourseware;
6. Ratings of various technicalcomponents as in items 1 to21;
7. A statement of the overalleffectiveness of the course-ware;
8. A recommendation on the use ofthe courseware by others.
Perhaps the most frequent cri-ticism of courseware is that itdoes not apply the principles oflearning that would be used byteachers in dealing with the samecontent. This criticism reflectsthe fact that most courseware onthe market is developed by pro-grammers, and not teachers. Itseems obvious, therefore, thatimprovements in courseware willoccur only when teachers becomedirectly involved in its develop-ment. It must be recognized,however, that few teachers havethe time, or the interest, tobecome skilled programmers. Thealternative is to have teachersdevelop the content and presenta-tion strategies, and then workwith professional programmers toprepare the courseware. Indeed,if teachers do not participate inthe development of courseware, itis unlikely that substantialimprovements in its quality willtake place. In other words, ifcomputers are to find a permanentplace in school classrooms,teachers will have to be involvedin the production of courseware.
44
CHIC MICROWARE SPECIFICATIONS FORM VERSION 1.2
In order that the Provincial Educational Media Centre may maintain a trusting relationship with courseware suppliers, we askthat you do not violate copyright in anyway. Your signature is required to indicate this on page 4 of this form.
ESCRIPTION
:kage Title Version
iducer Address
.tributor Cost
bject Area Grade/Ability Level
ecific Topic Dewey Decimal
it's Subject Headings
DIUM OF TRANSFER:
Tape Cassette
ROM Cartridge
5" Flex Disc
8" Flex Disc
DOS
REQUIRED HARDWARE (p. 7)
Options:
REQUIRED SOFTWARE (p. 7)
Requirements:
COMPONENTS:
Complete Package
Single Program .
Integrated Program
Series Component
I I Other
EVELOPER'S RATIONALE
iTRUCTIONAL PURPOSE:
Remediation
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES:
Drill and Practice Simulation
PROGRAMALTERATION:
LISTING AND
Can Teacher Alter?
Standard Instruction Tutorial Problem Solving Can Back-up Be sent?
Enrichment Informational Retrieval Learning Management Can Teacher Copy?
Game Utility
Other
ICUMENTATION AVAILABLE:
(CIRCLE ALL THAT ARE AVAILABLE IN THE COMPUTER PROGRAM (P) OR IN THE SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS (S
S Suggested Grade/Ability Levels P S Pre-test P S Teacher's Information
S Prerequisite Skills or Activities Post-test P S Resource Reference Informatior
S Program Operating Instructions P S Student Worksheets P S Follow-up Activities
S Instruction& Objectives P S Student Instruction P S Relationship to StandardTextbooks
S Sample Program Output P S Other
30DUCT DEVELOPMENT
ho Developed?' Who Evaluated?
story of Revision
49 45
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES: 0 Stated 0 Inferred
INSTRUCTIONAL PREREQUISITES: 0 Stated Inferred
DESCRIBE PACKAGE CONTENT ANO STRUCTURE:
50
46
ttC.,
0
0
i-zw
z0U
.
)..
71C=0-ICZ0i::Un .cc)-
, A:
.
-. ..
..--
).)-71Cn0-ICOzXUui)-
,
.
RATING: Check the square el which best reflects your judgement. (Use the space following each item for comments.)
IMPORTANCE: Check the square ri which reflects your judgement of the relative importance of the item in this evaluation.Note major weaknesses and strengths in 23 and 24.
111 Check this box if this evaluation it based partly on your observation of student use of this package.
1 The content is accurate.12
2 The content has educational value 12
3 The content presents a balanced viewof any social consideration 12
4 The purpose of the package is well-defined. 12
5 The package achieves its defined purpose13
6 Presentation of content is clear and logical.13
7 The level of difficulty is appropriatefor the target audience. 13
8 Graphicvcolourfsound are used forappropriate instructional reasons. 14
9 Use of the package is motivational.14
10 The package effeqtively stimulatesstudent creativity. 14
11 Feedback on student responsesis effectively employed. 15
12 The learner controls the rate and sequenceof presentation/review. 15
13 Instruction is integrated with previousstudent experience. 16
14 Learning is generizable to an appropriaterange of situations. 16
15 The user support materials are comprehensive.lx.r
16
16 The user support materials are effective.17
17 Information displays are effective.. 18
18 Intended users can easily and independantlyoperate the program 19
19 Teachers can easily employ the package. 20
20 The program appropriately usesrelevant computer capabilities. 20
21 The program is reliable in normal use.21
22. CHECK ONE ONLY I would use or recommend use of this package with little or no change.
I would use or recommend use of this package only if certain changes were made.
