dissertation on the concept of homonymy in aristotle

7/25/2019 dissertation on the concept of homonymy in Aristotle

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UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

Homonymy in Aristotle

MA Thesis in Philosophy at IFIKK, HF

Supe!iso" Ey#$l%u K#ala E&ilsson

Spin' ()**

Hallvard Markus Stette


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Acknowledgements

I +ant to than &y supe!iso Ey#$l%u K#ala E&ilsson %o en-oua'&ent, !alua.le

-iti-is& an/ help%ul su''estions /uin' &y +o on this thesis0 I also o+e hi& a hu'e

thans %o openin' &y eyes to the +on/es o% an-ient philosophy thou'h se&inas on

%ee +ill in anti1uity an/ Aistotle2sDe Anima0

I +oul/ also lie to than In'i/ Aust!e' E!ans %o poo%ea/in', an/ &y %ien/s an/

%a&ily %o thei lo!e an/ suppot0

My /eepest 'atitu/e to Toa0


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Table of Contents

A-no+le/'e&ents 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 ii

Ta.le o% 3ontents000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 iii

* Into/u-tion00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000*

( Ho&ony&y" the .asi- -on-eption0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 4

(0* The /e%inition o% ho&ony&y in the 3ate'oies00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004

(0( E5-usus" the /o&ain o% ho&ony&y0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 6

(04 Nao+ o .oa/ -on-eption7 The e!i/en-e %o& the Topi-s an/ .eyon/ 00000000*)

(08 The spe-ial -ase o% non9a--i/ental /is-ete ho&ony&y000000000000000000000000000000000000*6

(0: The !aious in/s o% ho&ony&y" an o!e!ie+ 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 (;

(0< The use o% ho&ony&y in Aistotle2s philosophy0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000004*

4 3oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 4:

40* 3oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y" Shiel/s2 -ausal analysis00000000000000000000000000000000000000004=

40( >e%initional pioity0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 :*

8 3hallen'es to Shiel/s2 analysis 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 ::

80* 3ausal pioity (0)000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 :;

80( Pioity seies 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000


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1 Introduction

Anyone +ith a sli'ht a-1uaintan-e +ith Aistotelian philosophy is %a&ilia +ith su-h

lo-utions as @x isn2t Fe5-ept ho&ony&ously2, o F is sai/ in &any +aysB0 Chen

sayin' that t+o thin's ae ho&ony&ouslyF, Aistotle &eans that they ha!e thei na&e

in -o&&on .ut /i%%eent /e%initions o a--ounts o% .ein' -oespon/in' to the na&es0

The a%oe&entione/ i/io&s ae, as I sai/, easily %oun/ thou'hout the +hole -opus, .ut

Aistotle is &ost pespi-uously o--upie/ +ith /is-ussin' the pheno&ena o% ho&ony&y

o &ulti!o-ity D@thin's .ein' sai/ in &any +ays2 in his lo'i-al an/ /iale-ti-al +os, in

-onte5ts /e!ote/ to &etho/olo'i-al -onsi/eations0 As he is thee een to point out, it iso% 'eat i&potan-e not to o!eloo ho&ony&y in the -onstu-tion o% a'u&ents0 Fo .y

lettin' ho&ony&y slip into one2s pe&ises, one iss /a+in' un+aante/ -on-lusions0 *

Lie+ise, one &ust .e +ay not to suppose unity a&on'st /i!e'ent pheno&ena, an/ as

a -onse1uen-e %ail to se-ue a pope su.#e-t &atte %o one2s en1uiy, (anothe +ay o%

i'noin' ho&ony&y0 It is, ho+e!e, not only in his /estu-ti!e o -iti-al &o&ents that

Aistotle &aes use o% ho&ony&y0 I% @ho&ony&y2 si&ply &eans @thin's +ith the sa&e

na&e, .ut +ith /i%%eent a--ounts o% .ein'2, it see&s that &ulti!o-als, o @thin's sai/ in

&any +ays2, ae also e-one/ as ho&ony&s .y Aistotle0 Chen +e no+ e&e&.e that

@.ein'2, @-ause2, @'oo/2, @natue2 et-0 ae a&on' the &ost notoious e5a&ples 'i!en .y

Aistotle o% &ulti!o-als, +e see thatsupposin' that +e -an #usti%y the e1ui!alen-e o%

ho&ony&y an/ &ulti!o-itya notion o% ho&ony&y is -ental, an/ possi.ly o% 'eat

i&potan-e, in his -onstu-ti!e o positi!e philosophy as +ell04 His appeals to

&ulti!o-ity ae a--o/in'ly not esti-te/ to -iti-al -onte5ts, +hee he %o e5a&ple

* In &oe %a&ilia +o/s, one iss -o&&ittin' %alla-ies o% e1ui!o-ation0 To 'i!e a .anal e5a&ple o% asu-h" Di The en/ o% a thin' is its pe%e-tion, an/ Dii /eath is the en/ o% li%e, so Diii /eath is thepe%e-tion o% li%e0 @En/2 is o% -ouse e1ui!o-al Di0e0 ho&ony&ous in pe&iss Di an/ Dii0 See -hapte 8in Sophistici Elenchi%o &oe on %alla-ies in!ol!in' ho&ony&y0

( InPosterior Analytics I (; Aistotle says +ith e'a/ to a s-ien-e that it is one@i% it is o% one 'enus2D;6a4;0 A 'enus is so&ethin' -o&&on .et+een its spe-ies, an/ is thee%oe pe/i-ate/ synony&ouslyDthat is, non9ho&ony&ously o% the&0 DSee alsoPosterior Analytics I 6, 6:.6G;

4 In Metaphysics a&&a ( Aistotle a--o/in'ly 'oes .eyon/ the -on/ition %o the unity o% s-ien-estate/ in the -ite/ passa'e %o& Posterior Analyticsa.o!e" @Fo not only in the -ase o% thin's +hi-hha!e one -o&&on notion J 2 QWX /oes the in!esti'ation .elon' to one s-ien-e, .utalso in the -ase o% thin's +hi-h ae elate/ to one -o&&on natue J Z[\ ] QW ^_`Xb%o e!en these in a sense ha!e one -o&&on notion2 D*))4.*(G*:0 ?oth 2 9pe/i-ation

Dsynony&ous pe/i-ation an/ Z[\ 9pe/i-ation D!ic0 non9synony&ous pe/i-ation in +hi-h thepe/i-ation nonetheless is syste&ati-ally elate/ to one thin'dnatuedsou-e is hee sai/ to .e asu%%i-ient -on/ition %o a uni%ie/ s-ien-e0 D3%0 Metaphysics a&&a (, *))8a(4G(


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-on%onts the philosophicin' o% his pe/e-essos, &ost nota.ly Plato, .ut ae also !ey

&u-h pesent in his o+n syste&ati- philosophy0 To 'i!e .ut one e5a&ple" Aistotle

a--uses Plato in nu&eous pla-es o% %ailin' to noti-e the -o&ple5ity o% -etain -ental

philosophi-al -on-epts, an/ the !aiety o% /i!ese pheno&ena an/ -i-u&stan-es o%

+hi-h an/ in +hi-h they ae applie/0 This is, in Aistotle2s !ie+, +hat lea/s Plato to

posit a sin'le Fo& o% oo/ness, .ein' the sa&e %o all 'oo/ thin's, an/ in +hi-h they

pati-ipate, a--o/in' to Platonist otho/o5y, in o/e to .e +hat they ae, na&ely 'oo/

thin's0 The &istae hee, a--o/in' to Aistotle, is to assu&e that all 'oo/ thin's ae

'oo/ in the sa&e +ayb that the 'oo/ness is so&eho+ -o&&on a-oss all -ases0 In

-iti-isin' Plato %o i'noin' ho&ony&y, Aistotle insists that the in/ o% unity

a/!o-ate/ .y Platonis&, in this -ase o% the pheno&enon o% 'oo/ness, /oes not stan/ the

test o% thoou'h philosophi-al en1uiy0 Thus an appeal to ho&ony&y, +hi-h +e in thisinto/u-tion ha!e .een assu&e/ to .e the sa&e as &ulti!o-ity, is both -ental to

AistotleBs han/lin' o% +hat he e-ons as a ten/en-y in philosophy to in-autiously teat

su.tly -o&ple5 an/ inti-ately elate/ +ol/ly pheno&ena as uni%ie/ an/ uni%o&, and

-u-ial as a po+e%ul -on-eptual tool in his o+n -onstu-ti!e philosophi-al +o, +hen

he is ea'e to out/o his -ollea'ues in &ain' sense o% +ol/ly thin's an/ happenin's0

Aistotle is %i&ly -on!in-e/ that the o/ee/ +ol/ is -apa.le o% .ein' satis%a-toily

a--ounte/ %o, e!en thou'h the a--ount +ill tun out to .e &oe -o&ple5 than +hat his

pe/e-essos -oul/ %oesee, an/ he thins that his -on-ept o% ho&ony&y is +ell suite/

%o the tas o% e5plainin' su-h an o/e in &ultipli-ity Dto paot the title o% 3histophe

Shiel/s2 in%luential .oo on this topi-0 ?y sho+in' the +ays in +hi-h &any inteestin'

ho&ony&s ae asso-iate/, he e5e&pli%ies an altenati!e +ay o% e5plainin' the o/ee/

+ol/ +hi-h pays hee/ to the &oe o less o.!ious -o&ple5ities o!eseen an/

/ise'a/e/ .y his pe/e-essos0

In the %ist pat o% the thesis D-hapte ( I +ill pesent Aistotle2s .asi- -on-eption o%

ho&ony&y, sho+ that it has the .oa/ appli-ation assu&e/ %o it in this into/u-tion,

an/ espon/ to -onsi/eations in suppot o% a /i%%eent an/ &oe nao+ un/estan/in'

o% ho&ony&y0 In /oin' so I +ill -lai& intepetati!e suppot %o& a +i/e an'e o% te5ts

spannin' the +hole o% AistotleBs philosophi-al -aee, an/ +ill thus a//itionally a'ue

that Aistotle hol/s on to the sa&e -on-eption o% ho&ony&y &oe o less -onsistently

thou'hout his +hole li%e0 A%te ha!in' su&&aice/ the in/s o% ho&ony&y

a-no+le/'e/ .y Aistotle Din (0:, I -on-lu/e the %ist pat o% the thesis .y 'i!in' a


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su!ey o% the /i%%eent uses Aistotle &aes o% ho&ony&y in his philosophy Din (0


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2 Homonymy: the basic conception

2.1 The definition of homonymy in the Categories

As I ha!e alea/y &entione/, tal o% ho&ony&y is to .e &et +ith thou'hout the +hole

o% AistotleBs -opus0 That .ein' sai/, one %in/s the &ost e5tensi!e teat&ent o%

ho&ony&y in the pat o% AistotleBs +os /e!ote/ to lo'i-al an/ &etho/olo'i-al

1uestions, the so -alle/ Organon. Hee he e5pli-itly /eals +ith the pheno&enon o%

ho&ony&y in the .oos Topics an/ Sophistici Elenchiin -onne-tion +ith /is-ussions o%

syllo'is&s an/ s-ienti%i- /e%initions0 A typi-al situation in +hi-h ho&ony&y is

&entione/ in these +os is +hen he a/!ises us to .e -autious not to let ho&ony&y slip

into the pe&ises so as to po/u-e in!ali/ -on-lusions in a'u&entation0 E!en thou'h

tal o% ho&ony&y %e1uently -ops up in the&, a /e%inition o% the -on-ept is -uiously

no+hee to .e %oun/ in these +os0 The only pla-e +hee Aistotle a-tually /e%ines

ho&ony&y is in his ealy +o the Categories, +hee out o% the .lue an/ +ith no

pe-aution o any pe!iously 'i!en eason,


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the Categories late, .ut let us no+ ha!e a loo at Aistotle2s -lai&s e'a/in'

ho&ony&y in the Categories. Aistotle says" Chen thin's ha!e only a na&e in

-o&&on an/ the a--ount o% .ein' Qf\ Jg\ `]\X +hi-h -oespon/s to the na&e is

/i%%eent, they ae -alle/ ho&ony&ous Chen thin's ha!e the na&e in -o&&on an/

the a--ount o% .ein' +hi-h -oespon/s to the na&e is the sa&e, they ae -alle/

synony&ousB=D*a*G(,


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espite the inte-han'ea.le use o% &ulti!o-ity an/ ho&ony&y, an/ the enu&eation

o% ho&ony&s +ith o!elappin' /e%initions to'ethe +ith ho&ony&s +hi-h ae so9-alle/

/is-ete +ithout anythin' /e%initional in -o&&on, that all o% +hi-h point in the/ie-tion o% the .oa/ -on-eption, the e-ent e!o-ation o% the notoious pla-e in

