document resume ed 103 333 so 008 204 martorella, peter h. · document resume ed 103 333 so 008 204...
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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 103 333 SO 008 204
AUTHOR Martorella, Peter H.TITLE Selected Early Childhood Affective Social Studies
Programs: An Analysis of Theories,. Structure, andConsistency.
SPONS AGENCY Temple Univ., Philadelphia, Pa.PUB DATE 21 Nov 73NOTE 29p.; A paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the
National Council for the Social Studies, College andUniversity Faculty Association (San Francisco,California, November 1973)
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$1.95 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Affective Objectives; *Behavior Theories;
Comparative Analysis; Curriculum Design; *CurriculumEvaluation; Early Childhood Education; EducationalTheories; Elementary Education; Group Dynamics;*Humanistic Education; Individual Development;Instructional Materials; *Social Studies; TeacherEducation; Values
IDENTIFIERS Kohlberg (Lawrence)
ABSTRACTThis paper probes the structure of several different
sets of "affective" early childhood materials. "Affective materials"are defined as those that ask children to look into their ownpersonalities, to consider personal reaction to subject matter, or toconsider the reactions cf others in a set of circumstances. Four setsof commercially available, preschool-grade 3 level socialstudies-related material are analyzed with respect to (1) structural'characteristics, (2) specified learning outcomes, (3) theoreticalbases, and (4) degree of consistency. The degree of consistencyincludes a checi of the integration of the foregoing three frames ofreference and the results of classroom field-tests to see if thematerial "works" without the intervention of extensive teachertraining. The results of this analysis suggest some caveats toc3nsumers and raise some issues for curriculum theorists: (1) afailure to oparationalize objectives consistently within thetheoretical bases and broad goals of the programs in pervasive and(2) sensitivity experience, group process training, and a firmtheoretIcal foundation are necessary for teachers to fullfill theroles specified wIthin the materials. Comparative data is included onthe Human Development Program from the Human Development TrainingInstitute,: Dimensions of Personality from Pflaum/Standard PublishingCompany; Fire Things: Values from Guidance Associates; andDeveloping Understanding of Self and Othes from American GuidanceService. (JM)
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Selected Early Childhood AffectSiveucture
Socialand
Studies
Consistency*Programs:
An Analysis of Theories, tr
Peter H. Martorella
Temple UniversityPhiladelphia, Pa.
*This work was supported in part by a research grant from Temple
University. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the eg e/
councilFaculty Association, National ouncil for the SocialStudies, San Francisco, California, November 21, 1973.
1
"Who am I?"
"What should : do?" .
"Who is right?"
"How do I feel about this?"
"What and whom do I like and dislike and why?"
"What do I believe?"
A social education program that cannt.z.: make a substantial contribution
toward resolving'some of these vital human questions is sterile and in-
complete. Affective growth has been and remains an essential, albeit fre-
quently neglected, objective of socia studies teaching, students want
and should receive assistance in identifying, analyzing and clarifying self
concerns. (Martorella, 1975; in press).
One of the dominant features of curricular developments in the 1970's
has been an emphasis on affect. The emphasis emerges under many' labels --
humanistic education, sensitivity training; al*,..tive education, open
.education, inter-group education, personalizing education, valatag,.malne
clarification -- but there is a common focus regardless of the labels.
There is a persistent and underlying concern for the individual and personal
decision making. In one respect, the affective movement represents a
turning of the social sciences inward to focus on the self -- how it is
shaped and perceives and reacts to the social world it encounters. In some
cases, " affective education" emerges as a set of prescriptions that flow
from a clearly defined theoretical framework; in others, it is ecclectic
amalgam of exercises that were abstracted from successful teaching ex-
periences.
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While the general affective education movement has earlier roots, only
recently have systematic programs begun to have a growing impact on the
established social studies curriculum at the early childhood level. The
final result r iy be a significant alteration of what has traditionally
been perceived as "social studies" for preschool - primary children.
An assumption implicit in this Article is that any new curricular
developments with potentially widespread impact should undergo systematic
academic, as well as market - place, analyses before the onset of diffusion.
Classroom - testing and teacher approval of programs should be a necessary,
but not a sufficient, condition of approval.