I would not use or recommend this package.
I would recommend this package to be considered for authorization/prescription.
51 47f
23. Describe the major strengths of the package. (Evaluator's Guide Page 21)
24. Describe the major weaknesses of the package. (Evaluator's Guide, Page 21)
25. Describe the potential use of the package in classroom settings. (Evaluator's Guide Page 22)
Evaluator's Name (Print)
Address (School)
Phone Number Date
I agree to allow the Provincial Educational Media Centre to list my name and address with Product Information related to this evaluation and confirm that no attempt was made to copy or modify the program or
accompanying documentation.
Evaluator's Signature
As an evaluator you may be contacted by the courseware producer. Please make a copy of the evaluation1110for your file so that you can provide constructive criticism of these programs and (or) documentation.
Return to: Provincial Educational Media Centre, 7351 Elmbridge Way, Richmond, B.C., V6X 1B8
52 48
SOME ADDITIONAL THOUGHTS
Computers are-fun, there canbe no doubt about that, but theyseem to have much greater attrac-tion for boys than for girls.The reasons for this are notentirely clear, although the war-like nature of most computergames may be part of the explana-tion. Teachers should be awareof this and encourage girls tobecome more involved with compu-ters in ways that are meaningfulfor them. This would involve theassignment of projects thatappeal to the specific interestsof girls. An initial focus onword-processing, as an aid towritten composition, coulddemonstrate the advantages ofcomputer applications to girls.Or, you might use a problem solv-ing approach which allows pupilsto select from a variety of prob-lems. You should also informyour pupils that women comprise alarge proportion of computer pro-fessionals. Careers in the com-puter field should be among thoseconsidered by girls in theirvocational planning. Inviting awoman who works with computers todescribe her job to your classcould reinforce the importance ofa career in computers.
We are regularly informed bythe news media of the possibilityof health hazards associated withsitting in front of a CRT displayfor lengthy periods. The evi-dence at this time neither con-firms nor denies whether CRTs doemit sufficient radiation to
influence one's health. ,Untilthe matter is resolved, cautionand common sense should be yourguide. Make sure that your TVsand monitors carry the CanadianStandards Association (CSA) labelof approval; no CRT can bear thislabel that does not conform tothe current CSA criteria formaximum radiation. If the labelis not in evidence, you shouldwrite to the CSA, including modelnumbers and all other relevantdetails, for co firmation of theCRT's status. In general, how-ever, a child should not, sit infront of a C for more than onehalf hour a time. If yolic_iethis as ur rule of thumb, the --effects of any radiation shouldbe minimal.
You should now have a reason-able overview of the role thatcomputers can play in your class-room. However, you should alsorecognize that this is just tpebeginning for you, and for thefield of education gen7411y.What happens from here on ependsvery largely on you and your col-leagues who are willing' to devotesufficient time and effort toimproving the effectiveness ofcomputer applications in educa-tion. If classroom teachers donot get directly involved in thisprocess, they will be passed by.Unlike most other educationalinnovations of the past, compu-ters are here to stay. The majorquestion at this time is whetherwe, as teachers, can take advan-tage of what computers have tooffer to our schools.
53 49
CHAPTER SIX
THE ADMINISTRATOR AND THE COMPUTER \'
This brief chapter is directedat those principals and vice-principals who have had little orno experience with computers.Teachers, however, shouldn't stopreading for that reason sincethere might be a few points ofinterest for you, too. The factis that if school administratorsare not "sold" on a new idea itis most unlikely that it will beimplemented. This, then, is anattempt to show administratorsthat they, too, can benefit fromhaving microcomputers -in theirschools.
Many school districts havebeen using computers for adminis-trative purposes for 15 .to 20years. The larger districts tendto purchase or lease their owncomputing equipment while smallerdistricts most often use commer-cial services. Some districtshave provided computer servicesto their secondary schools viaterminals to the central compu-ter, but elementary schools haveseldom had access to computers.The arrival of the microcomputer,of course, has changed all that.
