DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 197 213 CE 027 897

AUTHOR 'Rice, Eric: And OthersTITLE Access to Vocational Education. A Planning System for

Local Secondary and Post-Secondary Program andFacility Accessibility. Step 3: GeneratingStrategies.

TNSTITUTTON Barr!er Free Environments, Inc., Raleigh, N.C.;System Sciences, Inc., Chapel Hill, N.C.

SPO!S AGENCY Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED),Washington, D.C.

PUB DATE (80)CONTRACT 300-78-0592NOTE 43p.: Photographs and areen headings will not

reproduce well For related documents see CE 027B9U-901.

EDPS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Accessibility (for Disabled) : *Access to Education:

*Educational Planning: Equal Education: EvaluationMethods: *Group Dynamics: Guidelines: *NeedsAssessment: Postsecondary Education: ProgramedInstructional Materials: Secondary Education; SystemsApproach: *Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS Brainstorming: Charrettes: Nominal Group Technique:Synectics

ABSTRACTThis guidebook focuses on the third of five steps

included in a planning system for improving local secondary andpostsecondary program and facilities accessibility: generatingstrategies. The guidebook is comprised of four sections, eachdescribing a specific technique for generating strategies. TechniquesPresented are (1) nominal group technique, (2) brainstorming, (3)

synectics, and (4) charrette. within each section, specificself-instructional activities for group leaders using that techniqueare aiven. In addition, examples of esFecific settings where eachtechnique might be most effective are given. (LRA)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

ccess to Vocational EducationA Planning System for Local Secondary andPost-Secondary Program and Facility Accessibility

Generating Strategies

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IntroductionThe third step in the Planning

System uses group decision-makingand planning procedures to developalternative strategies or solutions forremoving each major identifiedbarrier. As you will recall, a strategy orsolution is a course of actionundertaken to meet specified goals orobjectives. Group decision-makingand planning procedures have beensuggested in this step because the useof such procedures increases thenumber and validity of ideasgenerated, stimulates support for andcommitment to the program design,and helps to satisfy Federalcompliance requirements.

Howto UseThis Booklet

Before opening this bookletgenerating strategies, you haverecorded on the Planning Record thenames of the two procedures youbelieve to be most useful in yoursetting for generating strategies. Inthis booklet, you will find self-instructional descriptions of eachprocedure suggested for use in Step 3.Please turn to the sectionscorresponding to the procedures younoted on the-Planning Record andread the material. Note that thematerials assume you will be directingthe planning exercise. If you havegiven responsibility for this step tosomeone else, this booklet should bestudied b; that person. After you havecompleted the reading, you mustconsider agein your choice ofprocedures arid make a final decisionabout which technique you will use.

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NominalGroup Techni

The Nominal Group Techniquewas developed by Andre Delbecq andhis colleagues over a ten-year period;its purpose is to increase theeffectiveness of group idea generationfor program planning. It has beenused successfully in industry,government, health and educationorganizations. Delbecq's techniqueminimizes the limitations of "natural"interacting groups which had beenfound less than adequate forgenerating ideas and setting priorities.

The Nominal Group Technique(NGT) has been designed specificallyto assure equal participation of allpersons involved in the planningprocess so that the dialogue is notdominated by a few assertiveindividuals. For this reason, NGT is anappropriate technique to use whenpeople with diverse backgrounds anddifferent degrees of responsibilityneed to make decisions or solveproblems. In fact, the NGT has beenfound helpful to school administratorswhen they must involve professionalstaff, support personnel, and parentgroups in program planning (Paul,Turnbull and Cruickshank, 19771.

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Essentially, the NGT is astructured group meeting in whichindividuals are encouraged first togenerate their own ideas or solutionsto problems, without the pressurefrom other participants towardconsensus. Then, through a process ofalternate discussion and anonymousvoting, a rank-ordered list ofproblems or solutions is obtained. Thetechnique is applicable to a greatvariety of tasks in many differentsettings.

What is one major difference between Nominal Group Technique and other groupmethods you read about in the Guide?

a. ideas are prioritized or rank-orderedb. participants do not discuss each other's ideasc. uniqueness of ideas is emphasizedd. NGT requires the use of a computere. it costs absolutely nothing e

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STRENGTHSAND LIMITATIONSOF THE NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE

The Nominal Group Techniqueincorporates some advantages ofinteracting groups while minimizingmost disadvantages. For example, onedisadvantage of interacting groups isthat natural leaders or verbalindividuals dominate discussions,Cioreby discouraging new andinnovative thinking about a topic.Interacting groups expend energycompeting for "floor time" anddiscussion has a tendency to strayfrom the main topic. As a result, toooften time is wasted and the decisionsare sometimes made in haste, if madeat all.

The structured steps of the NGTeliminate the problem mentionedabove. The initial silent periodencourages group members togenerate ideas as well as to feelresponsible for the group's success.The NGT also allows members toshare personal concerns andpotentially unpopular ideas whileavoiu'ig the sometimes "hiddenagenda" of interacting groups. Thediscussion period following the"round robin" guarantees thatmeanings are clarified and ideassharpened, as in interacting groups.The research of Delbecq and othersindicates that nominal groups producemore creative and acceptablesolutions than interacting groups(Dunnette, Campbell and Justad. 1963).When group members are varied instatus, roles, views or opinions.NGT procedures reduce the amount ofconflict and tension sometimes foundin groups with varied backgrounds.

Although the Nominal GroupTechnique has many advantages, thereare several aspects of the processwhich may limit its use under certaincircumstances. First, the structured

format demands a single-topicmeeting since it is difficult to changetopics in the middle of discussion. Ifafter some discussion, it becomesapparent that more than one kind ofproblem or goal needs attention, thenthe NGT should not he employed.You should consider and eliminatethis problem in your initial selectionand phrasing of the questions andobjectives of the meeting.

A second potential limitation ofNCI is its structured for mat. I`loughthe struc tort' Memberstrorn others' c ritic ism of their ideas, itoccasionally makes some participantsfeel manipulated and uncomfortable.as if the process na, precedence overthe participants. (wriunit-11 reativeideas and the enriching developmentof ideas through in-depth groupdi cussion ina\, be sacrificed by theneed to nto c' on to the next step inthe procedure.

The technique also lac ks a certaindegree of precision. The ideas offeredduring the first round of the NGT maynot be preciehy defined and mayappear to overlap, when in fact theirsponsors had different aspects of theproblem in mind. 1 here is limitedopportunity in the procedure formajor refinement of ideas. Also, verysimilar ideas are not always combinedbefore being ranked. Voting without athorough sorting of ideas intoappropriate categories is erroneousand results in repetition in the finallist.

The Nominal Group Technique produces a rank-ordered list of possiblesolutions to the presented problem. Is this a strength or limitation of thetechnique? Why?

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WHEN SHOULDTHE NGT BE USED?

The Nominal Group Technique isadaptable to a wide variety of settingsand is well within the capacities ofmost potential participants. Thismethod is appropriate when problemdefinition or idea-generating is desired.With it the following goals can beaccomplished: (1) to identify variouselements of a problem; (2) to identifyelements of a solution; and (3) toestablish a priority listing of theseelements. It is particularly helpfulwhen judgments of many individualsmust be combined and a groupdecision made; it is very useful whena ranking of options is desired.

RESOURCESAND MATERIALS REQUIRED

The physical requirements forholding an NGT meeting are minimal.A room large enough toaccommodate all participantscomfortably at desks or at a table withchairs is necessary. All participantsneed paper, pens or pencils andseveral ?" x 5" notecards for recordingideas and voting. The person leadingor directing the group needs a flipchart on an easel or a chalkboardwhich the entire group can see forrecording ideas and votes. The leaderalso needs a felt-tip pen and a roll ofmasking tape for recording anddisplaying responses. These suppliesare not difficult to obtain in mosteducational settings.

In which of the following situations would the Nominal Group Technique bean appropriate technique for an administrator to use? Please select more thanone answer if more than one situation applies.

a.b.C.

d.e.f.

negotiating with a teachers' unionplanning for competency testingselecting textbooks for the next yearfixing the air conditioning systemchoosing the site of an open classroom uniteliminating bus routes to conserve gas

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How much would it cost to usethe NGT to generate solutions forremoving barriers in your educationalunit? In general, the dollarexpenditure would be minimal,because the materials are inexpensiveand very little time is required of the

participants or the administrator ascompared with other availablemethods. Good planning and carefuldefinition of the group's objectives bythe administrator or group leader willcontribute to lower cost, for thistechnique.

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Let's see how much a nominal group session would cost your educational unit.Assuming the room, paper and pens were available free, estimate thefollowing:

Participants

Leader

Cost of 1/2 day work(at most)

Cost of 11/2 days work

Total Cost

At this point, does the Nominal Group Technique still seem promising for yourown school system? If "yes" continue; if "no", try another technique.