Empirical tests of an instructional product's validity and reliability,
valuable as they may be in discriminating between aspirations and accomplish-
ments, also ha're a blind side (and usually little extenal validity).
Essentially, such analyses provide an answer to the question of whether
intervention X generated effect Y as predicateo.e
Another complimentary form of analysis involves an examination of the
internal structure of an instructional product with respect to the com-
patability of its component parts. In simpler terms, "How does it hang
.together?" and "Where's its head at?" The basic purpose of this paper
is to attempt such a probe into the structure of several different sets
of early childhood materials that have been identified as "affective."
Materials Selections
Parameters for the selection of materials were set in several ways.
Ouly materiels that had been developed for the levels preschool-grade 3
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that r4flected an implicit or explicit "emphasis on affect" were included.
An "emphasis on affect" was defined in eit1Lv of three ways: consistent
use of focus - on - self themes; consistent use of emotion - arousal themes;
(Jr consistent use of analyzing - the - process - of - emotion-arousal themes.
A focus - on - self theme meant that the materials consistently asked
the child to introspect on some aspects of his or her personality. Emotion -
arousal themes were considered to be those that were designed to engender
personal reactions concerning the subject matter, whatever its actual
content. The last interpretation of affect themes concerned materials that
in effect, mirrored the behavior of others who were emotionally aroused
by some incident or a set of circumstances; for example, presenting a case
of a child who reacts to name-calling.
Materials so identified then were checked against additional criteria.
The materials should have been:
1. produced within the past few years.
2. developed for at least the levels preschool - grade 3
with organized, structured activities and materials.
3. potentially acceptable by schools as a "social studies"
program (in whole or in part) whether or not so designated by
the publisher.
4. available to all on a nap-exclusionary basis (i.e., not in
experimental limited editions).
5. contrasting in some respects.
Of the materials that met these various sets of criteria, four were
selected for analyses.
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Developing Understanding of Self and Others (DUSO-I)
First Thinga Values
Human Development Program
,Dimensicns of Personal]
Framework for Analysis
Each of these sets of materials then were examined with respect to
their structural characteristics, learniniputcomes specified, theoretical
bases, and/Egree of consistency.
Structural Characteristics. Germane to thin perspective were these
questions. What are the components of the complete set of curricular
materials? What is the general design and scope of the curricular
materials? What roles are specified for the leader/teacher? What rolea
are specified for the learner? What dminant tnstructional pattern exists
within the program?
LtargegAutcomes Specified. This perspective generated questions
relating to the extent and clarity of goal statements. To what extent are
learning outcomes specified? What are the goals specified? To what extent
are evaluation procedures included ?.
Theoretical Bases. From this perspective, the following types of
questions wereraised. How extensive is the theoretical rationale provided
for the program? What theories are identified as the bases for the program?
To what extent have the theories been empirically validated? What assumptions
concerning the learner are made?
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Kaplan (1964, p. 302) has argued that theories put known items into
a system and help make sense out of otherwise unintelligible empirical
findings. In expanding upon the utility of theories, Cherryholmes (1971,
p. 2) haa suggested that they are essential for social educators to chart
their goalu. He advocates that among the theories needed are those con-
cerning the intellectual development of children, relationships between
emotion and intellectual development, the effectiveness of different in-
structional strategies with different children and subject-matter, and
assorted predictive theories concerning learning.
Another approach to assessing theoretical based was suggested by the
work of Joyce and Weil (1972). Having conducted an extensive review of
assorted theoriei germane to teaching, they identified sixteen discrete
models. The models that were identified from the four sets of materials
examined are described in Figure 1mnd acre Teleireffio in the analyses.
Place Figure 1 on adjourning pageIMMIN11.1.
Degree of Consistency. This final perspective offers a check on the
degree to which the data from the preceding frames of reference are con-
sistent with one another. That is, to what extent do the instructional
strategies provided accurately reflect the theories stated and the learning
outcomes specified? An additional dimension rf consistency measures was
added by including a small sample of classroom field-tests to assess whether
the materials appeared to work as predicated Without the intervention of
extended teacher training. This procedure helped respond to the question.
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"Do the materials when used in classroom instruction accurately reflect
the theory and learning outcomes specified?0
Field-test data for all the analyses were obtained in one of three
ways: (a) the author conducted selected activities with a group of children,
(b) designated teachers conducted selected activities and reported their
findings or (c) the author observed teachers using the materials.