A microcomputer with one ortwo disk drives and a printerattached offers a broad range ofapplications to assist in theadministration of even the small-est schools. Many useful admin-istrative program packages areavailable for most makes ofmicrocomputer. While the initialcosts of purchasing the hardwareand software are substantial
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($4000 to $6000) , the benefitsare such that it is possible torecover the outlay, throughincreased, productivity, withintwo to five years.
Word-processing will Permityour secretaries to become \tuchmore efficient in communica ingwith parents, ordering supplies,and preparing many routine docu-ments. A series of forms andform letters can be prepared,once, and then modified asrequired for each specific pur-pose. The saving in time andeffort can be substantial.
A student record file willgive you immediate access to thecurrent status of every pupil inthe school, individually, bygrade, by classroom, by subject,or by any other meaningful cate-gory you may choose. Changes instatus can be updated easily andnew lists prepared regularlywithout the secretary having toretype every list. In addition,labels for mailing or identifica-tion can be quickly preparedusing the student file.
Attendance records can beincorporated as part of the stu-dent record file with daily,weekly, and monthly summariesavailable on request. Severalcombined student record andattendance program packages areavailable. They cost from about$300 and up to around $3000.While it is possible to enterattendance data into the computer
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via the keyboard, it is muchfaster to use computer cards anda card reader. Each elementaryclassroom teacher, or each secon-dary homeroom teacher is providedwith a set of cards for thepupils in that class. At eachregistration the cards of pupilsabsent are pulled from the setand sent to the office for pro-cessing. The cards are thenreturned to the teacher for thenext registration. The teacherreceives an attendance summaryfor report cards and a finalyear-end tabulation which can beused as the official attendancerecord. The parents of pupilswho are absent more than a speci-fied number of days can be sent a"personalized" form letter, whichincludes the pupil's record,informing them of the unsatisfac -.tory attendance, and the computerwill do this automatically. Allthis, and the teacher has only toselect the appropriate cards fromthe set and send them to the off-ice.
Up-to-date inventories of text-books, library holdings, equip-ment, and supplies are alwaysdifficult to maintain. Severalgeneral administrative softwarepackages include an inventoryfeature. It is also possible topurchase specially designedinventory programs for a varietyof purposes. Updating the inven-tories on the computer and print-ing new lists can usually be doneby a secretary.
Accounting procedures can alsobe done on your computer. Thereare a number of accounting pro-grams available, which cost any-where from $100 to $1000. One ofthe most successful microcomputerprograms yet written, "Visicalc",
can be easily used for keepingthe school's accounts. It canalso be used for planning budgetsbecause it permits you to changevalues and then it immediatelycalculates the effects of thechanges on the overall budget.Visicalc has been programmed formost microcomputers and costsabout $225.
The creation of a master time-table is a major task for second-ary school administrators. Manyschools use the services of acommercial computer firm todevelop their timetablesj andthey pay a *considerable amountfor the service. There are sev-eral scheduling packages availa-ble for microcomputers, the moresophisticated of which will takestudent course requests f:om an"arena loading", generate a "con-flict matrix", and ultimatelyproduce the master timetable.
These are among the more use-ful applications of microcompu-ters for school administrators,and others are being developed.As an administrator, if youhaven't already done soy youshould discuss the effectivenessof these administrative applica-tions with administrators who arenow using them. You can seeexactly how they are using thecomputer, and will benefit fromtheir experience.
Finally, school administratorshave a key role to play inacquiring computer equipment fortheir schools and in arrangingin-service training for theirteachers. Leadership in computereducation is essential to theintroduction of computers intoour schools.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abrahams, J. R., & Douglas, J. A. An Introduction 12BASIC /Togrammina fol Small Computers.Toronto: Gage, 1983.
Bleackley, B., & LaPrairie, J. Entering the Computer Age.Agincourt: The Book Society of Canada, 1982.
Crawford, T. BASIC CompUting: A Complete Course.Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1981.
Doerr, C. Microcomputers and the, a we: A Guide 12L Teachers.Rochelle Park, NJ.: Hayden Book Co., 1979.
Eisele, J. E. Computers in the Schools: Now ThatWe Have Them ...? Educational Technology. 1981, October.
Forman, D. Instructional Use of Microcomputers: A Report,Pilot Project. Victoria, B.C.:
Ministry of Education, 1981.
Forman, D., Crawford, S., & Tennant, R. Reference Manualfpm the Instructional Use ol Microcomputers-,Victoria, BBC.: JEM Research, 1981.
Gagne, R. M., Wager, W., & Rojas, A. Planning and AuthoringComputer Assisted Instruction Lessons.Educational Technology, 1981, 21(9), 17-26.