HOW TO CONDUCTA NOMINAL GROUPTECHNIQUE SESSION

The Nominal Group Technique isa structured group meeting whichfollows a prescribed sequence ofproblem-solving steps. It is designedfor a small group of seven to ninemembers whose goal is to generate avariety of quality ideas about a topic.*A larger group must be divided intosmaller groups of this size. Tocomplete all NGT steps, each groupmeets continuously for a maximum ofthree hours.

Participants should include bothservice providers and consumers. Inthe present context, this wouldinclude vocational educators, specialeducation instructors, vocationalrehabilitation counselors, programadministrators and handicappedpersons. R is important to includepersons with different perspectives inorder to obtain a wide spectrum ofsolutions and to provide realisticfeedback on the ideas offered. Youshould consider using your LocalPlanning Committee.

Prior to scheduling the nominalgroup meeting yo,,, as group leader,

The technique can be used effectively with up to12 people once the group leader is familiar withthe technique.

must clarify the objectives for themeeting through consultation withother administrators (and with groupleaders if more than one group isinvolved). Specifically, the NGTquestion and alternative forms of thequestion should be developed towhich participants can respond.Questions should encourage theexpression of individual perspectiveson the issue.

Sample questions for generatingsolutions to major identified barriersfor the Tigris and Euphrates examplesfound in the Guide might include:

Tigris:How would you suggest that thevocational program increase thewillingness of the vocationalstaff, through improvingteaching skills and teacherattitude, to serve special needsstudents in regular vocationaleducation classrooms?Euphrates:What means would be used toeliminate unnecessary pre-requisites and thereby increaseenrollment of handicappedstudents in vocationalprogramming?

11

Here are a few quick questions about the NGT procedures so far. Fill in theblanks.

a. Who can be a member of an NGT group?

b. What is the optimal number of people in an NCT group?c. What is the first task which the administrators or group leader must perform?

You, as group leader, shouldprepare an opening statement tobegin the meeting which conveys a

sense of the importance of the task,clarifies each member's role in themeeting, and identifies the mission ofthe group. The question to beanswered or problem to be solvedshould then be posed and fullyexplained by the leader includingnecessary background aboutioentified barriers and priorities. Noquestions from participants areentertained at this time because (1)your explanation should besufficiently clear and (2) suchquestions might inhibit groupmembers' initial responses. Afterexplaining the mission and question,you as groLip leader initiate groupactivity according to the followingschedule.

Activity 1: Vent Generation ofIdeas in Writing. After you havepresented background informationand have read the nominal questionaloud to the group, you shouldinstruct the group to write their ideasin brief phrases or statements on theprovided worksheets. Ask the groupto work silently and independently. AsEvader of the group, you are aworking participant and should alsowrite down your ideas silently andindependently. You may answerclarifying questions but avoid makingany statement that might direct thegroup or focus their attention undulyon a particular idea or area.

The silent generation of ideas inwriting should take approximately fiveminutes; it should not exceed tenminutes. Generally, five minutes isadequate time for generating a largenumber of useful and different ideas.

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You can perform your role asgroup leader more effectively bybeing sure that you: (1) havepresented the question in writing andhave displayed it in full view of thegroup, (2) resist clarifying non-processrelated questions which might director impede the group, (3) serve as amodel of good group behavior bywriting in silence, and (4) sanctionindividuals who disrupt the silentindepeodent activity.

Activity 2: Round-RobinRecording of Ideas. After participantshave completed the silent generationof ideas, the next NGT activity is torecord the ideas of the groupmembers on a flip chart visible to theentire group. In this step, go aroundthe table asking for one idea fromone member at a time. Write eachidea on the flip chart as it issuggested; proceed to ask for anotheridea from the next group member inturn. Your task during this step in theprocess is simply to record all of theideas offered by group members onthe flip chart which is visibly displayedin front of the group. During the idearecording process, members shouldnot discus: or defend their ideas.Time will be provided later fordiscussion and clarification of theitems that are generated.

This step in the process providesfor equal participation among groupmembers ;n presentation of ideas,focuses thinking c n the problem,helps to separate ideas frompersonalities, and provides a writtenrecord of the group's thinking. Thewritten list is an important early groupreward.

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As the group leader, it isimportant for you to describe theprocedures for this step clearly, tosolicit ideas from the group membersin brief words or phrases in a round-robin fashion, to communicate to thegroup that variations on a theme aredesirable, and to record on the flipchart the suggested ideas as quickly aspossible. Be sure to sanction any typeof disruptive behavior that may occurduring this step. An example of adisruptive behavior would be anindividual trying to discuss ideasrather than simply list them; otherdisruptive behaviors would includearguing with ideas as they are

presented, asking the leader to ruleon duplications or engaging in sideconversations.

Remember the goal of this step isa rapid, accurate list of ideas in briefwords or phrases, recorded in writin7on a flip chart in front of the entiregroup. This list will become the guidefor further discussion; it provides aclear picture of the group's thinkingand is the group's product.Redundancy is permissible at this stepin the procedure, though in practicemembers often simply do not suggestideas which someone has alreadyessentially presented.

What is a round-robin procedure and why is it useful in NGT?

Activity 3: Serial Discussion forClarification. After all ideas have beenrecorded, the next NGT activity is todiscuss each of the ideas listed by thegroup. Serial discussion meansaddressing each idea listed on the flipchart in order and allowing a shortperiod of time for the discussion ofthat idea. As the leader of the group,you will point to item #1, read italoud, and ask the group if there areany questions, clarifications orstatements of agreement and/ordisagreement which members wouldlike to make about that item. Allow abrief period of time for discussion, ifthere is any; after discussion, addressattention to item #2, then to item #3,and so on. It is important toremember that the major objective ofthe discussion is to clarify, not to winarguments. Clarification will helpother members understand themeaning of the brief words or phraseson the chart. Clarification is notrestricted, however. It may includediscussion of the logic or analysisbehind an item as well as the relativeimportance placed on the item.

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During this step, lobbying,aggressive interaction or disruptiveargumentation should not be allowedto occur. The purpose of serialdiscussion is to enhance clarificationand to minimize influence based onverbal prominence or status. Thegroup leader should pace thediscussion by not allowing discussionto focus unduly on any particular ideaor to degenerate into argument.

If there are differences of opinionon a particular item, the leader shouldallow both points of view to be airedbefore shifting group attention to adiscussion of the next item.Differences of opinion will beaccurately recorded in the votingprocedure, a later activity in theNominal Group Technique.

The leader must attempt tobalance discussion across all items,making sure that no item suffers frominadequate clarification due to timeconstraints. Some items may not needsubstantial clarification. Still, theleader should ask each member of thegroup if they have a clarifyingcomment or a question. Make sure

that each person has an opportunityto comment on every item.

Individual members should notbe required to clarify their own items.The leader should instruct the groupmembers not to ask individuals toexplain items unless the individualchooses to d ) so. Although mostindividuals will volunteer to clarifytheir own items, it should beestablished that clarification is a grouptask and not necessarily theresponsibility of the person whosuggested the item.

Activity 4: Preliminary Voting onthe Priority Strategies. Aftercompleting the list of strategies, thenext NGT activity is the preliminaryvoting on suggested strategies. Theaverage nominal group processmeeting will result in more than 12items being suggested by each groupduring the idea generation phase.Through discussion and clarification,group members will come tounderstand the meanings of the items,the logic behind them and argumentsfor and against the importance ofeach. The next task is to determinethe relative importance of individualitems through a combination ofindividual judgments. In order tomake this determination and toincrease judgmental accuracy, you willhave group members make individualjudgments and express thesejudgments mathematically. Eachmember of the group should have infront of them five 3" x 5" index cards.Ask group members to select the fivemost important items from the entirelist of solutions or strategies on theflip chart. Members should write eachof the five items on a separate 3" x 5"card, including item number andstatement.

The voting process isuncomplicated. After each groupmember has selected five solutionsand written each on a separate card,ask group members to choose thecard on which the item they considerto be most important is written.Instruct members to write the nu mber"5" in the lower righthand corner ofthe card and underline that numberthree times. Have group membersturn the card they numbered over.Next, instruct them to look at theremaining four cards. Of the

remaining four cards, have the groupmembers select the card on which theleast important item is written, writethe number "1" in the lowerrighthand corner and underline thatnumber three times. After turning thatcard over, have the group choose themost important item listed on theremaining three cards, rank this item"4" and underline the number threetimes. Then, select the least importantitem of the remaining two cards, rankthis item "2" and underline it. Instructthe group to write "3" on the lastcard and underline the number. Thefigure below, "Index Card IndicatingVoting Process", illustrates a sampleindex card.

The group should be given ashort time to reexamine their rankingsbefore passing the cards to the leader.After collecting the cards the leadermay shuffle them to preserveanonymity and insure that noindividual's voting pattern can beidentified. However, voting can bepublic, particularly if revoting is notcontemplated. You should then makea balance sheet on the flip chart bynumbering the lefthand side of thesheet in accordance with the numberof items from the round-robin listing.Ask one member of the group to readeach item number and the ranknumber from the collected stack ofvoting cards. With one group memberreading and the leader recording, thepreliminary vote is tallied as shown inthe figure entitled. "Sample Tally Sheetfor Recording; Rankings and CalculatingPriority Items."