Some elements of each program were tested at least twice in different
settings. No attempt was made in the classroom field-tests to select
representativek,actImities. The objective rather was to supply a reality
check on the materials and to observe whether activities unfolded in the
classroom as presumed. None of the field testers, including the author,
had received any formal training in'the use of the materials other than
what was supplied by the publisher.
Program 1: Developing Understanding of:,Self and Others.(DUS0-/)
.
.;..
The DUSO kit is available from American Catdance.Serviceu,
Circle Pines, Minnesota, 55014 in levels I and II. DUSO I was considered
the most germane for our analysis.
Structural Characteristics. The complete program for kindergarten
and the primary garades consists of a 94 page manual, two story books,
a set of recordings, posters, puppets and related activity cards and props,
role play cards, and group discussion cards. Both humorous and talking non-
humans are used in the activities. A series of strategies are built around
typical children's problem situations in what is labeled a "cycle."
The basics of a cycle consist of a story with some moral, a problem
situation, a role play situation and a puppet activity. Additional
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supplementary activities also are provided. Eight units comprise the
program:
1. Understanding and Accepting Self
2. Understanding Feelings
3. Understanding Others
4. Understanding Independence
5. Understanding Goals and Purposeful Behavior
6. Understanding Mastery, Competence and Resourcefulness
7. Understanding Emotional Maturity
8. Understanding Choices and Consequences
Each unit is made up of four cycles, except the first Which has five.
An impOrtant continuing role for the teacher is to provide positive
reinforcement through both verbal and nonverbal cues. "If the teacher
truly seeks to help the child develop his abilitlei, she must structure her
communication, both verbal and nonverbal, so that. the child comeirtu 'see
himself in a positive ligbt." (Dinkmeyer, 1970, p. 14) In this context,
a teacher is provided with behavioral cues on being a "sympathetic
listener:" establish eye contact, be attentive to children's response,
offer "sympathetic" smiles.
Much of the teacher's role is akin to that of a group discussion leader.
"The leader does not censure or demand, she does not engage in a struggle
for control of the group; she seeks to have the children experience the
natural consequences of their behavior." (Dinlaneyer, 1970, p. 15). The
teacher is called upon to encourage silent members to participate in
group discussions and to exercise the skills of clarifying, restating
and summavizing children's reactions.
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More generalized roles for the teaeaer include that of puppeteer and
dramatizer. Since puppet activities and dramatizations of stories are an
integral part of the program, teachers must acquire some expertise in these
areas.
Students cycle through the roles of spectator during the stories and
ofdramatizations to those verbalizing their feelings and role playing. They
A
also are encouraged, but not required, to acquire some skills in puppetry.
LearningAutcome Specified
No explicit objectives are stated for each of the cycled. Within the
cycle, however, each story, puppet activity and role play activity has a
clearly stated objective. While each of the three objectives within a given
cycle are generally complementary, they usually are different. Consider
Unit 5, Cycle B. The general objective given for the story is to demonstrate
that we all learn what we find interesting, and that everyone is interested
in so:nething. The role-play activity's purpose is to encourage children
to be more helpful to others by doing more than they are asked. While the
puppet activity is iesignee to demonstrate the "error of jumping to con-
clusions," The common denominator for each cycle of objectives is the theme
of the given unit.
Theoretical Bases
Approximately nineteen pages are devoted to the program's rationale.
A general linkage to the program's theoretical bases is suggested, but is
. not made explicit. The work of Coombs and his associates and one empirical
study correlating self,concept measures and reading scores are cited as sup-
porting the structure of the program.
The emphases upon stories with morals, modeling behaAor provided by
puppet and role play enactments and the like sugge4t an implicit kinship
with reinforcement theory. Bandura's observation provides a backdrop for
this inference.
One can acquire intricate response patterns merely by observingthe performances of appropriate models, emotional responses canbe conditioned observationally by witnessing the affective re-actions of others undergoing painful or pleasurable experiences;fearful and avoidant behavior can be extinguished vicariouslythrough obsorvation of modeled approach behavior toward fearedobjects without any adverse conslcuences accruing to the performer;inhibitions can be induced by witnessing the behavior of otherspunished; and, finally, the expression of well-learned responsescan be enhanced and socially regulated through the actions of
influential models. (Bandura, 1969, p. 116).