Metaphysics a&&a (, -an ne!etheless i&&e/iately &ae us /ou.t this -on-lusion

+ith its @sai/ in &any +ays an/ not ho&ony&ously20 Chat ae +e to &ae o% this7

In )icomachean Ethics, +hen /is-ussin' the +ays in +hi-h the 'oo/ is sai/,

Aistotle ass" @IXn +hat +ay ae thin's -alle/ 'oo/7 They /o not see& to .e lie the

thin's that ae ho&ony&ous .y -han-e [ J_x\ W_\X2(=

D*)=


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*o you .elie!e in -lu.s %o youn' people7 Only +hen in/ness %ails2

DC0 30 Fiel/sb @>oes you un-le still pa-tise /entisty7 No, he %inishe/ pa-tisin'0 He /oes it %o ali!in' no+2 Unno+n oi'inb @Maia'e is a +on/e%ul institution, .ut +ho +ants to li!e in aninstitution72 Dou-ho Ma5, inAnimal Crac+ers


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%un-tion as an a5e .oth %o easons e5tenal to its stu-tue De0'0 i% it is &eti-ulously

hi//en a+ay o i% the pa-ti-e o% -hoppin' +oo/ .e-o&es e5tin-t an/ %o easons

intenal to its stu-tue De0'0 .e-ause o% &assi!e -oosion o% the &etal in the a5e9hea/

o /isinte'ation o% the han/le0 I% then the intenal -onstitution o% an a5e /e-ays to the

e5tent that the a5e -an no lon'e .e use/ as an a5e D.ut also, I pesu&e, i% a -etain %o&

o% hu&an pa-ti-e -ollapses, sin-e the %un-tion }ZX o% a tool see&s to /epen/ on

so&e spe-i%i- hu&an a-ti!ities, it is not an a5e any&oe, e5-ept ho&ony&ously DQQ2

W_W\0 Fo, the a--ount o% .ein' %o an a5e that is only ho&ony&ously an a5e +ill

not &ae appeal to +hat it is to .e an a5e, sin-e to .e an a5eproper is to .e an ate%a-t

that is suita.le %o -hoppin'0

One -oul/ pehaps .e in-line/ to .elie!e that an a5e an/ a %o&e a5e +oul/

so&eho+ .e elate/, an/ that the a--ount o% an a5e that is unsuita.le %o -hoppin'

+oul/ ha!e to &ae e%een-e to the a--ount o% +hat it is to .e an a5e0 ?ut this is not

Aistotle2s !ie+0 ?ase/ on the -on!i-tion that essen-es o% thin's ae %un-tionally

/ete&ine/, he hol/s that an o.#e-t that -annot %ul%il the %un-tion o% an a5e Di0e0 -annot

-hop /oes not eally 1uali%y as an a5e at all0 4(?ut, e!en so, Aistotle a/&its that it -an

.e -on!esationally le'iti&ate, o at least e5-usa.le, to -all a &oe o less /issol!e/ a5e

say a spe-i&en %o& the &i//le a'es on /isplay in a &useu&an a5e, e!en thou'h it

/oes not ha!e the essen-e o% a5e9ity an/ is thus not sti-tly speain' an a5e any&oe0That a +e-e/ a5e is an a5e only ho&ony&ously an/ not sti-tly is at any ate not as

o.!ious as the -ase o% a .loo/9pu&pin' o'an an/ the o'an o% Note >a&e .ein'

ho&ony&ously o'ans0 It is not .y a &ee a--i/ent o% lan'ua'e that the /i%%eent a5es

shae the sa&e na&e, althou'h, on the assu&ption that the a5e in the &useu& is no

lon'e %un-tional, the a--ount o% the &useu& pie-e is totally /istin-t %o& the a--ount

o% a %un-tionin' a5e0 @A5e2 is then a non9a--i/ental .ut /is-ete ho&ony&0 In the

si&ila e5a&ple i&&e/iately %ollo+in' the one in!ol!in' the a5e, Aistotle applies his

hylo&ophis& to a pat o% a li!in' .o/y, the eye"

Ne5t, apply this /o-tine in the -ase o% the pats o% the li!in' .o/y0 Suppose that

the eye +ee an ani&alsi'ht +oul/ ha!e .een its soul, %o si'ht is the su.stan-e

o% the eye +hi-h -oespon/s to the a--ount D`] ^Qr J J[ Qf,

the eye .ein' &eely the &atte o% seein'b +hen seein' is e&o!e/ the eye is no

4( The %i&ness o% the assetion +ith e'a/ to this -ase /oes o% -ouse inteestin'ly a//ess the 1uestion"

Chat in/ o% a elation isne-essay an/ su%%i-ient %o asso-iate/ ho&ony&y, sin-e this one -lealy isnot7 Ce +ill ha!e to let this 1uestion est %o no+, .ut +ill tae it up a'ain in pat (0(, +hee the'oun/s %o the asso-iation o% so&e ho&ony&s ae &oe thoou'hly e5ploe/0


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lon'e an eye, e5-ept in na&e DQq W_W\no &oe than the eye o% a statue

o o% a painte/ %i'ue0 D8*(.*;G((

Aistotle2s point hee is that an eye in-apa.le o% seein' /oes not ha!e the a--ount o%

.ein' o% an eye0 An eye .ee%t o% si'ht is not an eye, e5-ept ho&ony&ously DQq

W_W\0 ?ut, #ust lie the -ase +ith the .oen a5e in the %o&e e5a&ple, Aistotle

'ants that %o pa-ti-al easons one -an -ontinue to -all an eye +ithout si'ht an eye

e!en thou'h it sti-tly speain' isn2t an eye0 ?e-ause it la-s the essen-e o% an eye,

na&ely si'ht, an/ thus is in-apa.le o% /oin' +hat it is that an eye /oes, that is to see, the

si'htless eye is not eally an eye0 ?ut a'ain, si&ila to the situation +ith the

&al%un-tionin' a5e, that a .lin/ eye an/ a popely %un-tionin' eye ae eyes only

ho&ony&ously is not so&ethin' that is o.!ious to #ust a.out anyone, an/ Aistotle /oes

not peten/ that it is so eithe0 As he o%ten /oes +hen -on%ontin' a -ase o% non9o.!ious

ho&ony&y, Aistotle -o&paes the /i%%i-ult9to9/ete-t -ase +ith an o.!ious -ase, hopin'

to &o!e us to a-no+le/'e the %ist on the .asis o% the hi'hli'hte/ si&ilaities +ith the

se-on/0 Cith un+a!ein' -etainty he /e-laes that an eye +ithout si'ht is no &oe an

eye than a s-ulpte/ o painte/ eye, %o the a--ount o% .ein' %o an eye has no &oe

appli-ation to it than to these othe t+o044

The %un-tionin' eye an/ the .lin/ eye ha!enothin' /e%initional in -o&&on, .ut they ae not as -lealy ho&ony&ous as eys an/

o'ans, an/ it is not a &ee happenstan-e o% lan'ua'e that they shae the sa&e na&e0

The t+o /i%%eent eyes ae non9a--i/entally .ut /is-etely ho&ony&ous0

Ce ha!e seen Aistotle -lai& that .o/ies an/ .o/y pats .ee%t o% thei %un-tions ae

not .o/ies o .o/y pats any lon'e, e5-ept ho&ony&ously, that is" in na&e only0 One is

nonetheless D%o so&e yet unati-ulate/ eason pe&itte/at least in so&e -onte5ts

to -all the& .y these na&es0 The na&e /oes not really apply to the& thou'h, %o they

ae not instan-es o% the in/ /enote/ .y those e5pessions0 Aistotle o.!iously thins

that it is +oth+hile to stess that /eta-he/ %in'es an/ /ea/ .o/ies ae only

ho&ony&ously %in'es an/ .o/ies, .ut +hat philosophi-al &istaes -an %ollo+ %o&

o!elooin' the&7 An/ +hat is Aistotle2s a'u&ent in %a!ou o% the -lai& that a

/eta-he/ %in'e is a %in'e only in na&e7

44 Aistotle ali'ns /ea/ .o/ies an/ /eta-he/ .o/ily pats +ith painte/ an/ s-ulpte/ .o/ies an/ .o/y9pats in nu&eous othe pla-es as +ell0 See Meteorologica 4;=.(:G4=)a*4b Politics *(:4a*=G(:b

Parts o$ Animals


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Aistotle2s a'u&ent %o the e5isten-e o% ho&ony&s o% the a.o!e /es-i.e/ in/non9

a--i/ental /is-ete ho&ony&sin!ol!es a thesis o% -ental i&potan-e to hi& a.out

in/ in/i!i/uation, na&ely that in/s ae$nctionally determined. As +e shall see, it isas a -onse1uen-e o% this thesis that Aistotle is .oun/ to -onsi/e non9%un-tionin'

spe-i&ens o% a in/ to .e &ee ho&ony&s, an/ not 'enuine instan-es o% the in/ in

1uestion0 Let us e5a&ine &oe -losely this thesis an/ its i&pli-ations %o Aistotle2s

!ie+ on ho&ony&y0

All the non9a--i/ental /is-ete ho&ony&s pesente/ a.o!e ae su-h that they at one

ti&e ae 'enuineFs an/ at anothe ti&e ae .o'usFs0They -ease to .e 'enuineFs .ut

-ontinue to etain the out+a/ %o& o appeaan-e o% 'enuine Fs048In these -ases +e -an

see that it is not .y a &ee happenstan-e o% lan'ua'e that the /i%%eent thin's ae -alle/

Fe!en thou'h thei a--ounts ae /is-ete0 It is .e-ause +e ae so a--usto&e/ to -allin'

a thin' +ith a -etain loo an F, that +e -ontinue to /o so e!en +hen it is no lon'e a

'enuineF. Pehaps +e /o not e!en no+ that it is not a 'enuine F. The theat o% &ain'

&istaes in philosophi-al -onte5ts thans to a %ailue to /istin'uish 'enuine %o& .o'us

instan-es o% a in/ see&s to .e Aistotle2s &oti!ation %o stessin' the ho&ony&y in

these -ases0 Mistaes in!ol!in' a -on%usion o% a non9a--i/ental ho&ony& &ay not .e

as 'a!e as &istaes .ase/ on a -on%usion o% an asso-iate/ ho&ony&, an/ the

philosophi-al -onse1uen-es &ay not .e as se!ee, .ut they +ill ne!etheless .e

&istaes0 So, +hat 'oun/s Aistotle2s /istin-tion .et+een 'enuine Fs an/

ho&ony&ous Fs7 As I ha!e alea/y sai/, Aistotle hol/s a thesis o% %un-tional

/ete&ination %o in/ &e&.eship an/ in/i!i/uation, an/ it is si&ply as a -onse1uen-e

o% this that he &ust e'a/ /eta-he/ %in'es an/ /ea/ .o/ies as .o'us instan-es o% the

in/s$ingeran/ bodyespe-ti!ely0 Ce %in/ a %o&ulation o% this thesis in PoliticsI0 *:0

Hee Aistotle e%es to his !ie+ a.out the ho&ony&y o% non9%un-tionin' .o/y pats ina /is-ussion o% the pioity o% the polis o!e the %a&ily an/ the in/i!i/ual, an/ -lai%ies

it .y pla-in' it +ithin a 'eneal a--ount o% in/ in/i!i/uation"

Futhe, the state is .y natue -lealy pio to the %a&ily an/ to the in/i!i/ual, sin-e

the +hole is o% ne-essity pio to the patb %o e5a&ple, i% the +hole .o/y .e

/estoye/, thee +ill .e no %oot o han/, e5-ept ho&ony&ously, as +e &i'ht spea

o% a stone han/b %o +hen /estoye/ the han/ +ill .e no .ette than that0 ?ut thin's

48 @Out+a/ %o& o appeaan-e2 shoul/ .e un/estoo/ as +hat Aistotle so&eti&es -alls `xg in-ontast +ith Z^ o |~\0 D3%0Physics,*=4.6G*(0


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ae /e%ine/ .y thei %un-tion an/ po+e DJ ~ Jm Z Z`J J

~b an/ +e ou'ht not to say that they ae the sa&e +hen they no lon'e ha!e

thei pope 1uality, .ut only that they ae ho&ony&ous0 DPolitics,*(:4a*=G(:

The -lai& hee is that thin's that ae #ust ho&ony&ously FDin the +ay +e ae inteeste/

in hee" non9a--i/entally an/ /is-etely ae su-h .e-ause they la- the %un-tion o

po+e asso-iate/ +ith .ein' an F0 To e-i-ulate an ol/ e5a&ple" an a5e that is no

lon'e suita.le %o -hoppin', an/ has thus lost its %un-tion, is not eally an a5e any