INDEX CARDINDICATINGVOTING PROCESS

Number from original groupflip chart list

Teachers lack specific, skit 15cor warkins wilt, handicappedstudenTs.

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SAMPLE TALLY SHEETFOR RECORDING RANKINGSAND CALCULATING PRIORITY ITEMS

Item Number* RankTimes

RankedSum ofRanks

No. of Ranksx Sum of Ranks Priority

1 3,2,2,2,1 5 10 50 62 4,5,5,5 4 19 76 1

3 5,5,5,3 4 18 72 24 2,1,3,4,2 5 12 60 45 5,4,4,3 4 16 64 36 4,4,3,4 4 15 60 47 3,1,1,2 4 7 28 7

List as many items as necessary.

At this point, the Nominal Group Technique process can be concluded.

Activities 5 and 6: Discussions ofPreliminary Vote and Final Voting.However, in instances whereincreased judgemental accuracy isdesired or where the output of severalsmall groups must be combined, twoadditional activities should be used.These are: (1) discussion of thepreliminary vote and (2) revoting. Insituations where you are working withonly one group, discussion of thepreliminary vote (Activity 5) and finalvoting (Activity 6) are conductedsimilar to Activities 3 and 4 describedearlier. In this instance, you shouldhelp the group determine inconsistent

voting patterns and provide anopportunity to discuss items which areperceived as receiving too many ortoo few votes. In Activity 5, Discussionof Preliminary Vote, you shoulddefine the discussion tasks asclarifications rather than social pressureto get members of the group tochange their minds. The goal ofclarification also serves to insure thatthe discussion remains brief so as notto distort perceptions of items whichare not discussed. Please follow thediscussion procedures of Activity 3.

How is the final list of alternatives determined?a.

b.c.d.e.

selected by the leaderthought up privately by group membersthrough debatesecret ballotby outside team of evaluators

In Activity 6, Final Voting,individual judgments will becombined into a group decision. Thefinal vote determines the outcome ofthe meeting, provides a sense ofclosure and accomplishment, anddocuments the group's judgment.Voting follows the proceduresfollowed in Activity 4.

Activities 5 and 6 shou:.I also beused when you have had to split yourfaculty or school system personnelinto several small groups in order toconduct the nominal group process.For example, if your meeting included

.13Jannsuy

22 people divided into two groups of8 and one group of 6 individuals, thenat the end of Activity 4 you wouldhave five priority strategies listed foreach group, or three sets ofstatements.

Integration of the lists producedby these three groups can beaccomplished through proceduressimilar to those identified in Activities5 and 6 above. After concludingActivity 4, bring the members of thedifferent groups together and compilethe ranked output of the three groupsinto a single list of priority strategies.

Following the compilation of the list,proceed with serial discussion of eachitem in order to clarify each item onthe compiled list. While conductingthis serial discussion, duplicate itemscan be eliminated and/or regroupedas appropriate, thereby reducing thesize of the overall list. In addition,discussions about each item as well asinformation about the preliminaryvoting permit the entire group toconsider the importance of each itemcompared to the others. The groupleader must insure that each item isdiscussed sufficiently to encompass allpoints of view; however, excessivetime should not be devoted to anysingle item.

After clarification and discussionof the items, the membership shouldbe instructed to vote on the entire list

following the procedure outlined inActivity 4, as described earlier. As youwill recall, this procedure called foreach group member to select the fivemost important strategies from the listof items, and to write each of thosestrategies on a single 3" x 5" card. Theitems on the cards are then rankedwith the most important itemreceiving a rank of 5 and the leastimportant item receiving a rank of 1.The cards are collected and the votesare tallied on a tally sheet as depictedin the figure entitled, "Sample TallySheet." Calculations of the priorityitem can be accomplished throughmultiplication of the number of timesthe item was ranked by the sum ofthe ranks. The items with the highestoverall scores are the most importantitems.

In the last discussion period of the NGT, what do group members talk about?a.b.c.d.e.f.

time and place of next meetingwhether the NGT was worthwhilethe first rank-orderingtheir initial ideaswhether to vote by secret ballot or notwho should be the group leader

At the end of Activity 4 or Activity6, you will have completed theNominal Group Technique process. Atthis point, the most importantstrategies or solutions will have beenidentified and there will be consensusamong involved personnel about thesolutions. Note that implementationof the NGT takes at least two to th.e

ADDITIONALRESOURCES

The Nominal Group Technique iswell-publicized, and numerousresources, people and writtenmaterials, are available to assist youwith the method. Delbecq and Van deVen, who first developed thetechnique, have published manybooks and articles which are availablethrough libraries and bookstores. Onein particular, Group Techniques forProgram Planning, Scott, Foresmanand Co., 1975, is recommended for

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hours. Because the activities of theprocess are structured, a break forparticipants is possible. After thesession is ended, the leader shouldsummarize the procedures and resultsin a written report to distribute to allparticipants.

your use. For reports of researchcomparing this technique with othergroup methods having the samepurpose, you might check the subjectindices of Psychological Abstracts andCurrent Index to Journals in Educationfor current articles of interest.

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Brainstorming

Brainstorming was introduced in1949 by advertising executive AlexOsborn as a method for a group ofpeople to generate ideas in quantity.It was a very popular techniqueduring the 1950's, primarily withadvertising firms and other businesses.It has become less popular in recentyears as newer group methods,retaining many of the strengths ofBrainstorming and few of Lslimitations, have been developed.Brainstorming often has beenincorporated as one step in thesenewer procedures.

When Brainstorming wasintroduced most decisionsrepresented a consensus orcompromise arrived at in "committeemeetings" through "groupdiscussions." Often decisions weremade just to end the meeting.Meetings usually were dominated bythe person in authority who called themeeting, and the decision madeusually reflected the leader's opinion.Few participants were satisfied withtheir contribution; few supervisorswould use the outputs of such groupsbecause they were sometimesinconclusive or even erroneous.Brainstorming represented a realimprovement in group management,given the context in which it wasintroduced.

The administrator can expect toreceive from a Brainstorming session alist of workable ideas numbering fiveor six times the number of people inthe group. Participants in the sessionwill feel that they have made apositive contribution to the solutionof the problem. According toproponents of Brainstorming, theenhancement of creative potentialresulting from participation in thesession should be carried over toother aspects of job performance.

Brainstorming can result in:a. achieving a consensusb. developing creative solutions in depthc. generating many clever ideasd. breaking a problem up into more manageable elementse. arranging problem-solving steps in logical order

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STRENGTHSAND LIMITATIONSOF BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming groups have beendescribed as fun, interesting andstimulating by those involved in them(Clark, 1969). The operational rules of"suspended judgment" and "buildingon the ideas of others" encourage allmembers to participate. Hopefully,the power hierarchy in which groupmembers are involved outside theBrainstorming group does not operateduring the process, allowing theresources of a diverse group ofpeople to be tapped.

The list of ideas that aBrainstorming group produces hasbeen found to be superior to thenebulous reports issued by theunstructured committees which thetechnique replaced (Taylor, Berry &

16

Block, 1958). Most often a largenumber of ideas or solutions aregenerated, of which eight or ten willbe totally appropriate; if the followupranking of ideas by group members iscarried out, you, as administrator, willhave a recommendation of the bestcourse of action.

How do you think the output of a Brainstorming group would compare withthe output of other kinds of groups?

Quantity Quality

Very high

Somewhat higher

About same

Somewhat lower

Very low

In comparison studies ofBrainstorming, newer techniques havebeen found to be better for groupdecision-making. Groups using theNominal Group Technique or theDelphi technique produced moreideas of better quality thanBrainstorming groups (Dunette,Campbell & Justad, 1963; Bouchardand Hane, 1970). In operationBrainstorming groups have beenobserved to be convergent, settlingon one line of thought rather thanstimulating many lines of thought(Madsen & Finger, 1978). Opinionleaders or persons in authority havebeen found to dominate the groupprocess despite the rules prohibitingsuch influence. In other studies,Brainstorming was found to be better

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than other techniques with simple andfamiliar problems but worse withmore complex, unfamiliar problems; itwas the best technique in at least onestudy when totally novel solutionswere required.

Some observations about theresearch done on Brainstorming are inorder given some of the criticalcomments about the technique. Inmany of these studies researchershave failed to run the group in itsclassical fashion, with followupprioritizing and summary by thefacilitator. Most studies have beendone in college social psychologylaboratories rather than in realorganizations. Experiment participantslack familiarity with the problem orwith other participants, so perhaps

Brainstorming in this context failed toliberate participants from theorganizational structure found inbusiness contexts and failed togenerate enough anxiety to promptgreat creativity. It would be importantto compare Brainstorming with othertechniques in a real-life setting.