Using the Joyce and Weil schema, the program seemed to fit no one
category. Rather, it seemed to incorporate strains of the Awareness
Tv'ining Model, the Laboratory DemonsLration Model and the Operant Condition-
ing Model (See Figure 1)
A basic underlying assumption of the program might be summed up xn
the statement "Happy people succeed." The author states, "If a child has
positive feelings, he tends to be motivated toward the task, participates
with a high degree of involvement, and is more likely to derive permanent
gains from his efforts." (Dinkmeyer, 1970, p. 9) It is taken as a given
that feelings of personal adequacy and self-acceptance are significant
factors in academic success and social growth; in effect, that one must
have high self-esteem to learn.
Degree of Consistency
The instructional strategies and their objectives generally are con-
sistent, but frequently this is because the latter are stated in very
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general terms. In the case of the stories, the instructional materials
and their objectives appear to be inconsistent with the general self-
awareness theory explicitly advanced for i.ne program. Essentially, the
stories tend to be moralistic in the sense that they model norms for what
is correct and what is incorrect behavior. Occasionally this pattern also
is reflected in the puppet and role playing activities.
In effect, children often are given specific norms for what a desirable
self concept sLould be. The classroom trials tended to support this point.
The materials in all cases were well received by pupils and teachers and
did lend themselves at points to open discussions of alternative ways of
coping with problems. Not infrequently, however, the materials as
observed and reported were used to model "desirable" behavioral responses
such as sharing and cooperating. In these respects, the program goes beyond
its stated open-ended design "to help children better understand social
emotional behavior." It even may contribute to promoting homogeneous value
patterns.
Program 2: First Things: Values
The First Things Values materia.3 are available from Guidance Associates,
Pleasantville, New York.
Structural Characteristics. Rather than a conventionally sequenced
program, the Guidance Associates materials are a collection of filmstrip/
record/manual kits. One kit, A Strategy for Teaching Values, is designed
to train teachers in the theory and use of the materials. The remaining
five kits are for use with children: The Trouble With Truth, What Do You
Do About Rules?; Y_,u promisea!, But It Isn't Yours. . and That's No
jlja. The training kit consists of three filmstrips, two records/
cassettes and a manual. All the other kits contain two filmstrips, one
record/ce.ssette and a manual.
Each kit is built around one or two moral dilemmas; that is, situations
in which one has two alternatives and must decide which one is right and
which onr is wrong. Themes for the dilemmas consist of truth, promises,
fairness, rules and property rights, and are developed with content drawn
from children's worlds. Both real and animated figures are used in the
cases.
Children are introduced to a dilemma, asked to discuss what position
they would take, and finally to provide their, rationale. Some general
questiodtng of the class takes place, then the children break into discussion
groups.
The teacher's role revolves around presenting the dilemma, argaaizing
appropriate discussion groups, maintaining the discussion focus on the
dilemma, and encouraging role taking. In this context, he/she must create
a climate for free discussion, move from group to group raising, as
necessary, probe questions and attempting to stimulate arguments for both
alternatives of the dilemma. The teacher also is called upon to diagnose
the stage of moral reasoning.
As suggested, the student's basic role is to take a moral position
and justify it. Since this process occurs within a discussion group, he/she
also must consider (listen to) competing positions, be. willing to challenge
them, and to respond to (or at least, entertain) challenges to his/her
own stand.
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Learning Outcomes Specified
The general objectives for the program are stated clearly in the
teacher-training manual. Each instructional kit simply translates these
objectives into a specific moral context, such as fairness. It should
be noted, however, that the clarity of the objectives is contingent
partly upon an understanding of the moral development theory itself.
No specific evaluation measures are included, although one may monitor
developmental acceleration through states. It is questionable, however,
whether any accurate stage diagnoses can be made with only the instruction
provided in the kit.
Theoretical Bases
Approximately 29 pages of rationale are provided in the teacher _Lain-
ing kit. In addition, each instructional kit devotes just a few pages
highlighting salient .points .of the theory.