&oe0 The %un-tion o% an o.#e-t is i/enti%ie/ +ith the @pope 1uality2 o% an o.#e-t, the

1uality that &aes it the o.#e-t it is0 In the -ase o% the %in'e, its %un-tion o pope

1uality +ill .e so&ethin' lie contribting to the $nctionality o$ the hand. This +oul/

in tun .e spe-i%ie/, I suppose, as a -apa-ity to pe%o& -etain in/s o% opeations

Dhan/in', 'i!in', shain', sen/in' et-0 in the inteest o% the o'anis& to +hi-h it is a

pat0 ?ut the spe-i%i- %un-tions %o the pati-ula in/s o% o.#e-ts, !ic0 +hat in/i!i/uates

the pati-ula o.#e-ts, shall not o--upy ou attention0 Moe i&potant is the 'eneal

a--ount o% in/ in/i!i/uation0 Re'a/in' it +e shoul/ noti-e its s-ope an/ sten'th0 It

says that all thin's ae /e%ine/ .y thei %un-tion, an/ that a thin' +ill .e /e%ine/ as anF

#ust in -ase it has the %un-tion an/ po+e o% a 'enuineF

Fnctional determination DF>" An in/i!i/ualx +ill .elon' to a in/ o -lassF

i%%"x -an pe%o& the %un-tion o% that in/ o -lass04:

The thesis states that ha!in' a %un-tion /e%initi!e o% .ein' Fis .oth a su%%i-ient D@i%x

-an pe%o& the %un-tion /e%initi!e o% .ein' anF, thenxis anF2 an/ ne-essay D@i%x

-annot pe%o& the %un-tion /e%initi!e o% .ein' anF, thenx is not anF2 -on/ition %o

.ein' a &e&.e o% the in/F0

F> see&s at least to pe%e-tly state the in/i!i/uatin' -on/itions %o all in/s o%

ate%a-ts0 Tae a .e/ %o e5a&ple0 Chat is it that &aes a .e/ the ate%a-t that it is7 The

o.!ious ans+e is that it -an pe%o& the %un-tion o% .e/, na&ely that it is suita.le to

sleep in0 Lie+ise %o .ea/ ni!es, -hais, li'hts an/ %oot.alls0 Chat &aes these the

ate%a-ts they ae see&s to .e that they -an %ul%il spe-i%i- %un-tions, +hi-h in thei -ases

4: This %o&ulation o% the thesis is taen %o& Shiel/s D*===, pa'e 440


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ae that they -an .e use/ %o /e%initi!e puposes" to -ut .ea/, to .e suita.le to sit on, to

illu&inate, an/ .e appli-a.le in the 'a&e o% %oot.all espe-ti!ely0 Chat they ae &a/e

o% an/ ho+ they loo /oes not &atte0 As lon' as they -an pe%o& the %un-tion

asso-iate/ +ith a -etain in/ o% ate%a-t, they ae i'htly e-one/ as a tue instan-e o%

that in/ o% ate%a-t0 >i%%eent -hais ha!e hu'ely /i%%eent out+a/ appeaan-es an/ ae

-o&pose/ out o% e&aa.ly /i%%eent stu%%s De0'0 plasti-, &aho'any, titaniu&, .ut +hat

unites the& all into one in/ is that they ae all suita.le to sit in0 That they -an %ul%il this

%un-tion iss$$icient%o the& to %all un/e the in/ chair. That it is necessary%o the

o.#e-ts to %ul%il a spe-i%i- %un-tion in o/e to .e a -etain type o% ate%a-t also see&s

i'ht0 A pape installation that has the pe%e-t appeaan-e o% a -hai, .ut that +ill .ea

apat as soon as so&eone ties to sit in it, +ill not 1uali%y as a -hai0 Neithe +ill a otten

a&-hai /isinte'atin' un/e the +ei'ht o% an unlu-y &an ai&in' %o est0 The sa&e istue %o a u..e ni%e o a .oen la&p0 I% they ae not a.le to %ul%il the %un-tion

asso-iate/ +ith the espe-ti!e ate%a-ts, they /o not really-ount as instan-es o% the&,

an/ ae only -alle/ -hais, ni!es an/ li'hts eithe .e-ause they ha!e the out+a/ loo

o% these in/s o% ate%a-ts o .e-ause they pe!iously +ee in a state -o&pati.le +ith

pe%o&in' the ele!ant %un-tions0 It &ay e!en .e that a .oen yet epaa.le spe-i&en

o% so&e ate%a-t +ill Dho&ony&ously .e -alle/ .y the na&e o% the ate%a-t as &u-h

.e-ause it -an easily .e .ou'ht .a- into %un-tionin' a'ain as .e-ause it pe!iously

%ul%ille/ the %un-tion asso-iate/ +ith the spe-i%i- in/ o% ate%a-t0 The %a-t that +e

+oul/ #u/'e a hotel e-eptionist +ho says that a oo& %unishe/ +ith a .oen la&p an/

the e&nants o% a -hai @-etainly -ontains a li'ht an/ a -hai2 to spea %alsely, o at least

!ey &islea/in'ly, also see&s to in/i-ate that the ne-essay -on/ition %o in/

&e&.eship e5pesse/ in F> is .e%ittin' %o ate%a-ts0 In the li'ht o% the a.o!e

-lai%i-ations, Aistotle2s !ie+ that ate%a-ts only -ount as su-h +hen they %ul%il spe-i%i-

%un-tions -etainly has a in' o% plausi.ility to it0

One &i'ht espon/ to this .y sayin' that it is -etainly no supise that ate%a-ts, that

a%te all ae &an&a/e an/ &eti-ulously /esi'ne/ %o so&e /e%initi!e pupose, ae

%un-tionally /ete&ine/, .ut that F> is &u-h &oe /u.ious as a thesis -on-enin' %o

e5a&ple natual in/s0 Aistotle2s thesis has to en-o&pass these as +ell sin-e it is

e5pli-itly suppose/ to hol/ %o allthin's0 A &o/en essentialist +ho i/enti%ies +ate

+ith H(O +ill not auto&ati-ally -ount as +ate e!eythin' that e5hi.its the

&a-os-opi- popeties o% +ate, o e!en to a /eep le!el o% analysis -an %ul%il the

%un-tions asso-iate/ +ith +ate0 Chen the &o/en essentialist thins o% +ate as H(O,he thins o% it as -o&positional athe than %un-tional stu%%, an/ it -an see& that


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(8

Aistotelian essentialis&, in +hi-h essen-e is i/enti%ie/ +ith %un-tion, /oes not neatly

%it essentialis& 'oun/e/ upon -o&positional stu%%04


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ine!ita.ly %un-tionally /ete&ine/, an/ an ans+e to a @+hat is it291uestion that #ust

in!ol!es a &ateial /es-iption +oul/ %o hi& .e +holly unsatis%a-toy, an/ +oul/ not

&ae us un/estan/ +hat in/ o% o.#e-t +e ha!e at han/0 E!en thou'h H(O an/ Yz

ex hypothesiae /istin-t -o&positional in/s, Aistotle +ill ne!etheless, on the 'oun/

o% thei %un-tional in/is-ena.ililty, teat the& as the sa&e in/ +ith the sa&e essen-e0

In Aistotle, %un-tion al+ays tu&ps -o&position in in/ /ete&ination0

?ut, let2s 'et .a- on ta-0 F>, +hi-h Aistotle -lai&s hol/s %o .oth ate%a-ts an/

Dpehaps &oe po.le&ati-ally natual in/s, e1uies that +e teat Fs +hose a--ounts

/i%%e %o& the a--ounts o% 'enuineFs as bogs o non%geninee5e&plas o% the in/ in

1uestion0 In -onte5ts in +hi-h nothin' /eeply philosophi-al is at stae, o one %o so&e

othe eason /oes not /e&an/ a.solute pe-ision in tal an/ -on/u-t, one is nonetheless

pe&itte/ to -all so&e pat o% stone s-ulptues an/ so&e -hoppe/ o%% .o/ily pats .y the

na&e @han/2 .e-ause o% thei /istin-ti!e out+a/ loo, e!en thou'h they eithe no

lon'e satis%y the -iteia %o &e&.eship in the ele!ant in/, o shoul/ happen to .e a

&ee epesentation o% so&e o.#e-t o% the in/0 In these -ases Aistotle +oul/ say that

the instan-es ae only ho&ony&ouslyFs, an/ +hat he thee.y i&plies is that they %ail to

1uali%y as 'enuineFs0 They %ail to 1uali%y as 'enuineFs .e-ause they -annot pe%o&

the %un-tions asso-iate/ +ith .ein' anF.In less sla- -i-u&stan-es on the othe han/,

%o e5a&ple in a /is-ussion o% +hat it is that -onstitutes the li%e o% so&e pati-ulao'anis&, an/ +hee pe-ision an/ sti-tness is +ante/, +e shoul/ notallo+ ousel!es

su-h loose tal0 So&e e5a&ples in!ol!in' non9%un-tionin' .o/ies an/ /eta-he/ .o/ily

pats ni-ely illustates ho+ the ho&ony&ous -haa-te o% so&e thin's only .e-o&e

@!isi.le2 in philosophi-al o othe hi'hly theoeti-al -onte5ts, +heeas they ae totally

o!elooe/ in e!ey/ay -onte5ts0 Tae the ho&ony&y o% @.o/y20 To insist that a -opse

li%te/ out o% a i!e is eally not a .o/y +oul/ po.a.ly .e e-one/ as .oth

/isespe-t%ul an/ tasteless, to+a/s .oth the /ea/ peson hi&sel% an/ his ne5t o% in0 It

is pope to e%e to the -opse as a .o/y in this -ase, an/ to /o so&ethin' else +oul/

see& out o% pla-e an/ as a toen o% insensiti!ity, i% not .estiality0 3onsi/e anothe -ase,

a paalyse/ peson0 Coul/n2t it .e a tei.le insult to say that he has no le's7 An/,

/ise'a/in' the potential insult, is it eally the -ase that he has no le's7 Is this +hat

Aistotle +ant us to .elie!e7 In all these /es-i.e/ -ases it is pe%e-tly natual, an/ in

%a-t pope, to use the na&es @.o/y2 an/ @le'2 e!en thou'h the o.#e-ts e%ee/ to /o not

eally 1uali%y as su-h0 That they /on2t eally 1uali%y as su-h, ho+e!e, is so&ethin' that

elu/es &ost people in &ost e!ey/ay -onte5ts0 In %a-t, that the thin's in 1uestion ae&eely ho&ony&ously .o/ies an/ le's an/ that they shoul/ not in a sti-t sense .e


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( on natual in/s +oul/ insist ispe-isely this, that the -opses ae hu&an .o/ies0 Ce ha!e hee seen that Aistotle hol/s that theo'ani- .o/y, the &atte %o the soul in the hylo&ophi- -o&poun/ man, -han'es into a non9o'ani-.o/y +hen the soul, the sou-e o% li%e an/ -han'e %o the hylo&ophi- -o&poun/, is so&eho+/estoye/0 In the -ase o% su.stantial 'eneation, the situation is analo'ous0 The &atte out o% +hi-h thehylo&ophi- -o&poun/ manis 'eneate/, is not an o'ani- .o/y0 It is only an o'ani- .o/y %o& the&o&ent it is ensoule/0 In othe +o/s, the po5i&ate &atte /oes not pesist thou'h the su.stantial'eneation o% a &an0 It is so&e othe &atte+hi-h is potentially po5i&ate &attethat un/eliesthe 'eneation an/ out o% +hi-h the ensoule/ .o/y is ealice/0 DThe po5i&ate &atte is ealice/ at the&o&ent o% the .e'innin' o% the a-ti!ity o% the soul0 D3%0De 'eneratione et Corrptione I 8, 4*=.(4G(80 To %uthe -o&pli-ate &attes, it shoul/ .e note/ that .e-ause so&e non9o'ani- .o/ies aepotentially o'ani- .o/ies, they ae in one sense natual .o/ies ha!in' li%e potentially in the&0 ?ut +e&ust in this -ase .e -ae%ul to /istin'uish the +ay these .o/ies ae potentially ali!e %o& the +aynatual organic.o/ies ae potentially ali!e, %o @potentially2 is use/ ho&ony&ouslyit is sai/ in t+o+ays+ith e'a/ to the these .o/ies0 The potentiality as-i.e/ to the natual o'ani- .o/y-oespon/s to the potentiality in!ol!e/ in the possession o% a -apa-ity to spea a -etain lan'ua'e,+heeas the potentiality as-i.e/ to the non9o'ani- .o/y -oespon/s to the potentiality in!ol!e/ in a-apa-ity to a-1uie the a.ility to spea a -etain lan'ua'e0 D3%0 De Anima II 8*(.(:G(