Though Brainstorming has usuallyproven less productive than newergroup problem-solving methods, ithas been found uniformly superior totraditional, unstructured groupdiscussion in arriving at decisions.

Nelsen, Petelle, and Monroe (1974)suggest giving the Brainstorminggroup a list of cue words to increasethe quality of ideas. Conducting thegroup as originally outlined byOsborn with after-the-meetingrankings of alternatives by participantswill also improve the output (andreput-Ition) of Brainstorming.

List at least three ways in which other group techniques can be more effective..han Brainstorming.

1

2

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WHEN SHOULDBRAINSTORMINGBE USED?

Brainstorming is unlimited in itsapplications, according to itsproponents; however, 20 years ofexperimentation with the techniquesuggest a more restricted range. Themethod has proven most useful ingenerating numerous novel solutionsto problems with which groupmembers have had some first-handexperience. Brainstorming has beenfound to be equal or superior to theother methods of problem solvingwith respect to simple problems butmuch less effective with complex

problems (Bayless, 1967). Its capacity tostimulate very novel and unique ideasrelated to familiar topics is most usefulin advertising, the area in which it wasoriginally developed. Brainstormingmight also be considered when timeand cost limitations rule out othertechniques as possibilities.

;20 17

Think of the problem(s) you face in making vocational education accessible tohandicapped students. Is it simple or complex? Does it involve many people orfew?For what kind of problem does brainstorming produce good solutions?

a. complicated, intricateb. those involving transportation and advertisingc. logical, sequentiald. novel or unusuale. simple, familiar

Should you consider this technique further?uamsuv

RESOURCESAND MATERIALSREQUIRED

The effort needed to conduct aBrainstorming group is slightconsidering the benefits accrued. Thefirst requirement is a group leader,probably you, as administrator, whowill accept responsibility fordescribing the problem, conveningthe group, conducting the session,and compiling the output in somereadable form. The leader shouldhave some experience inBrainstorming groups, preferably inleading them. If you are familiar withthe technique, the instructions which

follow should sufficiently train you toconduct Brainstorming.

The meeting itself will use one-half hour of each participant's timeplus a small amount of timenotmore than one-half hourforfollowup procedures. One session willrequire up to four hours of secretarialtime to record the session, type andcirculate the final list, and tabulateand circulate the rank orderings ofstrategies or solutions.

To estimate the costs of operating a Brainstorming group, fill in the followinginformation:

Who in your system would you ask to be in a Brainstorming group?

Would you need to pay any of these people extra for 1/2 hour to 1 hour oftheir time?

NO ; YES ; if YES, how much?$

Who would you designate as leader or coordinator o the group:

How much would 2 days of a leader's time cost? (Include your ownrate if you will serve as group leader)

How much will 4 hours of secretarial time cost?

Total Cost. $

In addition to the people costs,Brainstorming requires severalphysical supplies. The group shouldhave a comfortable, spacious roomwith tables and chairs; suchaccommodations might be rented ifnot available. Paper and pencils forparticipants are optional but necessaryin ample quantity for the leader and

HOW TO CONDUCTA BRAINSTORMINGGROUP SESSION

A Brainstorming group consists of8 to 15 people called together by aleader to generate ideas about aspecific topic or problem; 12 people isconsidered ideal. Your Local PlanningCommittee is recommended. Mostoften, members of the group are allemployed by the same company or bythe same public agency.Characteristics of the leader and ofthe group will be discussed in turn.

Though no special leadershipskills, characteristics, or training arerequired, according to developers ofBrainstorming, the role of the leaderin Brainstorming is critical althoughunobtrusive. The leader must selectthe members of the group, making

secretary of the group. The possibilityof obtaining 40 or so good remedies,for a chronic organizational problemfor example, might well be worth theinvestment. Paper and reproductionfacilities to circulate the list forrank ordering of solutions after thesession is an important thoughnominal cost that must be considered.

sure members are of equal or nearlyequal status in the organization,because having a person withauthority over other members in a

Brainstorming group has been foundto restrict its productivity. The leadermust issue written invitations to themeeting in which the problem ortopic to be considered is statedcompletely and concisely. In thismanner, participants can begin tothink about the problem before theyconvene. The leader must also arrangefor time, space and supplies for themeeting.

Write down two things the group leader must do before the group convenes.

1

2

Now, in checking your answers in the text above, fill in the third activity of theleader. You omitted it from your list because yo were asked to list only twoactivities.

3

The people who make up theBrainstorming group may be from anypart of the organization that has theproblem, provided they have somebasic understanding of the topic beingconsidered. Group membershipshould be from the same general levelin the organization, middlemanagement, for example. If the

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group has functioned as a group priorto Brainstorming and/or if the leaderis skilled, equal status of groupmembers becomes much lessimportant. The group is given a timelimit for their session (25 minutesmaximum) and a secretary or taperecorder to collect, verbatim, all theideas which are generated.

20

Why does a Brainstorming group need a secretary?

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For groups undertakingBrainstorming for the first time, awarm-up exercise, practicing theprocedures on a very simple problem,is highly recommended. For example,you might have participants suggest asmany ways as possible to get a studentin a wheelchair into the woodworkingshop; encourage novel solutions suchas a crane to lift the wheelchair towindow height and replacement ofthe window with a chute. Suggestionsshould not be bound by historical ortraditional constraints. A practiceBrainstorming session should belimited to five minutes.

Brainstorming groups are almostunique in the strict observation of thefollowing rules. You, as leader of thegroup, are responsible for makingsure the rules are observed by themembership. Violation of the rules,especially the first one, is indicated bythe leader ringing a bell.

1 No criticism of anyone's ideas,actual or implied, is permitted.

2 "Free-wheeling" (spinningwilder and wilder ideas) iswelcomed and encouraged bythe leader.

3 The group should seek togenerate as many ideas aspossible in the time allowed.The leader frequently urgesmembers to "come up withjust 10 more ideas."

4 Combinations of other ideas (ifno denigration is intended) andimprovement or refinementsof other ideas are sought andencouraged.

If, as is probable with the issuesaddressed by the Planning System, theproblem to be considered by thegroup is very broad, it must bedefined or refined before beginningthe session. You might consider as apreliminary step, having allparticipants write down what the topicmeans; you might then discuss withthe group several aspects of theproblemsuch as who, what, when,where, why, and how. Several more

specific problems should emerge. Thegroup can be divided in order toconsider each of the specific problemsor it may focus on one topic at a timeas an entire group.

The first "sitting" of the groupshould not exceed 25 minutes;therefore, it might be advisable tobreak up the group before beginningthe Brainstorming session if furtherdefinition, as described above, isundertaken. When two sessions areneeded, one for clarifying issues andone for Brainstorming, groupmembers should be urged to switchchairs between sessions, a practicewhich facilitates idea production byindicating a change in activity andthought patterns.

To begin the session, the leaderrestates the problem to bebrainstormed, indicates the time limitto be imposed (20-25 minutes isrecommended), and asks forsuggestions about how the problemmay be resolved. The leader's roleafter beginning the session is to keepthe ideas coming and to ring a bellwhen criticism is offered. Groupmembers spontaneously andvoluntarily offer their ideas. If theywish to build upon another's idea,they should be provided "clickers" forsignaling their desire to break into thediscussion. The desire to build onanother's idea can be indicated byhand signals as well.

If silence occurs, you as leadermay choose to wait until someonesuggests another idea, to throw out anidea of your own, or to have thesecretary read out every third item onthe list. You may also ask, "What if youadded something to the problem ortook something away from it? Howwould that affect possible solutions?"You also might ask who-what-when-

where-why-how else is involved inthis problem or solution? If thesemethods fail, you 3hould consider thesession terminated, even if the timehas not expired. A group whichproduced 15 ideas or less should beconsidered unsuccessful; you shouldinitiate another practice session andtry the Brainstorming procedureagain.

Which of the following does the leader of a Brainstorming group do during asession?

a. volunteers ideasb. writes down the solutions mentionedc. tries to keep suggestions comingd. restates the probleme. facilitates the accurate communication of ideas

Once the Brainstorming session iscompleted, you as group leader haveseveral responsibilities. You shouldthank each participant for theircontribution, either in person or inwriting. Because Brainstorming onlystarts the creative process inindividuals, it is often fruitful tocontact group members within 24hours after the session to elicitadditional ideas. You also areresponsible for compiling a list of

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non-redundant ideas and circulating itto participants to have themcategorize the ideas as being usable,questionable or unusable. A finalsummary and list of suggestions isthen composed and can be circulatedto participants to have them rankusuable solutions. Omission of theseconcluding steps has contributed tothe discrepancy in productivitybetween this procedure and otherswith the same purposes.

How do the products of Brainstorming groups with and without these follow-up procedures differ?