The theoretical source of this program is more explicitly stated than
in any of thcother three. Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development
is the basis of the program, although the lineage of his ideas is traced
to Dewey and Piaget. He argues that all children pass through six dis-
criminable stages of moral reasoning. Each stage builds upon the other, and
no stage may be skipped. Stage movement occurs in developmental fashion,
but it may he accelerated or retarded. An outline of the six stages is given
in Figure 2. Each higher stage according to Kohlberg represents an im-
provement in moral reasoning.
Place Figure 2 on adjoining page
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Stage theory has been validated in cross - cultural studies (Kohlberg,
1969), and with training in the use of coding protocols it is possible to
diagnose the dominant stage of a child's moral reasoning. Empirical
evidence also has been collected by Kohlberg's associates to support the
notion that stage acceleration may be engendered by providing moral reason-
ing at one stage above that of the child (Turiel, 1973).
Using the Joyce and Weil schema (see Figure 1), the program clearly'
falls within the Developmental Model category.
A key assumption of the program is that the better a child reasons,.the
more likely he/she is to act in a moral way. As indicated in the proceding
section, Kohlberg also borrows Piaget's developmental assumptions concerning
stages and invariant sequences'of movement. By dialoging with others at
states above your own, Kohlberg assumes, fixation at a lower stage of
reasoning will be prevented and upward movement facilitated. Within the
six stages themselves, it is assumed that the most moral person is one for
whom right is defined by a decision ok conscience in accord with self-
selected ethical principles.
Degree of Consistent
Reflecting direct movement from an explicit theory to the generation
of instructional materials, the program has strong internal consistency.
Unlike the other three programs, however, this one is not a sequenced series
of daily activites. Rather, it is designed as five non-sequential units for
promoting moral reasoing.
In the field tests conducted and reported, the results generally were
as predicated, siven certain prerequisite conditions. The role specifications
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for the teacher and student are crucial ones for successful translation of
the program. And while the training materials carefully catalog these roles,
not as much training in them as seems required is provided. Specifically,
more diagnostic insights and group discussion st.ills seem to be needed.
The media components themselves only serve as stimuli to geneate the
moral reasoning. If the roles prescribed are not followed, it is fairly easy
to frustrate the objectives and the theory. The materials are interesting
media displays apart from their intended purpose, and can be.easily used by
teacher without any general follow-up or post-viewing commentary/discussion.
Program 3: The Human Development Program
The Human Development Program can be obtained from the Human Development
Training Institute, 1081 East Main, El Cajon, California 92021.
Structural Characteristics. In addition .to ap2 rage theory manual,
there is a separate curriculum book for each age level, beginning with
age 4. There are no materials supplied with the program, except for
daily instructional strategies.
Each curriculum book is built around three themes: awareness,
mastery and social interaction. These themes refer to knowing what your
thoughts, feelings and actions are; knowing what your abilities are and
how to use them; and knawing other people. Six weeks of each semester are
to be spent on each theme. Around each theme then is built a daily
sequence of prescribed activities. A brief overview of all activities for
each week is provided.
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The heart of the program is a group comunication system that is
identified as the "Magic Circle." Activities orginate within the Circle.
Three of the student roles are codified as rules.
Rule 1:
Rule 2:
Rule 3:
Everyone should sit reasonably still
Only one person can talk at a time, and he should
raise his hand when he wants to talk.
Everyone must listen and be able to show that
they have been listening (Bessell and Palomares, 1970)
It is suggested that the Circle consist of groups from eight to thirteen.
Specifications for the composition of the groups are given. Each child is
asked to participate in the group process, provide feedback as appropriate,
and possibly, at some point, assume leadership of the group. Essentially,
the teacher functions as group leader, group structurer, rule enforcer,
discussion stimulator, and clarifier. 11;
Generally, lessons have a statement of objectives, a commentary
section, a materials-needed section, teaching prescriptions, and frequently
suggestions for an evaluati.on or summary. Often the same objective is
used for several days during a week.
Learning Outcomes Specified. Each daily activity has a stated
objective, but often it is borrowed from an earlier lesson during the week.
The program, its authors state, "is, in its broadest outline, a curriculum
designed to improve communications between the teacher and the child."
(Bessell and Palomares, 1970, p. 1). It is designed to help children build
interpersonal communication skills, improve their self concepts, and develop
self control, as well as competency in a range of tasks usually performed
000411
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by young children. The lines between awareness, mastery and. social inter-
action objectives, however, frequently are blurred.