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analysis +oul/ ha!e %aile/" one +oul/ ha!e %allen .a- on F>, an/ -ontay to +hat one

hope/ to /e&onstate, the paalyse/ le' +ill not .e a le', e5-ept ho&ony&ously0 An

altenati!e +ay to po-ee/ in the 1uest %o a -o&positional analysis o% in/s o% .o/y

pats -oul/ .e to tae a &oe e/u-ti!e appoa-h" to .e a le' is to .e -o&pose/ o% su-h

an/ su-h -he&i-al ele&ents et-0, an/ to hope that -he&i-al ele&ents -an .e po!en not

to .e %un-tional in/s0

Ce ha!e seen that F> see&s %ittin' as an a--ount o% in/ in/i!i/uation %o ate%a-ts0

In the -ase o% natual in/s it is &oe -onteste/0 I% one in-lu/es -o&positional in/s not

e5hauste/ .y thei %un-tions Dan/ +hi-h thus esist ulti&ate analysis into %un-tional

in/s in one2s ontolo'y, F> is not uni!esally !ali/ in the /o&ain o% natual in/s0 8*

?ut %o Aistotle, F> states the -on/itions %o in/ in/i!i/uation %o anyin/, ati%i-ial

as +ell as natual0 Ce ha!e seen that +hat /ete&ines in/ &e&.eship %o Aistotle is

%ul%il&ent o% the %un-tion asso-iate/ +ith the spe-i%i- in/s0 Anythin' that /oes not

%ul%il the ele!ant %un-tion +ill not .elon' to the in/ in 1uestion0 In so&e spe-ial

-i-u&stan-es it is ne!etheless a--epta.le to -all o.#e-ts .y so&e in/9na&e e!en

thou'h they ae not eally &e&.es o% the in/ in 1uestion0 This &ostly happens

.e-ause the thin's e5hi.it so&e !isi.le si&ilaities +ith the 'enuine e5e&plas o% the

ele!ant in/0 The si&ilaity, %o its pat, is typi-ally /ue eithe to the %a-t that the non9

'enuine o.#e-tsthe o.#e-ts %ailin' to %ul%il so&e ele!ant %un-tiona-tually #ere'enuine %un-tionin' o.#e-ts in the !ey e-ent past, o that they +ee &a/e .y so&e

atist to ese&.le an o.#e-t o% the %un-tional in/0

The a--ount o% .ein' .elon'in' to these o.#e-ts has nothin' /e%initional in -o&&on

+ith the o.#e-ts that .elon' to the in/ +ith +ho& they shae thei na&etheiper se

/e%inition o a--ount o% .ein' +oul/ a-tually &ost liely ese&.le that o% a pile o% /ust

so they ae ho&ony&ous in a discrete+ay0 ?ut sin-e they ae -alle/ .y the in/9na&e .e-ause o% so&e lieness o% thei oute appeaan-e +ith that o% 'enuine

8* I ha!e use/ @natual in/s2 !ey .oa/ly to -o!e anythin' that is not an ate%a-t Di0e0 &an9&a/e0@Natual in/s2 thus /enote the sa&e as @natual thin's2 DJ ^` o ^_` wJ in Aistotle03onse1uently ele&entay pati-les, -he&i-al ele&ents an/ .otani-al as +ell as ani&al spe-ies ae all-onsi/ee/ natual in/s0 F> is po.a.ly &oe easily a--epte/ %o .otani-al an/ ani&al spe-ies than%o -he&i-al ele&ents an/ espe-ially ele&entay pati-les0 I a& te&pte/ to assu&e a -o&pletelyuni!esal appli-ation o% F> on Aistotle2s .ehal%, .ut -an un%otunately not leap into a /is-ussion o%this inti'uin' &atte hee0 The elati!ity o% po5i&ate &atte to %o& +oul/ then ha!e to .e/is-usse/, as +ell as e5te&ely /i%%i-ult 1uestions e'a/in' pi&e &atte an/ the elationship.et+een pi&e an/ po5i&ate &atte0 Pi&e &attei% su-h thee &i'ht .e-onstitutes no in/ Dat

least i% one /e&an/s that in/s &ust .e spe-i%ia.le, !ic0 that it &ust .e possi.le to state +hat they ae,an/ F> has o% -ouse thee%oe no appli-ation to it0 Chat in any -ase e&ains -etain is that Aistotleat least.elie!es that F> in the /o&ain o% natual in/s hol/s %o .otani-al an/ ani&al spe-ies0


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%un-tionin' o.#e-ts, it is not a--i/ental that they ae -alle/ .y the sa&e na&e0

3onse1uently, they ae non%accidental /is-ete ho&ony&s0

So &u-h, &ay.e too &u-h, %o the non9a--i/ental /is-ete ho&ony&s0 The

&eti-ulous pesentation o% this spe-ial in/ o% ho&ony&y has in any -ase po!i/e/ us+ith the oppotunity to pesent so&e /o-tinal %un/a&entals o% Aistotelian philosophy

su-h as his %un-tional -iteia %o in/ in/i!i/uationthat +ill po!e use%ul at late

sta'es o% this in!esti'ation0 Hope%ully, a /eepe 'eneal un/estan/in' o% Aistotle2s

-on-ept o% ho&ony&y has also .een a-1uie/ as a esult o% ou /+ellin' on this spe-ial

in/ o% ho&ony&y0 O% thin's +ith 'eneal i&potan-e %o ou in!esti'ation o%

ho&ony&y, +e ha!e %o e5a&ple seen that %un-tion an/ essen-e al+ays -oin-i/e %o

Aistotle, in su-h a +ay that no synony&ous thin's -an ha!e /i%%eent %un-tions, an/ %o

anythin' +ith /i%%eent %un-tions, they +ill ha!e /i%%eent essen-es0 All ho&ony&ous

thin's ha!e thus /i%%eent essen-es an/ /i%%eent %un-tions0

2." The various #inds of homonymy: an overview

?y inspe-tin' a +i/e sele-tion o% te5ts %o& his -opus +e ha!e seen that Aistotle hol/s+hat +e ha!e -oine/ the broad conception o$ homonymy thou'hout the +hole span o%

his philosophi-al +o0 Aistotle i/enti%ies /i%%eent types o% ho&ony&s, .ut they ae

al+ays -ontaste/ +ith synony&s in a &anne that in/i-ates that he e'a/s the

/istin-tion into ho&ony&s an/ synony&s to .e e5hausti!e0 Chat has .een e%ee/ to as

the nao+ -on-eption o% ho&ony&y +oul/ only a--ept so&e o% the ho&ony&s

a-no+le/'e/ .y the .oa/ -on-eption, an/ ele'ate the othes to a thi/ -lass o% thin's

+hi-h ae neithe ho&ony&s no synony&s0 Synony&ous thin's ae thin's +hi-h shae

.oth na&es an/ a--ounts o% .ein'0 In -ontast, ho&ony&ous thin'sa--o/in' to the

.oa/ -on-eption o% ho&ony&yshae na&es, .ut ha!e /i%%eent a--ounts o% .ein'

-oespon/in' to the na&es0 In so&e pla-es in his +itin's, nota.ly in his late

philosophy, Aistotle see&s to a/&it instan-es o% &ulti!o-als@thin's sai/ in &any

+ays2+hi-h ae neithe synony&s o ho&ony&s, an/ +hi-h thus appea to oppose

.oth the .oa/ -on-eption an/ his ealie ha.it o% teatin' &ulti!o-als an/ ho&ony&s as

-o9e5tensi!e0 Ce sa+, ho+e!e, %o& so&e passa'es in the )icomachean Ethics an/

Physics, that this -ontast is .est un/estoo/ as a -ontast .et+een a--i/ental an/


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asso-iate/ ho&ony&s an/ that it -onse1uently poses no theat to the .oa/ -on-eption,

an/ lie+ise -onstitutes no eal .ea +ith his ealie pa-ti-e o% teatin' ho&ony&s

an/ &ulti!o-als as -o9e5tensi!e0 The /i%%eent types o% ho&ony&s e-o'nice/ .y

Aistotle -an .e /i!i/e/ into Di those that /o not ha!e anythin' /e%initional in -o&&on,

the discrete homonyms, an/ Dii those +hose /e%initions ae in so&e +ay elate/, the

associated homonyms.Most o% the /is-ete ho&ony&s ae accidentalho&ony&s, an/

+hat this &eans is that it is &eely .y so&e -oin-i/en-e o% lan'ua'e that the thin's in

1uestion shae na&e0 The ho&ony&y o% thin's +hi-h ae a--i/entally ho&ony&ous is

&ostly easy to /ete-t, an/ this in/ o% ho&ony&y thee%oe poses no theat in

a'u&entation0 ?e-ause o% thei o.!iousness an/ .latant un-onne-te/ness they ae

-on/u-i!e to -o&i-al e5ploitation in #oes08( @?an2, @ey2, @-ane2 an/ @-lu.2 ae

e5a&ples o% this in/ o% ho&ony&s0 They ae +ithout e5-eption philosophi-allyuninteestin'0 So&e o% the /is-ete ho&ony&s, ho+e!e, /o not shae thei na&e

a--i/entally, ae not o.!ious in e!ey/ay -onte5ts, an/ -onse1uently &eit &oe

philosophi-al attention0 These ae thin's +hi-h, in Aistotele2s +o/s, ae &ee

ho&ony&s .e-ause they %ail to satis%y -etain -iteia %o .ein' 'enuine e5e&plas o% a

in/, &oe spe-i%i-ally" they %ail to %ul%il the %un-tions asso-iate/ +ith .ein' a spe-i%i-

in/ o% o.#e-t, an/ ae thus not a real instan-e o% that in/ o% o.#e-t0 One is ne!etheless

pe&itte/ Din so&e-onte5ts to -all these non9'enuine o.#e-ts .y the na&e o% the in/

they /on2t sti-tly .elon' to .e-ause o% so&e si&ilaity o% appeaan-e o .e-ause they

pe!iously satis%ie/ the -on/itions %o &e&.eship in that in/0 So&e e5a&ples 'i!en

.y Aistotle o% this in/ o% ho&ony&ous thin's ae /eta-he/ .o/y pats an/ /ea/

.o/ies0 A /eta-he/ %in'e is only ho&ony&ously a %in'eb an/ a /ea/ .o/y is only

ho&ony&ously a .o/y0 ?e-ause they ae /epi!e/ o% the %un-tions o% the ele!ant in/s

o% o.#e-ts, they ae not 'enuinely an/ in a sti-t sense a %in'e an/ a .o/y any&oe0

Unlie the /is-ete ho&ony&s, allasso-iate/ ho&ony&s ae o% philosophi-al inteest

D!a ho&ony&s0 The asso-iate/ ho&ony&s ae ho&ony&s +hose /e%initions ae

o!elappin', thou'h not -o&pletely D+hi-h +oul/ ha!e &a/e the& synony&s0 All the

asso-iate/ ho&ony&s ae /i%%i-ult to /ete-t, they ae typi-ally /ispute/, an/ thei status

as ho&ony&s +ill thus al&ost in e!ey -ase nee/ to .e a'ue/ %o0 84The asso-iation o%

ho&ony&s ae al&ost e5-lusi!ely a--ounte/ %o in te&s o% -oe9/epen/en-y .y

8( See %ootnote 4*0

84 Aistotle possi.ly e'a/s the ho&ony&y o% @healthy2 an/ @&e/i-al2 as -lea an/ o.!ious sin-e heo%ten esots to the& in illustatin' &oe /isputa.le -an/i/ates %o ho&ony&y0 ?ut the healthy an/ the&e/i-al ae ne!etheless not as -lealy ho&ony&ous as the a--i/ental /is-ete ho&ony&s0


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Aistotle0 Chat Aistotle &eans +hen he says that so&e ho&ony&s ae -oe9/epen/ent

is that the ele!ant ho&ony&s asso-iate aoun/ a -oe0 Tae %o e5a&ple all the healthy

thin's0 They ae, a--o/in' to Aistotle, ho&ony&ously healthy .e-ause they ha!e

/i%%eent a--ounts o% .ein' -oespon/in' to thei na&e0 To put it /i%%eently, thee ae

/i%%eent +ays o% .ein' healthy %o the /i%%eent healthy thin's0 ?ut the /i%%eent healthy

thin's, o the /i%%eent +ays o% .ein' healthy, ae nonetheless asso-iate/, %o thee is one

pi&ay o %o-al88thin' that is healthy to +hi-h all the othe healthy thin's &ust stan/

in the i'ht sot o% elation in o/e %o the&sel!es to .e healthy0 The a--ounts o% .ein'