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ADDITIONAL,RESOURCES

Further details of theBrainstorming procedure may befound in several references. Clark hasfurnished an extensive descriptionsupported by personal testimony inBrainstorming, The Dynamic Way toCreate Successful Ideas (1969). Napier(1973) and Souder and Ziegler (1977)offer fairly adequate descriptions,though many significant details areomitted. Important studies comparing

Brainstorming with other grouptechniques were reported byDunnette, Campbell and Justad (1963),Taylor, Berry and Block (1958), Nelson,Petelle and Monroe (1974), andMadsen and Finger (1978).

2421

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Synectics

W. J. J. Gordon, developing a newtechnique of group- problem-solvingaround 1950, named it synectics, aGreek derivation meaning to drawtogether diverse elements. He had inmind two aspects of his techniquewhen he gave it this nameparticipation of persons with diversebackgrounds and the drawingtogether of different but analogousideas from the group's "freeassociation" process of problem-solving. Gordon believed that theprocess of invention was not the"divine inspiration" of a genius but a

process of speculation that c-uld bemade observable by means of taperecording of the mental "mutterings"of an individual or group. Gordon,Prince and other of their associatesdeveloped some specific proceduresto stimulate and support a group in itsefforts to solve a problem via "groupfree association" or muttering, usinganalogy and metaphor. Thoughintroduced as a tool for the businesscommunity, Prince and others havesuccessfully used it in other settingssuch as government to solve "people"rather than "product" problems.

Gordon developed the Synecticstechnique after experiencing psycho-analysis and realizing the tremendouscreative potential residing in everyperson's unconscious which might beunlocked by the verbal means ofanalogy and simile which depend fortheir richness on unconscious

associations of meaning. Finding amethod to tap this potential becamehis goal. His early efforts at groupfree-association were recorded andthe tapes carefully analyzed forcharacteristic response patterns andavenues by which novel solutionswere reached. This led to theformulation of certain principles ofoperation and methods of directinggroup meetings.

When considering this approach,you as group leader and administratormay expect some completely novelsolutions to o!d problems or acompletely new invention orsuggestion which may, at first, appearimprobable. Yo,, should expect touse, temporarily, experts outside theorganization to advise the Synecticsgroup working on a behavioralproblem. Unfortunately, thetechnique is expensive. When used inother settings, several products ofSynectics have been (1) vapor-proofclosures for astronauts' suits, (2)organic paint, and (3) a flexiblebudgeting strategy for the Departmentof Defense.

The word synectics is a Greek derivation which means:

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A Synectics group in operation might be best described by an observer as:a. "verbal basketball" with two teams competing to score the most pointsb. a shouting match in which each person tries to utter the most creative

ideas to solve a problemc. group free associationd. selection of the best method of problem-solving from among several

alternatives by means of group voting and discussion3

:Jamsuv

24

STRENGTHSAND LIMITATIONSOF THE ifNECTICS METHOD

Synectics represents animprovement over the formal ortraditional methods of decision-making and idea development interms of the quality and usefulness ofthe output. It may be that diversegroup membership leads to moregeneral, more original solutions. Atleast theoretically, the Synectics leaderdoes more directly to free theindividual's unconscious than in anyother method, which should lead tomore creative solutions.

Synectics has other advantages. Inthis process the knowledge of expertswithin and outside the organization iseffectively and efficiently used.Synectics includes small-group testingof working models of the chosensolution. It is also flexibleit hasdemonstrated potential to solvepeople problems as well as thosewhich represent a combination oftechnical and people problems, suchas providing accessible programmingin vocational education forhandicapped students. Though not aswell-known as some of the othersuggested techniques, it has becomemore available through Prince's recentreformulation of Gordon's theory andhis specification of procedures.

One problem with Synectics is thequalifications of group members.Members need to be able to makegeneralizations, to recognizesimilarities and differences, to transferknowledge or principles from one

situation to another. In addition, theyhave to feel self-confident and bewell-adjusted enough to functioncomfortably in the Synectics group.Given these requirements, someindividuals will not function well asSynectics members, which limits thegeneralizability of the method.

The leader is also a crucial figurein the Synectics group. Probably moreis required of this person than of theleader of Brainstorming or theNominal Group Technique becausethe leader must simultaneously (1)keep the group focused and moving,(2) keep the atmosphereunthreatening for all participants, and(3) be able to recognize ideas ofquality and develop them. Obviously,the leader must have some experienceand training which can add to theexpense of implementation.

Compared to other techniques available for identifying ways of overcomingbarriers, Synectics is

a.

b.c.d.e.

more creative and more expensivemore creative and less expensivea little less creative and a lot less expensiveless creative and much more expensivemore creative and equally expensive

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In order to function effectively in a Synectics group an ir'i% idual must be able toa. get along well with fellow participantsb. understand what the leader of the group is trying to get them to doc. use analogy, simile and metaphord. think faste. build models and such using the appropriate tools and machinery

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WHENSHOULD SYNECTICSBE USED?

Though first applied to industrialproduct development. Synectics hasbeen used successfully in governmentand in middle management personnelareas. Even critics acknowledge thesuccess of Synectics groups forimproving old products and inventingnew ones. Though best known for theimpressive inventions to which it hasgiven rise, Synectics is potentially

RESOURCESAND MATERIALSREQUIRED

Gordon contracts with businessesfor a four-week initial session andthen weekly sessions each month for a

year for training a Synectics group,which would be very costly. Princedoes not mention specifics abouttraining but offers sufficient guidancefor persons experienced with othergroup methods to undertake Synecticson their own. Training courses forleaders are offered at Synectics, Inc.and SUNY-Buffalo in the Training forCreativity program.

How much a Synectics groupwould cost to operate would dependon local resources. The time of five toseven staff persons participating in thesessions is one expense. Consultants,to estimate the cost of possiblesolutions or strategies, also might haveto be paid. If none of the existingadministrative staff have sufficientexperience leading groups to assumethat role, then training a staff memberor hiring a leader just for this taskwould add to the expense. The skillsSynectics participants develop couldbe expected to generalize to otherproblems they encounter on the job,however, so part of the costs wouldbe recovered. If the requirements forphysical facilities could not be metlocally, these would have to be rentedat additional expense.

The cost of a Synectics group for

adaptable and useful in any situationrequiring "making the familiarstrange" (or vice versa) with thefollowing precaution: success of thegroup depends on the skill andtraining of the leader in eliciting andusing the metaphorical and analogousmaterials generated by groupmembers.

identifying alternatives for removingban iers would depend on a numberof factors which vary from educationalunit to educational unit. First of all,how complicated is the task ofproviding vocational education for thehandicapped for the district? Howmany students are involved and howspread out are they geographically?To what extent have the existingprograms already been changed inorder to accommodate special needsstudents? in general, the morecomplex the presenting problems,the more appropriate the Synecticsmethod would be for addressingthose problems.

A second factor to weigh whenconsidering the Synectics technique isthe personnel available in the localsystem who might participate in thegroup process. Is there someone whocould assume or be trained to assumethe leadership role in Synectics? Arethere potential participants who canrecognize similarities and differencesbetween situations and can transferlearningapply principles of a

solution to a natural science problemto the problem of overcomingbarriers, for example? If adequatepersonnel are present, then Synecticsgroup techniques would provide thebest information of all the methodsavailable.

Mark the two most important characteristics of the local school system to evaluatewhen considering the Synectics technique.

a.b.c.d.e.

the amount of money availableverbal and abstract abilities of participantshow long the technique takes to generate resultscannot say; it depends on the local school systemhow complicated the local problem is .a pue q

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25

26

The five- to seven-memberSynectics group would need a roomequipped with table and chairs inwhich to meet for one to three daysconsecutively or weekly after an initialsession. Coffee, tea, or soda should beavailable. Meals are sometimes

provided in order to preserve theconcentration of the group. A taperecorder or secretary to create atranscript of the group process is alsoneeded for participants' reference andto stimulate further thinking as thegroup progresses.

Are the above facilities available in your school?Yes No

How much would Synectics cost in terms of personnel?Member Name Per Day x # Days =

Salary1

2

3

4

5

Leader

HOWTO CONDUCTA SYNECTICS SESSION

The method originally developedby Gordon was tc deal with highlyspecific and well-defined problems ofinvention in industry. The descriptionwhich follows is based on Prince'sderivation of Gordon's model, whichis more applicable to groups solvinghuman problems. A Synectics groupoperates like no other and needscareful explanation, so themechanisms of the process aredescribed and examples aresuggested. The role of the leader iscrucial and is discussed next. Somecomments on the functions of groupparticipants complete this section.

Perhaps it would be best to tryfirst to describe the process of group

Total Personnel Cost: $

"free association" characteristic ofSynectics groups. Gordon described itas a process of "making the familiarstrange" and "making the familiarfamiliar." When faced withstrangeness, a person tends to force itinto a familiar, acceptable pattern.Usually analysis, generalization, andanalogy are involved. Unfortuantely,people often get bogged down inanalysis. Making the familiar strange isto distort, invest, or transpose theordinary ways of looking at things.Both these principles are incorporatedin the procedures outlined by Prince.