Frequently general evaluative strategies are attached to individual
activities, and a Developmental Profile is to be completed for each child
at the end of a six-week cycle. The children are rated on awareness of
self, sensitivity to others, self-confidence, effectiveness, interpersonal
comprehension, and tolerance.
Theoretical Bases
A "theory manual" of 102 pages is a part of the program, but may be
purchas,./separately. Each curriculum manual directs the teacher to read
the theory manual before trying to implement the program.
Several related strains of theory undergird most of the program. -what
might loosely be described as interpersonal-communications theory,
psychotheraphy theory, and personality - developmeu6eheory. The authors
acknowledge especiallytheir reliance on Horney's watt. While not explicitly
identified, traces of operant conditioning also may be inferred from many
of the activities; periodically, the teacher is encouraged to reinforce
systlmatically through praise the children's responses. Occasionally, the
point of a lesson may be to demonstrate what is considered to be negative
behavior and have each child internalize, with reinfrocement, this inter-
pretation. Witness the commentary from a kindergarten lesson. "We wish to
elicit such negative descriptions as can readily be recognized by all members
of the group as not nice in some way for some person." . . . "After each
child has given his personal description, discussion should center around
why this tehavior is 'not nice' . . . . " (Hassell and Palomares, 1969 ,
p. 225, Level B).
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With respect to validation of these theories, as reflected in the
program, there apparently are no empirical data but the authors offer "In
the last several years, more than 4,000 teachers have been trained in the
use of IIDP. They have reporte' highly gratifying results: discipline
problems are sharply reduced; there is less absenteeism; children show much
greater personal involvement, greater verbal expressiveness, higher
motivation, greater self-confidence and much more constructive behavior. . ."
(Hessen and Palomares, 1970, p. iii).
Using the Joyce and Weil schema, this program was identified with the
Operant r Iditioning and Self-Awareness Models; (See Figure 1)
Several key assumptions about young learners undergird the program.
The authors assume that man naturally seeks to achieve competence and gain
approval. Related to this is the belief that most children are ready to
acquire leadership skills between their 5ixth and eighth birthdays, and that
around the same time they are "ready and eager to participate in the
decision - making process."
Degree of Consistency. Both the daily objectives and the related
instructional strategies are generally consistent. Neither, however, are
consistent always with the general objectives stated for the program,
its, theory or three thces. A:e mastery category seems especially vulunerable,
in that a variety of activities are lumped in -- e.g., how to apply medica-
tion.
Similarly, the frequent emphasis on positive reinforcement of certain
desired behaviors runs contrary to much of the self-awareness theorizing.
In the classroom field-testing, unfortunately, there was no opportunity
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to observe those types of'sessions that incorporated reinforcement-theory
orientations. The other sessions observed and reported suggested that the
teacher/leader requires some well developed group process skills to insure
that the other theories undergirding the program are actually translated
into practice.
Program 4: Dimensions of Personality
The Dimensions of Personality program is available from Pflaum/Standard
Publishing, Company, 38 West Fifth Street, Dayton, Ohio 45402.
Structural Characteristics. riere are no preschool materials in the
program. Grades 1-3 have separate student and teachers' manuals, seven
group activity sheets (23" x 46"), and a set of ditto masters. The grade 1
materials are labeled. Now I'm Reld1; grade 2, I Can Do It; and grade 3,
What About Me. Each grade is built around seven units as follows.
Grade 1
Unit 1: Meeting the Others
2: Making Friends
3: Getting to Like School
4: Being More Awake
5: Using my Muscles
6: Growing and Changing
7: Trying New Things
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Grade 2
Unit 1: Coming Back to School
2: Controlling My Body
3: Thinking About my Feelings
4: Solving Problems
5: Making Plans
6: Making Others Happy or Unhappy
7: Choosing for Myself
Grade 3
Unit 1: I Belong Here
2: I'm Somebody Special
3: My Feelings Are Me
4: Who's Afraid
5: I Feel Mean
6. I Like Me
7: Becoming Me
Within each unit, there is a continuous series of activities. That is,
the teacher is free to proceed as far as he/she wishes on any given day.