Harper, D. 0., & Stewart, J. H. Run: Computer Education.Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1983.
Hungate, H. Computers in the Kindergarten.The Computina Teacher. 1982, January, 15-18.
Johnson, D. C., Anderson, R. E., Hansen, T. P.,& Klassen, D. L. Computer Literacy - What Is It?Mag Mathematics Teacher. 1980, 73(2), 91-96.
Luehrmann, A. Computer Literacy - What Should it Be?Mag Mathematics Teacher. 1981, 74(9), 682-686.
Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. BeginningApplesoft BASIC. St. Paul, MN: MECC1,1980.
Moursund, D. Teacher's Guide tosComputers in the,Elementary School. Eugene, OR: International Councilfor Computers in Education, 1980a.
Moursund, D. School Administrator's Introduction 12Instructional Use 21 Computers. Eugene, OR:International Council for Computers in Education, 1980b.
MoUrsund, D. (Ed.) =pica' Clowillar Education int.Elementary and Secondti:-y, Schools New York:Association for Computing Machinery, 1981a.
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Moursund, D. Introduction 12 Computers in Education for.Elementary and Middle School Teachers. Eugene, OR:International Council for Computers in Education, 1981b.
Moursund, D. Precollege kentputar. Literacy: A PersonalComputing Approach. Eugene, OR: International Councilfor Computers in Edubation 1981c.
Murphy, E. J. Developing Computer Literacy in K-12 Education.ink Computing Teacher. 1981, 9(3), 43-48.
Nazzaro, J. N. Computer Connections: for Gifted ChildrenAnd Youth. Reston, VA: The 'Council for ExceptionalChildren, 1981.
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Evaluator's Guidefor Microcomputer-based Instructional Packages.Portland, OR: 'NWREL, (Undated).{Available from the Provincial Educational. Media Centre,Richmond, B.C.}
Open Learning Institute. Introduction IO Personal Computing.Richmond,' B.C.: OLI, 1981.
Papert, S. Mindstorms; Children, Computers AnL powerfulIdeas. New York: Basic Books, 1980.
Phipps, J. The Electronic Classroom. Toronto:Canadian Education Association, 1982.
Poole, L. Apple 21 User's Guide. Berkeley, CA:Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Provincial' Educational Media Centre. Evaluations:Microware. Richmond, B.C.: PEMC, 1982.
Ragsdale, R. G. Computers in the Schools:A Guide for planning. Toronto: OISE Press, 1982.
Rogers, J. B. An Introduction 12 Computers And Computing,Eugene, OR: International Council for 'Computers inEducation, 1980.
Squire, E. Ina Computer: An Everyday Machine.Don Mills, Ont.: Addison-Wesley, 1972.
The Comput/er Moves In. TIME. January 3, 1983.
Taylor,,R. p. (Ed.) MA Computer in kJ= School:Tutor.-Tool, Tutee_. New York: Teachers College Press,1980.
Vance, J. H. Mathematical Problem Solving:A Resource for Elementary Teachers. Victoria:B.C. Ministry of Education, 1931.
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SELECTED PERIODICALS
ADCIS Newsletter,Association for the Development ofComputer-based Instructional Systems,Computer Center,Western Washington State University,Bellingham, WA 98225
AEDS Newsletter,.Association for Educational Data Systems,1201 Sixteenth Street, NW,Washington, DC 20036
Alberta Printout,The Alberta Society for Computers in Education,P.O. Box 1796,Edmonton, Alberta T5J 2P2
Byte,Box 590,Martinsville, NJ 08836
Classroom Computer News,P.O. Box 266,Cambridge, MA 02138
Compute,P.O. Box 5119,Greensboro, NC 27403
Courseware Magazine,4918 N. Millbrook, #222,Fresno, CA 93727
Creative Computing,P.O. Box 789-M,Morristown, NJ 07960
CUEBC Newsletter,Computer Using Educators of B.C.,2235 Burrard Street,Vancouver, B.C.
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ECOO Newsletter,Educational Cortputing Organization of Ontario,
252 Bloor Street West,Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6
Educational Computer,P.O. Box 535,Cupertino, CA 95015
Educational Technology,140 Sylvan Avenue,Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632
Electronic Learning,Scholastic (CanadairNewkirk Road,Richmond Hill, Ontario L4C 3G5
Mathematics Teacher,National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,1906 Association Drive,Reston, VA 22091
MicroSIFT News,Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory,300 SW Sixth Avenue,Portland, OR 97204
Pipeline,Conduit,P.O. Box 388,Iowa City, Iowa 52240
SIGCUE Bulletin (Computer Uses in Education) ,Association for Computing Machinery, .