Which of the following responses to the problem of transporting handicappedstudents would involve the process Gordon had in mind?

a.

b.c.d.e.

moving the program rather than the studentsreorganizing bus routesplotting on a map the locations of all handicapped studentsa water vacuum cleaneridentifying public buildings of recent construction

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All members of the group are askedto use the "spectrum policy," thehabit of looking at the positive aspectsin the "spectrum" of characteristics ofa particular idea. Because of naturalcompetiveness and a tendency tocriticize: the negative facets of theproblem arrest attention immediately,

and criticism springs to the lips ofparticipants. Often new ideas are ill-formed. By first citing the positivecharacteristics of the idea, asking forclarifications and only then pointingout the flaws in the idea, a participantpractices the spectrum policy.

To give you some practice at using the spectrum policy, consider this idea forgetting orthopedically handicapped students into second-story shop class: "Wewould construct an exterior elevator and knock a hole in the shop wall." Positivecharacteristics of this idea:

Prince has organized Gordon'smethods of analogy into a sequenceof activities which he advocates to aidin problem-solving. He comments thatthese steps do not need to befollowed rigidly and that they arecharacteristic of all successfulproblem-solving, individual or group.Think of what you might say as agroup member considering theproblems of "students who cannotread simple directions" as you readthrough the steps.

Activity 1: Formulation of theProblem aE Given (PAG). The leadermust present the problem as given.Analysis, an explanation of PAG by anoutside expert or a well-informed

group member, the first step inproblem-solving, should provideenough detail so the group has a

common understanding of theproblem. Purging involves the airingof immediate solutions which popinto mind which should be voicedquickly less they inhibit theparticipants' ability to think of anythingelse.

Please consider the followingproblem. How can a regularvocational education training programin printing be made accessible tohandicapped students, particuarlythose with learning disabilities whocannot read? The particular problemshave to do with operating controlsand reading requirements.

Your immediate solution to the problem suggested:

Activity 2: Goals as Understood.Next, each member of the groupexpresses their Goals as Understood(GAU) which the leader writes up forall to see. This formal collection ofmany personal ways of understandingthe problem permits each member tomake the problem their own, spurseach member to see the problem in

several lights, and often helps tobreak a complex problem intomanageable parts (particularlycharacteristic of people problems).The leader, with consultation fromoutside experts if necessary, thenchooses one GAU on which to focusthe group's attention.

Your GAU for the suggested problem:

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Activity 3: Mental Excursion andLeader's Question. First, the leaderasks members to put the problems outof their minds and to concentrate ondoing what is asked. Next, the leaderbegins the metaphorical search forsolutions by requiring analogical ormetaphorical responses byencouraging the mind of eachmember to venture into areasseemingly irrelevant to the problem.By focusing away from the problemthe leader hopes to increase theprobability of viewing the problem inunhabitual ways, once the groupcomes back to it with these newresponses. This technique is termedthe Leader's Question (LQ). Some ofthe procedures a leader can use indeveloping the LQ include the

following types of analogy.The first type of analogy is an

Example (direct analogy), a directcomparison of parallel facts ortechnology. Direct analogy meanslooking for similar problems orcircumstances in other contexts andnoting solutions already devised;mechanical devices are oftenanalogous to people problems (Prince,1970). For example, asking for anexample of a closure one might get"door" and "mental block." "Mentalblock" is more likely to produce moresolutions because it is stranger, thereis more logical distance between thesubject and the example, and it ismore difficult to make the exampleseem relevant.

28

Now let's try out this method on the problem of making vocational educationaccessible to handicapped students. Write a direct analogy of your own in the spaceprovided after the example given.Direct analogy. Ex.: The problems generated by enrolling handicapped students 111vocational education are similar to mainstreaming them into regular academicclasses. In mainstreamed academic classes, it has proven useful to individualizeinstruction so that students work independently more often; this technique freesthe teacher to work with more students individually and spend more time whereneeded.... Another example:

A second type of analogy is termedBook Title; this symbolic analogy is atwo-word phrase that captures aparadox involved in a particular thingor set of feelings. Symbolic analogy isan esthetically satisfying thoughtechnologically inaccurate imagewhich incorporates a compresseddescription of the functions orelements of the problem. An examplewould be the Indian rope trick as a

symbol to solve the problems of acollapsible lifting device.

Most often Book Title is used togeneralize about the particularproblem and to suggest anotherexample. For example, book titlesgiven for "dependable intermittency"from the world of nature were "OldFaithful, changing seasons, tides andrain."

Now try your hand at symbolic analogy with the same problem.Ex.: What we really need is a suit, like an astronaut's suit, which is equipped with allthe auxiliary devices that a student might need in order to function in our classes.The teacher would have to turn on the appropriate aides to sight or hearing. Thesuit would also protect the students from the equipment. Your example:

A third type of analogy is PersonalAnalogy; this logic requiresparticipants to put themselves into theproblem situation as a central element(even as an inanimate object) and toimagine what it feels like to be there,assume the role of a handicappedstudent as a starting point, forexample. Personal analogy isdeveloped by the leader's asking suchquestions as, "You are a tuning fork.How do you feel?" The leader looks

for empathetic involvementresponsesattributions of humanfeelings to inanimate objects. Personalanalogy goes beyond role-playingbecause it relies on highly individualresponses and sometimes prompts aBook Title. It also increases grouptrustafter identifying with inanimateobjects in particular and sharing thatexperience, members tend to trusteach other with other material.

Ready to think of a personal analogy?Ex.: I am a machine LI the printing shop which a handicapped student wants to use. Iwish I could talk so I could tell the student how to operate me. Your idea:

The fourth type of analogy, ForceFit (FF), is the most difficult step inSynectics because the metaphoricalmaterial produced must then beforced to be useful. The leader maychoose one of several approaches tothe problem. The leader may try tostimulate a "happening" by quotingthe goal as understood and askinghow a particular piece ofmetaphorical material might be usedto solve the problem. Group membersthen suggest various solutions whichutilize the metaphorical ideas. If thegroup is unsuccessful in generating asolution the leader can go back to theanalysis in Activity 1 and make someloose connections of their own. A

third technique for FF involves (1)having the leader write down theelements of the problem and themetaphorical material for a moreconscious consideration of them,(2) making a dynamic connection("What is the moral of this story?"),(3) encouraging wild speculation ("Ifyou had all th.. money you needed,how would you solve this problem?"),and (4) finding some feasible way tomake the idea work. The fourthmethod of Force Fit is the "get-fired"technique: the leader urgesparticipants to come up with solutionsso outrageously violating commonsense that they would immediately befired for suggesting them.

Here are some solutions offered to the non-reader problem: picture instructions,remedial reading programs, tape cassettes with head phones. What is yoursolution?

How could some of these ideas be combined?

29

30

Activity 4: Viewpoint. The fourthactivity in Synectics, Viewpoint (VP), isa potenual solution and is developedif Force Fit is successful. VP's are notfinal solutions until they have beenmade to work subsequent to theSynectics group meeting. In dealingwith people problems. viewpointsusually contain old and new elementsand no single viewpoint suffices:several VP's set out together mayconstitute a new policy for dealingwith a particular pr6,,blem.

Here is a transcript of a Synecticsgroup working on the problem of)roduct technology taken from a casetudy. The specific problem was how

t create a roof covering that wouldchange colors from winter to summer.

A: What in nature changes color?B: A weasel white in winter,

brown in summer: camouflage.C: Yes, but a weasel has to lose his

white hair in summer so that the brownhair can grow in...Can't be ripping offroots twice a year.

E: Not only that. It's novoluntary and the weasel only changescolor twice a year...1 think our roofshould change color with the heat ofthe sun. ..There are hot days in thespring and fall.. .and cold ones too.

B: GI;ay. How about a chameleon?D: That is a better example

because he can change back and forthwithout losing any skin or hair. Hedoesn't lose anything.

E: How does the chameleon doit?

A: . ..a flounder must do it thesame way.

E: Do what?A: Hell! A flounder turns white if

he lies on white sand and then heturns dark if he lands on black sand...mud.

D: By God, you're right! I've seenit happen! But how does he do it?

B: Chromatophores. I'm not surewhether it's voluntary or nonvoluntary. . .Wait a minute; it's a little of each.

D: How does he do it? I stilldon't plug in.

B: Do you want an essay?E: Sure, fire away, professor.B: Well, I'll give you an essay, 1

think. In a flounder the color changesfrom dark to light and light to dark.. .