The large activity work sheets and ditto masters provide novelty in the
configuration of the materials. In the student b)oks a consistent attempt
is made to break up the monotony of linear material through colorful drawings
and different type arrangements. Student materials are essentially a
series of work activities, preceded by some brief commentary and instructions
twin
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concerning the tasks. The students produce some behavior specimens related
to the unit theme, and then analyze them in groups.
The basic role of the student is to participate in group discussions
and activities. Exercises are built around groups of four. Students must
be willing to share personal data about their and others behavior. Cor-
respondingly, one dimension of the teacher's role involves the structuring
of groups to insure heterogeneity, yet-harmony. He/she is asked to maintain
a non-judgmental climate, to protect the children from group pressure and
embarassment and generally to function as a group - process observer.
The basic instructional cycle is to read a short passage, respond by
supplying some personal data aloud or in writing, and sharing the results
with your group. Specific prescriptions are provided for how the teacher
is to guide the activities, direct the use of behavior specimens and con-
duct follow-up eiscvagions.
Learning Outcomes Specified, The general objectives offered for the
program are to build positive self concepts, competency in wvrking in a
non-competitive, supportive groups, and basic social competence skills.
Each unit within a grade is preceded by a very general statement of what
the unit is trying to do. This means that each grade level has only seven
learning outcomes generally described for all activities for the year.
No evaluative tools are included.
Theoretical Bases. In effect, there are no explicit claims for
theoretical bases. Within each of the teacher manuals there are approximatily
five pages of introductory comments concerning the program, but these are
largely fundamental rationale and role-discription statements. Cler.rly,
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however, with the strong emphasis on group - processes, the program may
be categorized within the Laboratory Method Model in Joyce and Weil's schema
(See Figure 1)
Degree of Consistency. It is difficult to assess consistency within
these materials. Since the stated objectives are few in number and not
explicitly articulated or even related to individual activities, but
rather to clusters of activities, their relationship to instructional
strategies is tenuous. The absence of specific theory statements poses
similar problems for analysis.
Field tests of the materials indicated that they are well received by
teachers, students and parents. They appear to give students accomplishable
tasks that are interesting and that lend themselves to group work and analysis.
The lack of rigorous theoretical bases and specific objectives, however,..
made the field-test observations primarily market-place analyses.
Comparative Analyses
As affective education is represented in the popular teaching
literature, it is a mixed bag theoretically and procedurally. A similar
situation, to some degree, appears to prevail in the affective programs,
examined at the early childhood level. Proponents of affective education
often argue from the frame of reference of humanistic psychology, advocating
more attention to self growth, individual feelings and relativistic ap-
proaches to beliefs, attitudes and values. There are many pieces of the
materials analyzed that appear to meet their criteria. Furthermore, the
materials appear to have won market place acceptance from teachers who
express an interest in promoting affective growth.
-22-
For use as programs, however, the foregoing Analyses suggest some
caveats to consumers and raise some issues for curriculum theorists.
To be identified as affective, focusing on self, building positive self
concepts or dealing with emotions is not necessarily indicative of a common
theoretical frameWork. Relatively clear inter - and antra - component
theoretical differences in programs exist and the related instructional
strategies may work at cross purposes. The failure of program authors
to explicitly and thoroughly examine the theoretical baies and to con -
siLtently operationalize objectives within the context of the program
tends to mask this issue.
While all of the programs may be implemented without prior training,
some sensitivity experiences with the roles specified within the materials,
as well as a critical appraisal of what is happening to young children as
they move through thu programs seems essential. Ali-oi-the programs retviiru
moreiroupifprocese insights on the .part of the teacher than a cursory.
first-blush inspection of the materials might suggest. Additionally, a
teacher needs to have clearly in mind some affective theory that he/she
uses as a guide both to direct instructional processes and to monitor the
outcomes effected. Without such tools, the programs might be rendered
ineffective or even be harmful to children.