%o all the non9-oe instan-es o% healthiness &ust &ae e%een-e to the a--ount o% .ein'

%o the -oe instan-e0 An/ the -oe instan-e o% .ein' healthy is a state o% +ell9

%un-tionin' %o an o'anis&0 3onse1uently the a--ount o% +hat it is %o an apple, a

&ountain hie o a sin -olou to .e healthy &ust &ae e%een-e to the health o% ano'anis&0 Sin-e the a--ounts o% .ein' %o the non9-oe instan-es o% healthiness &ae

e%een-e to the a--ount o% .ein' %o health in the o'anis& Do +hat a&ounts to the

sa&e" the /e%inition o% a healthy o'anis& is -ontaine/ in the /e%initions o% all othe

healthy thin's, the -oe instan-e has /e%initional pioity o!e the non9-oe instan-es0

E!en thou'h Aistotle al&ost e!ey+hee e5plains asso-iate/ ho&ony&y in te&s o%

-oe9/epen/en-e, thee see&s to .e lo'i-al spa-e %o asso-iate/ ho&ony&s +hose

asso-iation is not e5plaine/ in this +ay0 8: Sin-e Aistotle lea!es the possi.ility o%

asso-iate/ ho&ony&y that is not -oe9/epen/ent une5ploe/, asso-iate/ ho&ony&y

+ill in the %ollo+in'i% not othe+ise note/.e taen to in!ol!e -oe9/epen/en-y0

Ce -an su& up ou %in/in's e'a/in' the /i%%eent types o% ho&ony&y that ae

a-no+le/'e/ .y Aistotle thus"

*0 Accidental discrete homonyms. These ae -han-e ho&ony&s0 They ha!e

nothin' /e%initional in -o&&on, an/ they shae na&e #ust .y so&e-oin-i/en-e o% lan'ua'e0 ?e-ause they ha!e -o&pletely /istin-t /e%initions,

they ae -haa-teice/ as @%a apat2, an/ ae easy to /ete-t0 This is the in/ o%

88 A !ey i&potant ealy in!esti'ation into -oe9/epe/ent ho&ony&y +as -aie/ out .y 0E0L0 O+enD*=


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ho&ony&s o%ten e5ploite/ in #oes0Examples" shap, ey, -ane, .an, -lu.0

(0 )on%accidental discrete homonyms. These ho&ony&s ha!e nothin'

/e%initional in -o&&on, .ut it is ne!etheless not /ue to a &ee lin'uisti-

a--i/ent that they shae na&e0 Non9%un-tionin' spe-i&ens o% a in/ .elon' inthis 'oup0 ?e-ause they %ail to pe%o& the %un-tions asso-iate/ +ith thei

in/, they ae not 'enuine instan-es o% the in/ in 1uestionthey /o not

e5hi.it its essen-ean/ ae #ust ho&ony&ously -alle/ a %in'e, an a5e et-0

They only appearto .elon' to the ele!ant in/s0 It is thei out+a/ loo

+hi-h o--asions thei ho&ony&ous -haa-te0 Many o% these ho&ony&s ae

anythin' .ut o.!ious, an/ ae thus o%ten ne'le-te/0 DAppe-iatin' the& &i'ht

e!en /epen/ on philosophi-al e%le-tions on +hat it is that -onstitutes

toolhoo/ o the .ein' o% o'anis&s0 Examples" /eta-he/ .o/y pats, /ea/

.o/ies, /ys%un-tional tools, statues, pi-tues0

40 Associated homonyms. These ae ho&ony&s +hose /e%initions ae so&e+hat

elate/0 The elation o asso-iation .et+een the ho&ony&s -onsists o% the

/e%initions o% so&e instan-es &ain' e%een-e to, o -ontainin' the

/e%inition o%, so&e othe thin'0 E!en thou'h the elation o asso-iation

.et+een ho&ony&s -oul/ .e thou'ht to &ani%est itsel% in !aious +ays,

Aistotle is e5-lusi!ely inteeste/ in elation to, o asso-iation aoun/, a core

instan-e0 So, %o all pa-ti-al puposes, asso-iate/ ho&ony&y e1uals -oe9

/epen/ent ho&ony&y in Aistotle0 So&e asso-iate/ ho&ony&s, su-h as

@healthy2 an/ @&e/i-al2 ae easily appe-iate/, .ut &ost ae !ey ha/ to

/ete-t an/ e!en hea!ily -onteste/0 Many o% the& ae -ental philosophi-al

-on-epts0 Examples" healthy, &e/i-al, .ein', 'oo/ness, one, natue, -ause,

pioity, #usti-e, %ien/ship0

2.$ The use of homonymy in %ristote&s phiosophy

As +e ha!e pointe/ out ealie, Aistotle appeals to ho&yny&y in .oth /estu-ti!e an/

-onstu-ti!e -onte5ts" .oth +hen -iti-isin' -ollea'ues an/ in /e!elopin' his o+n

positi!e !ie+s0 >ete-tion o% ho&ony&y is po!en to .e a po+e%ul /iale-ti-al tool .y

Aistotle in that /e&onstation o% ho&ony&y in the a'u&ents o% his -ollea'ues%o


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4(

e5a&ple that +hat %i'ues un/e the sa&e na&e in the &a#o an/ &ino pe&iss ae

eally /i%%eent thin's'i!es easons %o e#e-tin' thei -on-lusions0 Appeals to

ho&ony&y ae thus %e1uently en-ountee/ in situations +hee Aistotle /eals +ith the

!ie+s o% othe philosophes0 Re%utin' +on'hea/e/ !ie+s an/ positions is o% -ouse an

i&potant an/ ine!ita.le pat o% philosophi-al a-ti!ity, .ut Aistotle2s use o% ho&ony&y

is not -on%ine/ to this pupose0 In &any -onte5ts a /e&onstation o% ho&ony&y see&s

on the -ontay to se!e as a statin' point %o Aistotle2s o+n positi!e theoicin'0 Fo, in

so&e -ases thee ne!etheless e5ists so&e sot o% o/e in the &ani%ol/ o% ho&ony&ous

instan-es, an/ +ith o/e -o&es the pospe-t o% syste&ati- no+le/'e an/ s-ienti%i-

en/ea!ous0 The -ases in 1uestion ae +hee the ho&ony&s ae asso-iate/0 As +e ha!e

seen, Aistotle hol/s that asso-iation a&on' ho&ony&s in!ol!es a elation o%

/epen/en-e .et+een non9-oe instan-es an/ a -oe instan-e" All non9-oe instan-esstan/ in so&e asy&&eti- elation o% /epen/en-e to the -oe instan-e0 An/ this is a in/

o% o/ein' that po!i/es su%%i-ient unity %o the esta.lishin' o% a s-ien-e0 As Aistotle

says inMetaphysics a&&a ( "

Fo not only in the -ase o% thin's +hi-h ha!e one -o&&on notion DJ 2

QW /oes the in!esti'ation .elon' to one s-ien-e, .ut also in the -ase o%

thin's +hi-h ae elate/ to one -o&&on natue DJ Z[\ ] QW ^_`b%o e!en these in a sense DJZf ha!e one -o&&on notion0 D*))4.*(G*:

So e!en thou'h the Platoni- -on/ition %o a s-ien-e shoul/ not .e &et, !ic0 that all the

o.#e-ts ae unite/ un/e one -o&&on notion, Aistotle &aintains that thee -an still .e

s-ienti%i- in!esti'ation in a pati-ula /o&ain po!i/e/ that the thin's in the /o&ain ae

elate/ to one natue, o as he e5pesses it a little ealie in the -hapte" elate/ to one

sou-e D] Zx, *))4.


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44

/i%%eent !itues .ou'ht to the /is-ussion .y Meno0 Fo, @eX!en i% they ae &any an/

!aious, all o% the& ha!e one an/ the sa&e %o& +hi-h &aes the& !itues2 D6(a8G-:0 8


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48

ae the tests that ta- /i%%een-e in si'ni%i-ation0 I say @tests2 hee, %o e!en thou'h

Aistotle has only one test %o /i%%een-e in si'ni%i-ation D*)6a4G8" @Loo also at the

-lasses o% the pe/i-ates si'ni%ie/ .y the te&, an/ see i% they ae the sa&e in all

-ases28;, the tests %o .oth /i%%een-e in %o&8= D*)


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4:

%o /e&onstatin' /i%%een-e in si'ni%i-ation0 Only &etho/s else+hee e&ploye/ in

nailin' the essen-es o% thin's.e they philosophi-al analysis, e&pii-al in!esti'ation,

So-ati- elen-hus o +hat ha!e you+ill /o0 So, as +e see, /ete&inin' the

si'ni%i-ation o% te&s is not a puely lin'uisti- en/ea!ou %o Aistotle0 A--o/in' to

hi&, %in/in' thin's out a.out the +ol/ is si&ultaneously %in/in' thin's out a.out the

+o/s +e use in talin' a.out the +ol/0:(

Ha!in' /e&onstate/ a &etho/ %o esta.lishin' ho&ony&y e!en in the ha/ -ases,

Aistotle has a/!an-e/ one -u-ial step in the /ie-tion o% sho+in' ho+ he -an &ae

-onstu-ti!e use o% a notion o% ho&ony&y in his o+n positi!e philosophy0 Chat

e&ains %o hi& to /o ho+e!e, is to spe-i%y an/ su.stantiate the elation o% asy&&eti-

/epen/en-e hol/in' .et+een the non9-oe an/ -oe instan-e o% asso-iate/ ho&ony&s0

His spase hints in this /ie-tiona.out /e%initional -ontain&ent an/ elation to one

sou-elea!es &u-h to .e /esie/0 Fo +hy is it the -ase that the /e%initions o% non9

-oe thin's ne-essaily ha!e to &ae e%een-e to the -oe thin', +heeas the latte /oes

not ha!e to &ae e%een-e to any o% the non9-oe thin's7 Thee &ust suely .e

so&ethin', pesu&a.ly a.out the sou-e Di0e0 the -oe instan-e, that e5plains an/

'oun/s this /e%initional asy&&ety0 Sin-e Aistotle at .est po!i/es the seleton o%

su-h an e5planation, he +illin o/e to esta.lish a %ully satis%a-toy un/estan/in' o%

-oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y that is e1uippe/ to pe%o& the tass that he /esies %o& itnee/ help to %lesh it out0 In the ne5t pat I +ill pesent 3histophe Shiel/s2 -ausal

analysis o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y, an a--ount that pupots to -onti.ute pe-isely

su-h a %leshin' out o% Aistotle2s ou'h outline0

:( SeeMetaphysics, *))8.*G8, +hee Aistotle states that it is the #o. o% the philosophe, i0e0 a s-ientistDan/ not #ust any -o&petent use o% a lan'ua'e to /ete&ine in ho+ &any +ays so&ethin' is spoen0


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4H"x an/y ae ho&ony&ously in a -oe9/epen/ent +ayF i%%" Di they ha!e

thei na&e in -o&&on, Dii thei /e%initions /o not -o&pletely o!elap, an/ Diii

thee is a sin'le sou-e to +hi-h they ae elate/0:8

E!en thou'h the thi/ -on/itiona.out the elation to a sin'le sou-eto so&e e5tent

helps to -lai%y the natue o% the type o% asso-iation hol/in' .et+een -oe9/epen/ent

ho&ony&s, the 'eat /i!esity o% pe&itte/ elationsas e!eale/ in the e5a&ple

:4 It is .e-ause Aistotle e!ey+hee Dlie hee -haa-teises asso-iation o% ho&ony&s .y the notion o%@elation to one sou-e2 that +e ae #usti%ie/ in usin' @asso-iate/ ho&ony&s2 an/ @-oe9/epen/ent

ho&ony&s2 inte-han'ea.ly0

:8 A/opte/ %o& Shiel/s D*===, *)


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ne!etheless lea!es it %un/a&entally o.s-ue0 Aistotle2s spase illustation lea!es us

+on/ein' .oth a.out +hat in/s o% elations ae su%%i-iently ston' %o esta.lishin'

asso-iation, an/ +hat it is that &aes one instan-e -oe in elation to othes0 In an

illustati!e e5a&ple -onstue/ in o/e to e5hi.it the /e%i-ien-ies o% Aistotle2s %o&al

spe-i%i-ation o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y, 3histophe Shiel/s sho+s ho+ e!en the

o.!iously ho&ony&ous @.an2 -an pass as -oe9/epen/ent"

I% sa!in's .ans +ee al+ays as a &atte o% %a-t lo-ate/ +ithin %i!e hun/e/ &iles

o% i!e .ans, so&eone &i'ht &istae this as essential o% the& an/ o%%e an

a--ount a--o/in' to +hi-h sa!in's .ans +ee those institutions lo-ate/ +ithin

%i!e hun/e/ &iles o% i!e .ans +hee &oney is ept an/ ta/e/0 DShiel/s, *===,

*);