I shouldn't say "color" becausealthough J bit of brown and yellowcomes out, the flounder doesn't haveany blue or red in his register. ..Anyway, this changing is partlyvoluntary and partly nonvoluntarywhere a refle:.: action automatically

adapts to the surrounding conditions.This is how the switching works: inthe deepest layer of the cutis areblack-pigmented chromatophores.When these are pushed toward theepidermal surface the flounder iscovered with hla( k spots so that helooks black...like an impressionisticpainting where a whole bunch of littledabs of paint give the appearance oftotal covering. Only when you get upclose to a Seurat can you see the littleatomistic dabs. When the blackpigment withdraws to the bottom ofthe chromatophores then theflounder appears light colored. . .Doyou all want to hear about theMalpighian cell layer and theguanine? Nothing would give megreater pleasure than to.

1ou know, I'Le got a hell ofan idea. Let's flip the flounder analogyover on to the root problem. . let'ssay we make up a roofing materialthat's black, except buried in theblack stuff are little white plastic balls.When the sun comes out and the roofgets hot the little white balls expandaccording to Boyle's law. They popthrough the black roofing vehicle.Now the roof is white,impressionistically white, that is, a' laSeurat. Just like the flounder, onlywith reverse English. It is the blackpigmented part of thechromatophores that come to thesurface of the flounder's skin? Okay.In our roof it will he the whitepigmented plastic balls that come tothe surface when the roof gets hot.There are many ways to think aboutthis. . .(Prince,1970.1

General Suggestions for theLeader. The leader of a Synecticsgroup was first described by Gordonas a highly energetic, optimistic, risk-taking individual with a background indiverse fields who operated on equalterms with a group of similarprofessionals as an unobtrusiveorganizer of the group's activities. InPrince's view, the group leader musttake a more forceful role and follow aprescribed sequence of activities inimplementing the technique. A goodSynectics leader observes thefollowing rules, according to Prince.

1. Never go into competition withgroup members. Leaders should notcontribute their own ideas until allmembers of the group have expressedtheirs. Leaders should restate eachidea expressed and build on orstrengthen it if they can. Moderators

can present their ideas during thesteps called Purge (early possiblesolutions) and Force Fit (pressing forideas later in the meeting). Generally,leaders always give the ideas of othergroup members precedence overtheir own.

2. Be a 200 percent listener to yourgroup members. During the session,through interactions with eachmember, leaders prove that theyunderstand and approve each idea byrestating and supporting it. Thisposture gives satisfaction to eachmember, creates an atmosphere inwhich it is safe to express ideas, andserves as a model for group membersin their dealing with each other.

3. Do not permit anyone to beput on the defensiv Leaders do thisby seeking out the value in anycomment made. Tkey never requirejustification of metaphoricalcontributions. They accept both pointsof view in the event of a disagreement,ask for positive rather than negativereactions, keep ideas alive by stressinggenerality, and never pin down anindividual (instead leaders pose thequestion to the whole group).

4. Keep the "energy level" high.Leaders of a Synectics group stay alertand interested; they select asexamples and analogies those that areof personal interest. They move themeeting along at a fast pace and arehumorous or (at times) over-demanding in order to accomplishthis goal.

5. Use every member of the group.To get every member to contribute itis often necessary for the leaders tolook to the quiet persons and supportwarmly their comments while lookingaway from and only briefly restatingthe contributions of members whodominate the group.

ADDITIONALRESOURCES

The most complete description ofthe operational mechanisms ofSynectics is found in the originalwriting of Gordon (1956, 1961). Hisaccount of how the method evolvedand grew is quite interesting. Moreconcise information and exactrecommendations are provided byPrince in his book, The Practice of

6. Do not manipulate the group.Leaders must be careful not to have apreconceived goal for the group inmind which they foster with leadingquestions or chosen comments.Keeping track of the discussion onlarge sheets of newsprint oftenprevents this from happening.

7. Keep in mind that leadership willbe rotated. Rotating leadershipengenders more cooperation becausemembers think ahead to when theywill be leader. Their interest is bettermaintained for the same reason.

As can be gathered from thedescription of the leader's role, manyneeded characteristics are fostered byother leadership training programssuch as NTL. Synectics leaders shouldbe sensitive to the feelings of othersand be able to recognize subtlecommunication, to judge which ideasto pursue and which to discard, toprotect all members egos. Personswho have already developed thesequalities may more easily leadSynectics groups.

One final comment about groupparticipants is in order. From theabove discussion it should be clearthat group participants need to havesome knowledge of the problem theyare trying to solve in order tocontribute to the process. They alsoneed to be "flexible" in theirthinkingnot rigidly bound to theconcrete, able to reverse the order ofevents if necessary. This ability to"make the familiar strange" is presentto some degree in everyone, and maybe elicited in appropriatecircumstances. Such creativity is notassociated with academic or jobstanding, it should be rememberedwhen choosing group members.

Creativity (1970). For comparisonof Synectics with other problem-solving techniques see Haefele (1962)and Souder and Ziegler (1977).

34 31

:3S

CharretteAnother method of group

planning or decision-making whichhas been derived from othertechniques is the "Charrette," aFrench word meaning an "intensivegroup planning effort in an openforum format to achieve creativesolutions" (Holt, 1974). The techniqueis used most often by architects toelicit community reactions or inputwhen designing public buildings.When a need exists for those directlyand indirectly involved in a programto contribute to the planning processby defining what they want theirexperience in that program to be like,the Charrette provides a suitablemode of addressing that need. TheCharrette can be used by planners ofvocational education for handicappedstudents where problems of physicalspace or allocations exist. It can beadapted for several other barriers aswell.

The Charrette is similar to theCommunity Forum Technique, one ofthe procedures suggested to identifybarriers; distinctions must be drawnbetween the two techniques. TheCharrette requires that all factionswithin the community be representedat the meeting, and a structured set ofprescribed steps are followed. TheCharrette also relies more heavily onoutside experts for information and

group management than othertechniques. Though most often usedby architects, Charrettes have beenused by social planners and educatorsto develop new educational facilitiesin Brooklyn, Baltimore, and Boston(Holt, 1974), multi-purpose structureswhich met a wide range ofcommunity needs, such as year-roundrecreation.

In these materials the Charrette isan activity that brings communitymembers and experts together for alimited time period to suggestsolutions to a specific problem. Theconditions optimal for a Charretteinclude (1) a problem which has notbeen solved but has been specified,(2) members of the community whowill participate, (3) experts at groupmanagement techniques and at thetechnical problems which may beinvolved, and (4) a commitment to usethe plans and recommendations theCharrette produces. A schoolplanning Charrette involves theconsumers, teachers, parents, andchildren who will be affected by theprograms which result. Often themost valuable outcome of the processis the sense of commitment andcohesiveness that develops in thestruggle of planning together (Sanoffand Barbour, 1974).

In what planning context was the Charrette originally developed?a.b.c.d.e.f.

g-

vocational educationgovernmentspecial educationbusinessarchitecturemedicineenvironmental science a

:Jamsuv

How does the Charrette differ from other techniques?a.b.c.d.e.

much more expensive to runcan be led by almost anyonerelies more heavily on outside expertsparticipants must be well-informed about the problemsrequires more input from consumers

The time allocated for a Charrette is:a.b.c.d.e.

unlimitedallocated in blocksspent in small group meetingslimitedspread over weeks and months

36

a. pue:Jamsuv

:Jamsuy 33

34

STRENGTHSAND LIMITATIONSOF CHARRETTE

Most advantages of the Charretteare obvious. Consumers whoparticipate develop positive feelings ofinvolvement in the activity, can offera variety of ideas, and are disposed tosupport the program long after theCharrette is concluded. The processalso permits input from more than justthe Local Planning Committee. Thescope of the problem which aCharrette can consider is quite broadand may be very complex. More canbe accomplished in a Charrette thanin some other types of group planningsince the problem is broken downand each small group considers someunique problem. The flexible timeand cost range are other attractiveaspects of the Charrette.

There are several limitations tothe use of the Charrette. Its successhinges on the sensitivity and skill ofthe Charrette manager. Usually atrained manager must be hired andthere is no guarantee that a particularhuman relations expert will be able tomeet the needs of a particular group,despite past successes. A secondpotential limitation can occur if theLocal Planning Committee fails to

develop sufficiently clear goals or failsto relate the solutions suggested inthe initial Charrette meeting to thosegoals; the small group will waste timeidentifying its issue and producerelatively little useful information. Athird caution about Charrettes is thatrelatively little research has been doneon the effectiveness of the technique.Architects who have employed themethod advocate its use in buildingdesign, but virtually no systematicresearch has been reported on theCharrette when used to addresshuman social problems.

Name two advantages of Charrettes.1

2.

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swanaid-qns Auew :walgoid jo Al!xalciwo,pal!w!iun :palciepe ueld o> luawl!wwo,pue sluedppied JOJ aDuapadxo anmsod

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List two problems one might encounter in holding a Charrette:

1

2

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!S1UPCi! nerd 01 SII'08 011' Hunititen» oI ainrjsivoli In° bas o) ampel .nitc,Japral lo)d

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WHENSHOULDCHARRETTE BE USED?