1133 Avenue of the Americas,New York, NY, 10036
The Computing Teacher,Eastern Oregon State College,LaGrande, OR 97850
USERS NewsletAr,Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium,
2520 Broadway Drive,St. Paul, MN 55113
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GLOSSARY OF COMPUTER TEEMS
ALGORITHM. A Series of logicalsteps leading to the solution ofa problem.
APL. A Programming Language; acomputer language, available onsome microcomputers, which isparticularly useful for problemsolving.
ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT. That partof the central processing unitwhich' carries out the computa-tional operations of the compu-ter.
LUTHORING. The act of creatingeducational software for presen-tation by computers.
AUTHORING LANGUAGE. A computerlanguage, such as PILOT, TUTOR,and NATAL, specially designed forauthoring.
BASIC. Beginners All-purposeSymbolic Instruction Code. Theprogramming language used mostfrequently by microcomputers.
BITs. BInary digiTs, (1's orO's), the basis upon which num-bers and characters are coded andstored in the memory of a compu-ter.
BUG. An error in a computer pro-gram.
BYTE. Eight (8) bits, the numberof binary digits required tostore one character in the memoryof a computer.
CAI. Computer Assisted Instruc-tion, one of several terms thatrefer to the 11:;e of a computer inteaching and learning.
CARD READER. An input unit thatenters data on punched or markedcards into a computer.
CASSETTE. An electromagneticstorage medium, identical to thatused to play "sic, upon whichcomputer data may be stored foran indefinite time.
CASSETTE DECK. An input/outputunit that reads data from andstores data on a cassette.
CATHODE RAY TUBE. , An output dis-play unit; a CRT a TV screen.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT. SeeCPU.
CHIP. Large scale "integratedcircuits" often containing thou-sands of electronic components ona single silicon wafer.
COMPUTER. The general term for aprogrammable electronic devicethat carries out numerical calcu-lations and character manipula-tions at high speed. "Mainframecomputers" are the largest andfastest, usually costing severalmillion dollars. "Minicomputers"are of medium size and speed,Costing hundreds of thousands ofdollars. "Microcomputers" arethe smallest and slowesf, butthey cost only a few hundred dol-lars.
COMPUTER LANGUAGE. The meanswhereby human programmersinstruct computers to performtheir tasks. BASIC is the compu-ter, language available on mostmicrocomputers. Other computerlanguages include FORTRAN,PASCAL, and LOGO.
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COURSEWARE. Computer programsspecifically designed to instructlearners; educaUonal software.
CPU. The Central Processing Unitof a computer, which directs allof the computer's activity; the"brain" of a computer.
CRT. See Cathode Ray Tube.
CURSOR. A symbol, often a flash-ing light patch, that moves abouta CRT display to indicate wherethe next character will appear.
DATA. Information which is inputto, processed by, or output froma computer.
DEBUG. The act of removingerrors from a computer program.
DISKETTE. A circular electromag-netic medium upon which computerdata can be stored for an indefi-nite period.
DISK DRIVE. An input/output unitthat reads data from and storesdata on a diskette.
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DOCUMENTATION. A writtendescription of the function per-formed by a computer program ateach stage. Remarks within theprogram listing, usually providethe necessary description.
DOS. Disk Operating System; thesystem program that "saves" and"loads" data to and from a diskdrive.
EDITOR. A program which permitsmodifications to data stored in acomputer.
ERROR MESSAGE. An indicationfrom the rcmputer that it hasencountered a condition in a pro-gram that it cannot process.Often this results from the
faulty use of the computerlanguage.
FILE. A set of data stored ineither the computer's memory, oron a diskette or cassette.
FIRMWARE. Computer programs thatare permanently stored on"chips"; programs that remainafter the power has been switchedoff the computer, and are immedi-ately available when the power isswitched back on, ROM.
FLOPPY DISK. Another name for a"diskette."
FLOWCHART. A graphical or verbalset of directions that outlinesthe "algorithm" to be programmed.
FORTRAN. FORmula TRANslation;one of several computer languagesdesigned for scientific comput-ing.