Sin-e the a--ounts o% sa!in's .ans in this s-enaio &aes e%een-e to i!e .ans, the

-ases o% @.an2 +ill hee 1uali%y as -oe9/epen/ent, so&ethin' that is o.!iously /eeply

unsatis%a-toy0 The po.le& +ith Aistotle2s spe-i%i-ation o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s

is that it -ontains no esti-tions o @-ontols on the sot o% appeals /e%initions ae

pe&itte/ to &ae to othe /e%initions2 DShiel/s, *===, *);0 Chat +e la- %o&Aistotle is an a.sta-t -haa-teisation o% the natue o% the elations ho&ony&ous te&s

&ust .ea to the -oe notion DShiel/s, *===, *)60

Althou'h the natue o% the elation .et+een -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s is

un/espe-i%ie/ .y Aistotle, his e5a&ple ne!etheless sho+s us that the elation is

pesu&e/ to .e asy&&eti-al0 It is thus not only the -ase that e!ey instan-e o% so&e

-oe9/epen/ent ho&ony& &ust stan/ in a elation to one sou-eb this elation &ust

a//itionally .e asy&&eti-al in su-h a +ay that the a--ount o% the non9-oe -ases &ust

&ae e%een-e to the -oe -ase, +heeas the a--ount o% the -oe -ase nee/ not &ae

e%een-e to the non9-oe -ases0 The a--ounts o% @healthy2 in @healthy tan2 an/ @healthy

&eal2 +ill thus ha!e to &ae e%een-e to the a--ount o% @healthy2 in @healthy peson20

The a--ount o% @healthy2 in @healthy peson2, on the othe han/, +ill not &ae e%een-e

to any o% the a--ounts o% the non9-oe instan-es o% @healthy20 ?ut, +hy is it that an

a--ount o% +hat it is %o a peson to .e healthy is pohi.ite/ %o& &ain' e%een-e to

taits that typi-ally /istin'uish healthy pesons, su-h as thei /istin-ti!e tan, postue o

!i'ou7 Aistotle +ill nee/ a notion o% pioity to 'oun/ this asy&&ety, an/ this is


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so&ethin' that is not po!i/e/ .y 3>H alone0 Chat +e ae no+ in a position to see is

that a %ully %leshe/ out notion o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y hin'es on a satis%a-toy

spe-i%i-ation o% the elation o.tainin' .et+een asso-iate/ ho&ony&s0 3lause Diii in

3>H is thus in nee/ o% e!ision0 Sin-e Aistotle pesu&es that the elation hol/in'

.et+een the -oe an/ non9-oe instan-es is asy&&eti-, the spe-i%i-ation &ust at least

-aptue this &u-h0 Chen initiatin' the analysis that +e +ill tun to in a &o&ent,

3histophe Shiel/s a--o/in'ly states that +hat is +ante/ in a -o&plete a--ount o%

-oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y is a spe-i%i-ation o% so&e asy&&eti-al elation &, that all

non9-oe instan-es o% a ho&ony& ne-essaily .ea to the -oe"

Ne-essaily, i% Di a isF an/ b isF, DiiF9ness is asso-iati!ely ho&ony&ous in

these appli-ations, an/ Diii a is a -oe instan-e o%F9ness, then b2s .ein'F stan/s

in& to a2s .ein'F0 DShiel/s, *===, **)

The -onstaints lai/ on&is that it .e asy&&eti-al, that it .e open9en/e/ so as to a/&it

o% ne+ -ases o% non9-oe ho&ony&s, an/ that the a--ounts o% all the non9-oe -ases

&ae e%een-e to the a--ount o% the -oe -ase D*===, **)0 Ce +ill no+ tun to Shiel/s2

analysis an/ his su''este/ spe-i%i-ation o%&.

3.1 'ore!dependent homonymy: (hieds& causa anaysis

Ho+ one a--ount DQf\ -an /epen/ on anothe is one o% the thin's one e5pe-ts & to

a//ess0 Moe spe-i%i-ally, one e5pe-ts & to e5plain the e5planatoy pioity o% the

a--ount o% the -oe -ase o% a ho&ony& in elation to all the non9-oe -ases0 In his

analysis o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y 3histophe Shiel/s is hea!ily in%luen-e/ .y

3a/inal 3a#etan2s spe-i%i-ation o% & in te&s o% the Aistotelian %ou9-ausal s-he&e,

an/ he spe-ulates that it +as pehaps .e-ause 3a#etan e-o'nice/ the -u-ial i&potan-e

o% e5planatoy pioity that he o%%ee/ su-h a spe-i%i-ation0 3on/itions o% e5planatoy

a/e1ua-y ae na&ely o% -ental -on-en in this s-he&e0 ::>ue to the i&potan-e o%

:: SeePhysics *=;a*89.= %o an into/u-tion o% Aistotle2s %ou9-ausal e5planatoy s-he&e0 To no+ a

thin' is a--o/in' to Aistotle to no+ #hy D~ J] it is so, an/ the statin' o% the %ou -auses inelation to an o.#e-t D!ic0 to state its -auses is suppose/ to a/e1uately ans+e -o&ple&entay +hy91uestions +ith espe-t to it0


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3a#etan2s -ausal spe-i%i-ation o% & in Shiel/s2 analysisit shoul/ in %a-t &eely .e

e'a/e/ as a e%ine&ent o% 3a#etan2s su''estionI +ill -ite at len'th the passa'e

+hee 3a#etan2s intepetati!e poposal is pesente/"

Analo'y o% this type analo'y o% atti.ution, o Z[\ ho&ony&y:


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elations to the sa&e -oe0

Tain' out +hat he #u/'es to .e i'ht %o& 3a#etan2s intepetati!e su''estion, +hile

lea!in' out +hat he /ee&s pe-ulia an/ +on', Shiel/s %o&ulates a -o&pletely 'eneal

spe-i%i-ation o%& +hi-h he -alls$or%casal core primacy"

F33P" Ne-essaily, i% Di a is F an/ b is F, Dii F9ness is asso-iati!ely

ho&ony&ous in these appli-ations, an/ Diii a is a -oe instan-e o%F9ness, then

b2s .ein'F stan/s in one o% the %ou -ausal elations to a2s .ein'F. DShiel/s,

*===, ***

3histophe Shiel/s /e%en/s this su''este/ spe-i%i-ation o%& in thee sta'es0 In the %ist

sta'e, he sho+s ho+ the spe-i%i-ation 'o+s natually %o& so&e o% the illustations o%

-oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y 'i!en .y Aistotle hi&sel%0 In the se-on/ sta'e, Shiel/s

ta-les appaent /i%%i-ulties elate/ to e-on-ilin' F33P +ith so&e o% the othe o%

Aistotle2s illustations, po-ee/in' to a'ue that +hat initially appeae/ to .e

po.le&ati- -ases %o F33P, in the en/ sten'then it0 In the thi/ an/ %inal sta'e, it is

sho+n that F33P &eets the -onstaints %o spe-i%i-ations o% &:6, that is, that it is .oth

su%%i-iently /e%inite an/ suita.ly open9en/e/0 In +hat %ollo+s I +ill 'o thou'h these

sta'es su--essi!ely0

Let us tun to Aistotle2s t+o %a!ouite e5a&ples o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y,

@healthy2 an/ @&e/i-al2, an/ see ho+ o +hethe they -an easona.ly .e sai/ to %it the

spe-i%i-ation o%& in te&s o% F33P0 InMetaphysics a&&a ( Aistotle states that all

healthy thin's ae elate/ to one thin', health, @eithe .y pese!in' it DJm ^QJJ,

po/u-in' it DJm , in/i-atin' it DJm `, o .y .ein' e-epti!e o% it D~J[

Jg\2 D*))4a4:G.*0 In a si&ila +ay, thin's ae -alle/ &e/i-al @eithe .y possessin'it Di0e0 the -a%t DJm x, .y .ein' natually suite/ to it DJm ^\ | Z[\

Jq:;, o .y .ein' a %un-tion o% it DJm Z2 D*))4.(G4, &y tanslations0 Shiel/s

points out that e!en thou'h these !aious e5a&ples /isplay /i%%eent possi.le elations

.et+een -oe an/ non9-oe -ases o% @healthy2 an/ @&e/i-al2 espe-ti!ely, all o% the&

:6 See at the !ey en/ o% (0(

:; Shiel/s +ites +ith e'a/ to this e5a&ple that +hat Aistotle po.a.ly has in &in/ hee is that so&epeople &ay -ount as &e/i-al e!en thou'h they la- po%essional tainin' as /o-tos0 They -an, %o

e5a&ple, si&ply ha!e a na- %o healin' De0'0 thou'h the use o% natual e&e/ies, o .e inpossession o% the sot o% intelli'en-epae/ +ith -etain othe /ispositionsthat &aes the&natually e1uippe/ %o &e/i-al tass Dsee %ootnote *), **(0


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8(

i&&e/iately see& spe-i%ia.le in D%ou9-ausal te&s0 So&e instan-es ae pati-ulaly

-lea0 3onsi/e %o e5a&ple a s-alpel0:=A s-alpel is &e/i-al .e-ause its %un-tion DZ

is &e/i-al, !ic0 to -ut in &e/i-al po-e/ues0 The -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y is o.!ious

in this -ase @.e-ause the %inal -ause i0e0 %un-tionX o% a s-alpel is easy to spe-i%y elati!e

to the -oe notion o% &e/i-ine2 DShiel/s, *===, **(0 The -ases o% healthy e'i&ens an/

/iets ae si&ilaly -lea0 A pati-ula e'i&en is healthy .e-ause it po/u-es D

health0 An/, o.!iously, +hen so&ethin' is po/u-ti!e o% health, it +ill ne-essaily stan/

in an e%%i-ient -ausal elation to health0 The -ases o% the &e/i-al s-alpel an/ the healthy

e'i&en, then, suppot F33P .y -on%o&in' to it0 Not all o% Aistotle2s illustations,

ho+e!e, ae as -lealy spe-i%ia.le in -ausal te&s0 Shiel/s &entions the -ase o% a

-o&ple5ion .ein' healthy .y .ein' in/i-ati!e D` o% health, an/ that o% !ita&ins

.ein' healthy .e-ause they pese!e o 'ua/ D^QJJ health, an/ &as that [email protected]' in/i-ati!e o%2 no @pese!in'2 ae o.!ious instan-es o% any o% the %ou -ausal

elations D*===, **40 They thus see& to pose a -hallen'e to F33P0 Ho+e!e, Shiel/s

1ui-ly /is&isses this possi.ility, %o F33P /oes not /e&an/ that the -oe o% e!ey

ho&ony& &ust .e the -ausal sou-e o% the non9-oe instan-es


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84

that is healthy in a /ei!e/ sense, na&ely a healthy e'i&en, is thus, a--o/in' to

Shiel/s, -ausally pio to the -oe -ase in situations lie this0

Chen +e no+ -onsi/e the -ase o% @pese!in'2 +e %in/ that it a-tually is !ey si&ila

to that o% @po/u-in'20 Chen +e say, %o e5a&ple, that a /iet is healthy, +e say so.e-ause it pese!es health .y -onti.utin', in a nutiti!e +ay, to the &aintenan-e o% the

health o% a peson0 A healthy li%estyle +ill si&ilaly pese!e health .e-ause it

-onti.utes to the health o% a peson .y, say, e'ulatin' /aily e5e-ises, &o/eation in

eatin' an/ /inin', total a.stinen-e %o& s&oin' et-0 Ce see then that the

pese!ation o% health .ou'ht a.out .y a /iet o a li%estyle shoul/ .e e-one/ as an

instan-e o% e%%i-ient -ausality #ust as the e'i&en +as0 The %a-t that neithe a /iet no a

li%estyle -an .e sai/ to &aintain health in a peson solely .y the&sel!es, 'i!es no eason

%o /ou.tin' this, %o so&ethin' -an -ount as an e%%i-ient -ause o% x e!en thou'h it is not

alone esponsi.le %o the pese!ation o% x0 ?ein' one a&on' se!eal %a-tos +hi-h

to'ethe ae su%%i-ient %o the po/u-tiondpese!ation o% so&e esult, +ill na&ely in

&any -i-u&stan-es .e enou'h to .e e'a/e/ as an e%%i-ient -ause .y Aistotle0


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88

in/s o% elations .et+een -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s at least -an .e spe-i%ie/ in te&s

o% e%%i-ient an/ %inal -ausation0 ?ut +hat a.out &ateial -ausation7 E5a&ples o% this ae