Under what conditions has theCharrette technique been foundeffective? In general, Charrettes havebeen reported to be successful inplanning programs, services andbuildings which serve a wide publicaudience whose opinions, reactionsand suggestions are important inshaping the project to fit local needs.Charrettes have been used to planschool buildings but not schoolprograms. To employ this method inplanning vocational programs for

RESOURCESAND MATERIALSREQUIRED

Charrettes actually requirerelatively little expenditure ofresources or materials. A room largeenough to assemble all participants(who can number in the hundreds) isnecessary for two to five sessions.Smaller work areas for committeemeetings are desirable in order tocontrol noise; if the large room canbe divided comfortably, all the better.Each individual needs paper andpencil for note-taking, and largecharts that everyone can see are alsohandy. The availability of tables andchairs is assumed. Since Charrettessometimes are run for several daysconsecutively, some arrangements formeals for participants or at leastcoffee, tea, or juice and snacks fromvending machines must also beconsidered.

How much would a Charrettecost? Riddick (1971) estimates the priceto run from a few hundred to a fewthousand dollars, depending on (1)how long it would run, (2) whetherfull-time people had to be employedto organize it, and (3) how muchcould be donated by local groups interms of man hours, facilities, orsupplies. The major expense,representing over half the budget, isthe cost of outside professional

handicapped students would be anapplication unique but not farremoved from previous successfulCharrettes. It would be particularlyuseful when broad communityrepresentation is desired or when theproblems are well defined and abroad range of possible solutions arerequired.

consultants. However, free consultantscan sometimes be obtained fromFederal or state governments or fromuniversities. The possibility of Federaland state financial aid for the wholeCharrette is worth investigating.

Additional costs of operating aCharrette can vary widely, dependingon the size of the planning effort andthe number of program consumerswhose interests need to berepresented at the Charrette.Charrette participants use lots ofpaper and many pencils as they work.The use of a mimeograph and asecretary to compile up-to-the-minutereports of all activities of everycommittee is helpful, especially withreally large Charrettes involvinghundreds of people. Obviously,physical space can also be an expense,though space, paper and duplicatingfacilities are easier for school systemsto provide than for other kinds oforganizations.

What is the largest single expense of operating a Charrette?

sluelinsuo) ieuo!ssajoJcl app:13MSU V 35

36

Remember that the chief goal of Charrettes is to gather ideas, suggestions, andother input from consumer groups, those people who will be using the facilityor program. List some consumer groups in your school system that would beaffected or served by making vocational programs accessible to thehandicapped.

Groups Number to Invite

TotalNow you only need to invite to the Charrette a few representatives of eachgroup. Fill in the number which you think you would want to include fromeach group. Do you have physical facilities available in your school system toaccommodate this many people?

HOWTO CONDUCTA CHARRETTE

Several activities must occurbefore the Charrette itself isconducted. The Local PlanningCommittee must meet several times toinsure that the data developedthrough other steps in the PlanningSystem are immediately useful in theCharrette; the lead N- also mustarrange facilities. Advance publicityabout the event through the localmedia and even a house-to-houseannouncement of the upcoming event

is another function of the LocalPlanning Committee. You also mustsecure the services of outside expertsto assist with the Charrette or becomefamiliar with the technique in order toconduct the procedure; likewise,transportation and child care must bearranged in advance. What food, ifany, is to be served during theCharrette is still another problem tobe handled in advance.

When Charrettes have been used to plan public transportation or buildings, thesteering committee which plans for the Charrette is usually composed ofinterested citizens. Who would you choose for such a committee to plan aCharrette for accessing vocational programs for the handicapped?

a.

b.c.d.e.f.

handicapped studentsparents of handicapped studentsteachersadministratorsprofessional plannersLocal Planning Committee

q weal w io:iamsuy

How long should a Charrette be?One day would be sufficient if theproblem is well-defined and limited inscope, a marketing problem inindustry, for example (Riddick, 1971).Four or five days is recommendedwhen the problem is complex and thegroup involved is homogeneous interms of goals and background,teachers or social workers perhaps. Fora real community Charrette to whichpeople from all over a town were

invited eight to ten days would not betoo long. The problem under presentconsideration, vocational educationfor the handicapped, would fallsomewh',e between the second andthird types, since it would beimportant to include students,teachers, parents and communityagency representatives (vocationalrehabilitation, small businessmenperhaps) in the planning.

39

Of the following, which temporal arrangement would be best for a Charretteon the problem under consid, ration?

a. a long weekendb. a week of evening meetingsc. two long weekendsd. one evening a week for a monthe. eight consecutive days

The Charrette includes a varietyof activities, usually arranged in thefollowing manner.

Activity 1: Introduction. TheCharrette begins with some sensitizingactivity for all participants, a role-playor film or personal testimony whichall participants view together. Thepurpose of the activity is to present,even accentuate, conflicting interestsand views about the issue or problem,to get participants involved, toprecipitate reactions. A well chosenand carried out "s. nsitizing" will dothis.

P ANegold uw,Hold IP MI 1.10 SpUad0(l:JOMSLIV

Activity 2: Discussion Session.Whatever form the sensitizing activitytakes, it is followed by a period of"open discussion" at which timeconflicting views often are aired. Theoutside human relations expert isimportant in managing this exchangein order that discussion not reach animpasse and that all participants finishwith a positive attitude toward theobjectives of the Charrette. Thediscussion may last for several hoursor even days and is terminated whenthe manager feels that all points ofview have been expressed. Thisactivity, like the Introduction, isundertaken by all participantsassembled in one large group.

The sensitizing activity is designed to make participantsa.b.c.d.e.

conscious of other points of viewmadsadrz,thteously indignantmore sensitive

...19.:Iamsuv

Why is a consultant necessary to the second stage in the procedure, thediscussion period?

Activity 3: Identification of Goals.The next stage of the Charretteusually involves specific identificationof problems or goals which the groupwill address. Again in a large groupassembly, various specific problems,goals and objectives are listed onchalkboards or large posters.

-ariewojuio3sluedppied daal pue spoipeap luanald

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Members elaborate, combine, specify,or further divide the problems, goalsand objectives until most are satisfiedwith the list. The problems orobjectives may or may not be rankordered before being given to smallergroups of participants to "brainstorm"ways of dealing with the issue.

4f)37

38

Activity 4: Small Group Work. Themajor work of the Charrette isaccomplished in these small groupmeetings. Each group has a secretaryto keep track of the ideas expressed.The smaller groups make periodicwritten reports to the largerassembled group, usually at thebeginning of each day if the Charrette

is run over several days. Each day isbegun with a brief large groupmeeting to make announcements andreport on progress. Each smallergroup has an outside "adviser" to actas facilitator of the group or atechnical adviser if the problem is atechnical one.

...1

What method do the small groups use in addressing their problem?a.b.c.d.e.f.

NGTSynecticsDecision treesQuestionnairesBrainstormingDelphi method

a:Jamsuy

Activity 5: The Jury. The final stageof the Charrette is focused on a"jury" or panel composed of thosewho control the community resources(and possibly some outside experts)who react to the proposals of eachsmall group in terms of financial andpolitical feasibility. After further

discussion between the panel andparticipants, the proposals may bereworked by each small committee. Afollowup committee may then beappointed to implement therecommendations of the Charrette forseveral months or a year after thesession has ended.

Which group has final powccommittees?

a. the large groupb. the school boardc. the community resources paneld. the Charrette manager and technical advisorse. the consumers

valuating the proposals of the small

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ADDITIONALRESOURCES

Several books outlining thegeneral procedures of the Charretteare available through universitylibraries and usually have the name ofthe technique in the title. Several suchtitles include lists of organizationsthrough which consultants can becontacted. Research and evaluation ofthe method have been reported inarchitecture and education journals;

references may be located throughthe appropriate indices and abstracts.The article, "Charrette Processes: ATool in Urban Planning" by W.Riddick is a recommended source forstudying the technique.

el 1

ConcludingActivity

Now that you have completedreading the discussion of the twotechniques you considered to be mostapplicable to your situation, pleasereturn to your Planning Record and

References

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Bayless, Ovid L. An alternative pattern for problem solving discussion. J. ofCommunication, 1967, 18:188-197.

Bouchard, Thomas, and M. Hane. Size, performance and potential in brainstorminggroups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, 54(1):51-55.

Brauers, W. K. M. Systems Analysis, Planning and Decision Models. Amster: Am,The Netherlands: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1976.

Clark, C. H. Brainstorming, the Dynamic Way to Create Successful Ideas. GardenCity, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1969.

Collins, B.E., and H. Guetzkon. Social Psychology of Group Processes for Decision-Making. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964.

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Psychology, 1963, 47:30-37.

Egan, D. Creativity in management. Journal of Creative Behavior, 1969, 2(3):178 -183.

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Fincher, C. Grand strategy and the failure of consensus. L Jucational Record, 1975,56(1):10-20.

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Holt, J. Involving the users in school planning. School Review, 1974,82(4):706-730.

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