GAME PADDLES. Input units thatpermit one to control the func-tioning of computer programs bysimply turning a knob, or press-ing a button; essentially a vari-able resistor that can be "read"by a computer.
GRAPHICS TABLET. An input unitthat permits figures to be"drawn" on a computer's CRT.
HARDCOPY.computer.
HARDWARE.nents of
INPUT.from any
Printed output from a
The physical compo-a computer system.
Data entering a computerof several sources.
INPUT. UNITS. Hardware componentsthat enter data into the memoryof a computer; a peripheral dev-ice such as a keyboard or a cardreader.
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INSTRUCTION. A command to a com-puter to perform a specific func-tion; a "statement" in a computerprogram.
INTERACTIVE MODE. Direct commu-nication between a person and acomputer in "real time."
INTERFACE. A device, usually"firmware", that allows two-waycommunication between a computerand a peripheral such as a key-board, a CRT, or a printer.
I/O. Input/Output; data flowinginto or out of a computer.
JOYSTICKS. Input units, similarto "game paddles", that permitone to control a computer programby moving a lever in variousdirections.
K. Kilobyte; a measure of ',:he
storage capacity of a computer;one K of memory will store 1024characters; 2 raised to the powerof 10 = 1024.
KEYBOARD. An input unit withkeys similar to those on a type-writer.
LESSONWARE. Courseware designedfor brief, but complete, instruc-tional sequences.
LIGHT PEN. An input unit thatenters data into the memory of acomputer in relo.tion to coordi-nates on the CRT screen.
LINE PRINTER. A high-speed out-put unit that prints a line at atime, and as many as 2,000 or
more lines per minute.
LISTING. A printout of a compu-ter program, either on a CRT oras hardcopy.
LOGO. A programming languagespecially designed to permit very
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young children to program compu-ters.
MEMORY UNITS. Computer compo-nents that can store programs anddata. (See also, RAM. and ROM)
MENU. A feature of a computerprogram that permits the user toselect from a list of options.
MICROCOMPUTER. A small, low-costcomputer.
MICROPROCESSOR. The generic termfor an arithmetic/logic unit on a"chip"; the CPU of a microcompu-ter.
MONITOR. Another name for a CRTor TV screen output unit..
MUSIC SYNTHESIZER. An input/out-put unit that permits digitalmusic to be created and "played"on a computer.
NATAL. National Authoring Lan-guage; a computer language,designed by the National ResearchCouncil of Canada, to facilitatehigh-level "computer assistedinstruction."
OUTPUT. Data leaving a computerto any of several devices.
OUTPUT UNITS. Hardware compo-nents that accept data from thememory of a computer; a peri-pheral device such as a CRT, or aprinter.
PASCAL. One of several computerprogramming languages; a Frenchmathematician of the 17th Cen-tury.
PERIPHERALS. Input and outputunits.
PILOT. Programmed Inquiry,Learning Or Teaching; one of sev-eral "authoring languages."
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PLOTTER. An output unit that"draws" graphical output from acomputer.
PRINTER. An output unit that"prints" numbers, letters, andcharacters that are output from acomputer.
PROGRAM. A set of detailedinstructions that control theoperations of a, computer in per-forming its task.
PROGRAMMER. A person who"writes" computer programs.
RAM. Random Access Memory; com-puter memory in which programsand data are stored, the contentsof which can be modified by theprogram currently operating;memory which usually is destroyedwhen the power to the computer isswitched off.
ROM. Read Only Memory; computermemory which can be accessed, butcannot be modified; memory whichis not destroyed when the powerto the computer is switched off.
SIMULATION. A computer programthat is a model of a "real" or"imagined" situation.
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SOFTCOPY. Computer output onto aCRT; temporary output.
SOFTWARE. The general term forcomputer programs.
STORAGE. Devices that hold datauntil required by a computer;RAM, ROM, diskettes, cassettes.
TELIDON. Canada's "videotex"system by which computer graphicscan be sent quickly to computerterminals via telephone circuits.
TERMINAL. An input/output unitthat communicates with a computervia telephone circuits or coaxialcables.
VIDEODISC. A storage medium,similar in appearance to a ster-eophonic recording, upon whichcolor photographs are stored.
VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINAL. VDT; acomputer terminal containing akeyboard and a cathode ray tube,or CRT.
WORD-PROCESSOR. A computer pro-gram that provides for the entry,editing,' and output of textualdata such as correspondence andreports; a computerized type-writer.