&u-h less o.!ious0 Pehaps +e ha!e e5a&ples o% &ateial -ausation in -ases +hee

thin's ae -alle/ healthy .e-ause they ae e-epti!e D~J[ o% health7 This, at least,

is Shiel/s2 su''estion D*===, **80 As +ith the othe elations, Aistotle /oes not 'i!e

any -on-ete e5a&ples o% thin's .ein' e-epti!e o% health, so one is %o-e/ to sea-h %o

possi.le -an/i/ates .y onesel%0 Shiel/s poposes &ateial su.states an/ suppots his

su''estion .y e5plainin' that Aistotle typi-ally -haa-teices &ateial su.states as

e-epti!e o% %o&s +hen thinin' o% the& as a &ateial -auses0 One pla-e in the -opus

+hee this -o&es out -lealy is in theMetaphysics >elta"

That in +hi-h a thin' is pesent as in so&ethin' e-epti!e is sai/ to ha!e the thin',

e0'0 the .once has the %o& o% the statue, an/ the .o/y has the /isease0 D*)(4a**G

*4


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8:

else, the %o& o% the %ist thin' is esponsi.le %o the e5isten-e o% that !ey sa&e %o&


50/78

8, it see&s enou'h to .e a.le to /o +hat a

/o-to /oes in o/e to -ount as a /o-to D%ully an/ -o&pletely, +ith no %uthe

esti-tions as to ho+ &any su--ess%ul teat&ents one has pe%o&e/ Do +hate!e0

-hathe is, na&ely a /o-to, see&s to .e the sa&e, e!en thou'h he shoul/ .e less

su--ess%ul o less 'oo/ at .ein' a /o-to than his -ollea'ue0 I% it see&s i'ht to so&e to

/i%%eentiate +hat so&ethin' is on the .asis o% ho+ 'oo/ it is at pe%o&in' its %un-tion,

this +oul/ .e so, I 'uess, to a ston'e /e'ee +ith e'a/ to ate%a-ts than to natual

in/s0 Fo, +heeas it /oes so&eho+soun/ easona.le that so&ethin' -an .e a ni%e to

a %ulle o lesse e5tent .y .ein' &oe o less suite/ to -ut, the sa&e -annot .e sai/ o%,

%o e5a&ple, tees o -o+s0 So&ethin' -annot .e &oe o less a tee o a -o+" Eithe

you ae a tee, o you ae not, an/ /itto +ith -o+s0


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8;

o% ealication, .ut athe .y .ein' en'a'e/ in /i%%eent in/s o% a-ti!ities0 ?ut, in

-haa-teicin' the& as en'a'e/ in @a/i-ally /i%%eent a-ti!ities2 has he not lost si'ht o%

the suppose/ -o&&on -a%t that they ae sai/ to .e pa-titiones o%7 Fo assu&in' that

.ein' a tea-he is one thin' Di0e0 a uni%ie/ pheno&enon an/ thus -onstitutes a in/,

thee &ust .e a 'oal DJQ\ that spe-i%ies +hat a tea-he is %o0 Let us say Din a

so&e+hat ol/9%ashione/ +ay that this is to po/u-e no+le/'e in stu/ents0 The

%un-tion o% the tea-he +ill thus .e to en'a'e in no+le/'e9enhan-in' a-ti!ities to+a/s

stu/ents0 In this espe-t, the a-ti!ities o% the ?u//hist &on an/ the -hie% &e-hani-

see& e5a-tly the sa&e0 It is only i% thee +ee -o&pletely /istin-t 'oals an/ %un-tions

.elon'in' to the tea-hin' a-ti!ities o% the &on an/ the &e-hani- that it +oul/ .e i'ht

to spea o% @a/i-ally /i%%eent a-ti!ities20 ?ut i% this +ee the -ase, then @.ein' a

tea-he2 +oul/ -onstitute /i%%eent in/s in the t+o -ases, an/ the &on an/ the&e-hani- +oul/, /ue to F>, e5e&pli%y /i%%eent %o&s0 So, unless thee -an .e

asse&.le/ othe an/ &oe -on!in-in' -onsi/eations than those o%%ee/ .y Shiel/s, it is

/i%%i-ult to see ho+ %o&s -an .e e5e&pli%ie/ /i%%eently0 An/ se-on/ly, to see ho+ this

-oul/ 'oun/ ho&ony&ya in/ o% ho&ony&y a&on' uni%o& thin's, an/ thus

-onstitute an e5a&ple o% ho&ony&ous thin's that ae elate/ .y %o&al -ausation, is

/ou.ly /i%%i-ult0 The i/ea o% thin's e5e&pli%yin' so&e spe-i%i- %o& /i%%eently thus

see&s o% no help to Shiel/s in his sea-h %o -ases o% ho&ony&s elate/ .y %o&al

-ausation0 ?esi/es, +hat Aistotle has in &in/ +hen he speas o% .ein' @natually suite/

to the &e/i-alX2 D*))4.(G4, is po.a.ly not possessos o% the -a%t o% &e/i-ine Das

Shiel/s su''ests, .ut &oe liely .o/ies o instu&ents0 The in/ o% -ausal elation he

po.a.ly inten/s to -haa-teice .y this lo-ution is thus eithe that o% &ateial o %inal

-ausation0


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8=

o.#e-t D8(8a*=is not a -ase o% 1ualitati!e -han'e, .ut athe a -han'e to its Di0e0 the

sense o'an2s @/ispositions an/ natue2 DJ \ Jq ^_`, 8*6.*60 So the in/

o% %o&al -ausation /es-i.e/ in su-h a situation is only possi.le thans to the pesen-e

o% sensi.le &atte, !ic0 a @-apa-ity %o sensi.le a+aeness2 DCa/, ());, ;(, in the sense

o'an0 This &eans that the only in/ o% %o&al -ausal elation that Shiel/s has %oun/ to

o.tain .et+een ho&ony&s po!es to .e an e5te&ely uninteestin' one inso%a as it

only o--us in pe-eption an/ thans to sensi.le &atte0 It +ill thus ne!e %i'ue in the

e5planations o% the elations a&on' any o% the philosophi-ally si'ni%i-ant asso-iate/ o

-oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s enu&eate/ .y Aistotle De0'0 .ein', 'oo/ness, li%e, -ause,

#usti-e, %ien/ship, /ue to the la- o% sensi.le &atte in these -ases06)The upshot o% this

is that only thee o% Aistotle2s %ou -auses %o& his %ou9-ausal e5planatoy s-he&e -an

eally .e sai/ to .e appli-a.le in spe-i%i-ations o% the elations that /ei!e/ ho&ony&sha!e to thei -oe ho&ony&s0 It -onse1uently see&s that Shiel/s shoul/ athe opt %o a

three9-ausal spe-i%i-ation o%& instea/ o% his popose/$or9-ausal spe-i%i-ation DF33P0

This +oul/ -onstitute no eal /e%eat %o Shiel/s ho+e!e, %o +hat is &ost i&potant in

his poposal is the /e&onstation that Aistotelian -ausal e5planations -an .e use/ in

spe-i%yin' the elations that -oe an/ non9-oe instan-es o% ho&ony&s stan/ in +ith

espe-t to ea-h othe0 ?ut sin-e the in-lusion o% %o&al -ausation in F33P is not

/o+ni'ht +on' D%o +e ha!e a%te all an instan-e o% %o&al -ausationthou'h

une-o'nise/ .y Aistotle.et+een the ho&ony&ous -ases o% e/ness in the sensi.le

o.#e-t an/ e/ness in the sense o'an, an/ neithe -auses any ha&, I +ill not /e&an/ a

e!ision o% his pin-iple, .ut 'ant Shiel/s his$or%-ausal spe-i%i-ation o%&0

To su& up, +e ha!e no+ +oe/ ousel!es thou'h the %ist t+o sta'es o% Shiel/s2

/e%en-e o% F33P0 That is, +e ha!e seen ho+ a spe-i%i-ation o% & in te&s o% F33P

'o+s natually %o& so&e o% Aistotle2s o+n e5a&ples o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s

De0'0 that .ein' @po/u-ti!e o% health2 is a -ase o% e%%i-ient -ausality, an/ that +hat

initially see&e/ to pose po.le&s %o F33P in the en/ %itte/ an/ -on%i&e/ it De0'0 the

!aiation o% the -ausal /ie-tion elati!e to the -oe0 Ce ha!e ne!etheless, -ontay to

Shiel/s, %oun/ eason to /ou.t that ho&ony&s -oul/ .e elate/ .y %o&al -ausation in

6) 3%0 Ca/2s -iti1ue o% Shiel/s2 use o% pe-eption as an e5a&ple o% a %o&al -ausal elation .et+eenho&ony&ous thin's" @?ut the issue at han/ -on-ens +hethe sense pe-eption po!i/es the in/ o%&o/el o% %o&al -ausation, non9stan/a/ o othe+ise, that -oul/ se!e as an e5planation o% -ausationin -ases o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&yb I /o not thin this is the -ase0 One -onsi/eation in!ol!es the%a-t that the -ausation in!ol!e/ in sense pe-eption is si generis/ue to the natue o% sensi.le &atte"

pe-eption in!ol!es a in/ o% -han'e in the sense o'an that is uni1ue .e-ause o% its -apa-ity %osensi.le a+aeness0 In this e'a/, the a-ti!ity o% sense pe-eption /epen/s on -etain %eatues, liea+aeness an/ epesentation, +hi-h ae not pesent in othe in/s o% -ausal po-esses in othe in/s


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any inteestin' +ay0 ?ut sin-e thee a-tually ae so&e ho&ony&s +hi-h ae elate/ .y

%o&al -ausationin the D%o us uninteestin'6*situations o% pe-eption+e +ill 'ant

Shiel/s the i'ht to say that any non9-oe instan-e o% a ho&ony& &ust stan/ in one o%

the$or -ausal elations to the -oe instan-e, e!en thou'h none o% the elations .et+een

instan-es o% any o% the &ost si'ni%i-ant ho&ony&s in Aistotle2s philosophy +ill .e

spe-i%ie/ in te&s o% %o&al -ausation0

Ha!in' /e&onstate/ that the elations o.tainin' .et+een -oe an/ non9-oe

ho&ony&s shoul/ .e spe-i%ie/ in -ausal te&s, the /e%inition o% -oe9/epen/ent

ho&ony&y 'i!en ealie -an no+ .e i&po!e/ .y e5-han'in' 3>H Diii +ith the

ele!ant pat o% F33P"

3>H" a an/ b ae ho&ony&ouslyF in a -oe9/epen/ent +ay i%%" Di they ha!e

thei na&e in -o&&on, Dii thei /e%initions /o not -o&pletely o!elap, an/ Diii

ne-essaily, i% ais a -oe instan-e o%F9ness, then b2s .ein'F stan/s in one o% the

%ou -ausal elations to a2s .ein'F. DShiel/s, *===, **=

This a--ount, Shiel/s says, is @inten/e/ to -aptue the spiit o% 3a#etan2s poposal .y

esti-tin' the elation& to the %ou9-ausal s-he&e2 D*===, **=0

The last thin' that e&ains %o Shiel/s to /o in his /e%en-e o% F33P Dan/ thee.y also

3>H is to sho+ that it is, as I sai/ ealie, @su%%i-iently /e%inite an/ suita.ly open9

en/e/206(This is .est /one, a--o/in' to Shiel/s, .y sho+in' that it ules out @un+ante/

#un elations2 D*===, **=0 Ce +ill no+, .y 'i!in' one paa/i'&ati- e5a&ple, sho+

ho+ it /oes so0 In &y into/u-tion to the pat on -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y I -ite/ a

s-enaio /esi'ne/ .y Shiel/s to e5pose the /e%i-ien-ies o% Aistotle2s all too ou'h

-haa-teisation o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y D3>H, in +hi-h sa!in's .ans an/ i!e.ans -a&e out as -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s0 The non9-ontin'ent elation esponsi.le

%o the %a-t that they 1uali%ie/ as -oe9/epen/ent in this s-enaio, +as that sa!in's .ans

+ee al+ays positione/ +ithin %i!e hun/e/ &iles o% i!e .ans0 This is a typi-al

e5a&ple o% the in/ o% #un elation that +e +ant 3>H to ule out0 So /oes it7

?e-ause Di @.ein' positione/ +ithin %i!e hun/e/ &iles o%2 a i!e .an is not an

e5a&ple o% any o% Aistotle2s %ou -auses, an/ Dii & as spe-i%ie/ .y F33P e1uies

6* >ue to the pe-uliaity o% sensi.le &atte0

6( See un/e 40*0


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:*

pe-isely that it shoul/ .e D!ic0 in o/e to satis%y 3>H Diii, it %ollo+s that Diii i!e