From a consumer's perspective, one important question arising from the
analyses might be put simply as "Can I accept a program that alternately asks
a teacher to explore alternative behavioral patterns on some occasions and
to shape patterns on others?" For these who see this as an important
issue, a serious review of the viability of the DUSO-I and Human Development
-23-
Programs seems in order. If the existence of explicit theoretical
underpinings is as urgent as many social educators have claimed, the
Dimensions of Personality set has a fundamental omission. The First Things:
Values program has a clear and direct theoretical lineage, and it offers
the sharpeat theoretical alternative. Its affective focus, however, is
limited and its developmental heritage essentially precludes accomplishing
any short-tern learnitg objectives. Some of the basic characteristics of
the four programs have been summarized in Figure 3. One may contrast there
the students' and the teachers' roles, the dominant affective themes, and
the dominant teaching models.
The field-test dimensions of the rnalyses added an important ingredient
of consistency -- the degree to which theory and objectives are translated
accurately in practice. In effect, they provided some observational data
:
on whether the curriculum shaped.by the teacher's interaction with the
program and the students accurately reflects the theory and objectives
intended.
Model
1.
Laboratory.
Method Model
2.
Awareness
Training Model
3.
Operant
Conditioning Model
4,
Developmental Model
-24-
Major Theorist
Family or Or entation
Goals for which Applicable
National Training
Social
Development of interpersonal
and group skills and through
Laboratory
Interaction
this, personal awareness and
flexibility.
William Schutz
Person
Increasing personal capacity
for self-exploration and self
Fritz Perls
awareness.
Much emphasis on
development of interpersonal
awareness and understanding.
B.F. Skinner
Behavior
General applicability. A domain
free approach though probably
Modification
most applicable to information-
processing function.
Jean Piaget,
Irving Sigel,
Edmund Sullivan
Information
Processing
Designed to increase general
intellectual development,
especially logical reasoning,
but can be applied to social
and moral development as well.
Figure 1:
Theory Orientations (Joyce
and Weil, Models of Teaching, p.
12)
-25-
Stage 1. Orientation to Punishment and Obedience. The physical con-
sequences of an action determine whether it is good or bad.
Stage 2. The Instrumental RelativistOrientation. Right action consists
of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and
occasionaly the needs of others.
Stage 3. -_..gigsa,.&2,,j1grajalSzleltialLLn. Seeking approval of others;
to gain approval or avoid disappro,Tal. Conforms to stereotype
of majority or natural role behavior.
Stage 4. Law and Order Orientation. Adherence to established rules for
their own sake. "Dengone'sduty" and evidencing respect for
authority constitute right behavior.
Stage 5. cantsgall_lialgal.entation. Recognition of an arbitrary
element in rules for the sake of agreement. Duty is defined in
terms of contraci.,..and respecting the rights of others and the
will of the majority. Right tends to be determined tn-temrm
of what has been agreed upon by the whole society or more general
principles such as "the greatest good for the greatest number."
Stage 6. Conscience or Princi le Orientation. Looking to one's own con-
science as a directing agent and to the universal principles of
mutual respect and trust. Right is defined by the decision of
conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles that
appeal to logic,"At heart, these are universal principles of
justice, of the reciprocity and equality of the human rights,
and of respect for the dignity of human beings as individual
persons."
Figure 2. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
000 27.
Dominant Teaching
Model(s)
Dominant Affect
Themes
Key Student
Roles
Key Teacher
Roles
-26-
Developing_Understanding
of Self and Others (puso-p
First Things: Values,
Awareness Training,
Laboratory Demonstration,
Operant Comationing
Emotion arousal,
Focus on self
Spectators, actors,
role players
Group discussion
leader; clarifier and
summarizer; pupeteer
and dramatizes;
behavior reinforcer
Developmegpal
Emotion arousal
.4
Takin;-, justifying and
defen_ing moral stands;
consiuering and
challenging competing
arguments
Organizing discussion
groups; encouraging role
taking; "devil's
advocate; diagnosing
stages of moral reasoning
Human Develcpment
Program
Self Awareness,
Operant Condi-
tioning
Focus on self
Group participant
Organizing discussion
groups; group dis-
cussion leader; be-
havior reinforcer
Figure 3.
Summary Comparisons ofEarly Childhood Affective
Programs
Dimensions of
Personality
,
Laboratory
Demonstration
Focus on self
Group Partici-
pant
Organizing
discussion
groups; group
process
observer
4
-27-
Bibliography
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University, Summer, 1971.
Bandura, A., Principles of Behavior Modification, New York: Holt,
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Dinkmeyer, D., Developing Understanding_ of Self and Others D 1
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