.ans an/ sa!in's .ans /o not 1uali%y as -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&s DShiel/s, *===,

**=0 That 3>H a--o/in'ly ules out #un elations sho+s that it is su%%i-iently

/e%inite0 The %a-t that it +ill popely en-o&pass all instan-es o% ho&ony&s that happen

to stan/ in one o% the %ou -ausal elations to a -oe instan-e, sho+s, on the othe han/,

that it is suita.ly open9en/e/0 It +ill na&ely pe&it @/ete&ination o% -oe9/epen/ent

ho&ony&sX on a -ase9.y9-ase .asis2 an/ +ill @not pe-lu/e the /e!elop&ent o

e5tension o% a ho&ony&ous -on-ept thou'h ti&e2 DShiel/s, *===, **=0

?ein' su%%i-iently /e%inite an/ open9en/e/, F33P satis%ies &u-h o% +hat +as

/e&an/e/ %o& a spe-i%i-ation o% the elation &o.tainin' .et+een /ei!e/ an/ -oe

instan-es o% a ho&ony&0 ?ut sin-e F33P hol/s #ust .e-ause the /ie-tion o% the -ausal

elation -an 'o .oth to an/ %o& the -oe ho&ony&a healthy li%estyle is an e%%i-ient

-ause o% a peson2s health, an/ a peson2s health is at the sa&e ti&e an e%%i-ient -ause o%

his healthy -o&ple5ion, it /oes not -aptue the +ay in +hi-h the non9-oe instan-es

ae suppose/ to .e asy&&eti-ally /epen/ent on the -oe ho&ony&0 Chat &aes the

-oe -ases .e -oe, is that the /e%initions o% all non9-oe -ases &ust &ae e%een-e to

the -oe -ases, +heeas the e!ese /oes not hol/ D!ic0 that the /e%initions o% -oe -ases

&ust &ae e%een-e to any non9-oe -ase0 3ausal elations -an not 'oun/ this

/e%initional pioity o% the -oe -ase in elation to the /ei!e/ -ases sin-e, as +e ha!eseen, it is .oth -ausally pio an/ posteio elati!e to /i%%eent non9-oe -ases0 Sin-e

3>H lea!es the /e%initional asy&&ety o.tainin' .et+een /ei!e/ an/ -oe

ho&ony&s une5plaine/, it is ina/e1uate in its pesent %o&0

3.2 )efinitiona priority

3>H is, as +e ha!e seen, su--ess%ul in &any +ays0 ?ut sin-e it %ails to e5pli-ate in

+hat +ay the non9-oe ho&ony&s ae asy&&eti-ally /epen/ent on the -oe

ho&ony&s, it nee/s to .e supple&ente/ .y an a//itional -lause that +ill &ae this

-lea0 Shiel/s su''ests that the /ei!e/ instan-es o% ho&ony&s ae asy&&eti-ally

/epen/ent on the -oe instan-es .e-ause these ha!e so&e in/ o% @pi&iti!e pioity2

D*===, *(


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:(

a&&a (, Aistotle -alls the -oe ho&ony&s Zx] D*))4.


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:4

/oes Shiel/s -hoose a&on' the&7 Chat &aes the %i%th type pe%ea.le o!e the se-on/

is that it is !ey unliely that -oe an/ non9-oe ho&ony&s +ill not e-ipo-ate +ith

espe-t to i&pli-ation o% e5isten-e0 E!en thou'h it is not ne-essaily the -ase that a

.o+nish hue to the sin is an in/i-ation o% health, o that so&e pati-ula /iet is

po/u-ti!e o% health, thee +ill ne!etheless .e thin's @%illin' the oles2, so to say, o%

.ein' in/i-ati!e o% health an/ .ein' po/u-ti!e o% health0 So the asy&&ety in 1uestion

-annot .e .ase/ on a -apa-ity %o in/epen/ent e5isten-e, %o the -oe -ase +ill &ost

liely /epen/ on non9-oe -ases %o its e5isten-e0 The %i%th type o% pioity is thee%oe

to .e pe%ee/ sin-e it -an po!i/e the +ante/ asy&&ety +hile at the sa&e ti&e

toleatin' e-ipo-ation +ith espe-t to i&pli-ation o% e5isten-e0

Chen +e no+ -onsi/e the elations .et+een -oe an/ non9-oe instan-es o% -oe9

/epen/ent ho&ony&s in the li'ht o% this %i%th type o% pioity enu&eate/ in the

Categories, @pioity in natue2, +e %in/ that the -oe ho&ony& @+ill .e in a +ay the

-ause o% the e5isten-e o% a /ei!e/ ho&ony&, o pehaps &oe .oa/ly +ill .e

responsible %o its e5isten-e DJ[ J W`r JZ Jr |2 DShiel/s, *===,

*(80 Ha!in' thus %oun/ a +ay o% e5pli-atin' the asy&&eti- elation .et+een the -oe

ho&ony& an/ the /ei!e/ ones, Shiel/s su''ests this %uthe e%ine&ent an/ e5pansion

o% 3>H"

3>H" a an/ b ae ho&ony&ouslyF in a -oe9/epen/ent +ay i%%" Di they ha!e

thei na&e in -o&&on, Dii thei /e%initions /o not -o&pletely o!elap, Diii

ne-essaily, i% ais a -oe instan-e o%F9ness, then b2s .ein'F stan/s in one o% the

%ou -ausal elations to a2s .ein' F, an/ Di! a2s .ein' F is asy&&eti-ally

esponsi.le %o the e5isten-e o% b2s .ein'F0

Cith this a//itional -lause, the a.o!e /e%inition o% -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y .in's

out that a -oe ho&ony& 1uali%ies as a su-h .y .ein' esponsi.le %o the /ei!e/

ho&ony&2s .ein' F" @Its .ein' F is X /ei!e/ %o& the sou-e2s i0e0 the -oe2sX

-haa-te2 DShiel/s, *===, *(:0 An/ the pioity in!ol!e/ is su-h that the sou-e -an .e

esponsi.le %o the /ei!e/ instan-es2 .ein'F Din an asy&&eti-al +ay e!en thou'h the

sou-e an/ the /ei!e/ instan-es e-ipo-ate +ith espe-t to i&pli-ation o% e5isten-e0 As

Shiel/s su&&aices" @Hee, then is a pi&iti!e %o& o% pioity, not e/u-i.le to any


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othe %o&, +hi-h Aistotle &ay inten/ in -allin' the -oe instan-es Zx]2 6: D*===,

*(:0 Respe-tin' the -onstaints lai/ /o+n .y this notion o% pioity on the -oe

ho&ony&s, in +hat sense o% the te&, then, -an a -oe ho&ony& .e sai/ to .e a

@sou-e27 An illu&ination o% this 1uestion is +hat Shiel/s tuns to ne5t0 @Sou-e2 is sai/

in &any +ays a--o/in' to Aistotle, .ut only a %e+ o% those sayin's -an easona.ly .e

taen to %it the notion o% pioity that +as use/ to e5pli-ate the elation .et+een -oe

an/ non9-oe ho&ony&s a.o!e0 A&on' those that see& @/ie-tly ele!ant2 D*===, *(:,

ho+e!e, Shiel/s sin'les out .ein' an Zxq in the sense o% .ein' @that %o& +hi-h

so&ethin' -an %ist .e no+n2 DMetaphysics, *)*4a*8G*:, o% +hi-h a pe&ise in a

/e&onstation is the i&&e/iately 'i!en e5a&ple0 Fo, as Shiel/s says, the @pXe&ises

ae the sou-es o% thei -on-lusion in the sense that they ae esponsi.le %o the

e5isten-e o% a poposition2s .ein' a -on-lusion2 DShiel/s, *===, *(:0 The asy&&eti-alelations o.tainin' .et+een -oe an/ /ei!e/ instan-es o% ho&ony&s ae thus,

a--o/in' to Shiel/s, /ie-tly analo'ous to the pi&iti!e entail&ent elations in !itue o%

+hi-h a -on-lusion is /ei!e/ %o& its pe&ises"

So too is the asy&&ety in -oe9/epen/ent ho&ony&y pi&iti!e" the -oes ae

sou-es .e-ause they ae se&anti-ally an/ &etaphysi-ally supe9o/inate to thei

/ei!ations0 A -o&ple5ion is healthy .e-ause its .ein' healthy is e5pli-a.le in noothe +ay than in its stan/in' in an appopiate elation to a healthy entity0

DShiel/s, *===, *(


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Thee ae a %e+ athe supisin' aspe-ts to the +ay Shiel/s e5pli-ates the asy&&ety

in the elations .et+een -oe an/ non9-oe ho&ony&s0 These &eit -o&&ent0 Chen

/is-ussin' the type o% pioity a -oe ho&ony& possesses o!e a /ei!e/ ho&ony&,

Shiel/s is -onspi-uously ne'li'ent o% the %a-t that his -hosen type o% pioity, @pioity in

natue2, -oul/ !ey +ell ha!e .een -haa-teise/ as a in/ o% -ausal pioity0 In the

senten-e -lai%yin' this in/ o% [email protected]' asy&&eti-ally esponsi.le %o the

e5isten-e o%0002+e e!en %in/ the ee +o/ %o -ause, J Dtanslate/ as

@esponsi.le2 .y Shiel/s, so that +hat Aistotle a-tually says is that a&on' thin's that

e-ipo-ate +ith espe-t to i&pli-ation o% e5isten-e, one thin' -an ne!etheless .e pio

in elation to the othe .y .ein' the -ause o% its e5isten-e . ?ut ha!in' alea/y ule/ out

that the -oe ho&ony& -oul/ .e -ausally pio to the /ei!e/ ones, Shiel/s see&s

al&ost ea'e to -o!e up this possi.ility, an/ -hooses athe to tal o% it as a @pi&iti!etype o% pioity2 than to &ae any in/i-ations to the e%%e-t that pioity in natue &i'ht

possi.ly .e so&e in/ o% -ausal pioity0 It is e1ually stunnin' that he, +hen talin'

a.out @/ie-tly ele!ant2 senses o% .ein' sou-es %o -oe ho&ony&s, /ie-tly opts %o

@that %o& +hi-h so&ethin' -an %ist .e no+n2 D*)*4a*8G*:, +ithout e!en aiin' the

possi.ility that a -oe ho&ony& -an .e a sou-e %o /ei!e/ ho&ony&s .y in so&e +ay

.ein' thei -ause, althou'h he suely &ust no+ that Aistotle hol/s that all -auses ae

sou-es DJ Z J J Zx], *)*4a*60 Sin-e Shiel/s .elie!es that -ausal

elations .et+een instan-es o% ho&ony&s is +hat &aes the& 1uali%y as -oe9

/epen/ent, it is supisin' to %in/ that he /oes not /el!e /eepe into the possi.ility that

the -ausal elations -oul/ also po!i/e the e5planation o% the sou-e9-haa-te o% the

-oes, an/ -onse1uently o% the /e%initional asy&&ety hol/in' .et+een -oe an/ non9

-oe instan-es0 Also in this -ase I .elie!e that his so&e+hat -onspi-uous e!asion %o&

-onsi/ein' the possi.ility that -oe instan-es 1uali%y as sou-es .y .ein' -auses is /ue

to the %a-t that he thins he has alea/y ule/ out the possi.ility o% su-h a -ausal pioity

to the -oe0 Fo, as +e e&e&.e6


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:0 D()))0Aristotle on Meaning and Essence DO5%o/0

3o/e, A0 D*==60 @The Pioity o% Final 3auses o!e E%%i-ient 3auses in Aistotle2s

Parts o$ Animals2, in C0 Kull&ann an/ S0 Fllin'e De/s0,Aristotelische /iologie, DStutt'at, *(6G840

3oope, 0 M0 D*==60Plato Complete -or+s DIn/ianapolis0

Fine, K0 D*==:0 @Ontolo'i-al >epen/en-e2,Proceedings o$ the Aristotelian society,

=:, (


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64

in' an/ 0 E0 L0 O+en, e/s0,Aristotle and Plato

in the Mid%Forth Centry Dte.o', *


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Shiel/s, 30 D*==:0 @Intentionality an/ Iso&ophis& in Aistotle2,Proceedings o$ the

/oston Area Collo!im in Ancient Philosophy, II" 4)6G

4)0

D*===0 Order in Mltiplicity 2omonymy in the Philosophy o$ Aristotle.DO5%o/0

Stan'e, S0 K0 D*=;60 @Plotinus, Pophyy an/ the Neoplatoni- Intepetation o% the

Categories2, in C0 Haase, e/0,A$stieg nd )iedergang

der &=mischen -elt, !ol0 II, 4

dissertation on the concept of homonymy in aristotle

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