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Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship between Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship between

Occupational Stressors and Stress Outcomes among Law Occupational Stressors and Stress Outcomes among Law

Enforcement Personnel Enforcement Personnel

Joshua Benjamin Kaplan Pacific University

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Kaplan, Joshua Benjamin (2016). Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship between Occupational Stressors and Stress Outcomes among Law Enforcement Personnel (Master's thesis, Pacific University). Retrieved from: https://commons.pacificu.edu/spp/1244

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Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship between Occupational Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship between Occupational Stressors and Stress Outcomes among Law Enforcement Personnel Stressors and Stress Outcomes among Law Enforcement Personnel

Abstract Abstract Law enforcement personnel (LEPs) experience diverse and substantial stressors (McCraty & Atkinson, 2012; Burke, 1998; Gelderen et al., 2007; Tuckey, Winwood, & Dollard, 2012). These stressors result in significant negative impacts for the personnel themselves (Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014; Ma et al., 2015; Marmar et al., 2006; Rees & Smith, 2008; Wang et al., 2010) and for society (Arslan, 2010; Rajaratnam et al., 2011; Kligyte, 2013). In order to assess the degree to which these stressors manifest amongst LEPs, biomarkers such as salivary cortisol (Taverniers, Smeets, Ruyssereld, Syroit, & von Grumbkow, 2011) and psychological measures, such as perceived stress (Gershon et al., 2009; Christopher et al., 2015) have been commonly used. Research among the general population shows that dispositional traits such as mindfulness and reactivity to stress moderate the relationship between stressors and stress outcomes (Miller & Chen, 2006; Feizi, Aliyari, & Roohafza, 2012). Additionally, dispositional mindfulness has been shown to negatively predict perceived stress (Zimmaro et al., 2016), mitigate the impact of stressors on negative stress-related outcomes (Chiesa et al., 2012; Marks, Sobanski, & Hine, 2010), and moderate the relationship between stressors and the CAR (Daubenmier, Hayden, Chang, & Epel, 2014). We hypothesize that dispositional mindfulness may be a similarly important protective factor for high-stress occupations such as LEPs.

Degree Type Degree Type Thesis

Degree Name Degree Name Master of Science in Psychology

Committee Chair Committee Chair Sarah Bowen

Subject Categories Subject Categories Psychiatry and Psychology

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DISPOSITIONAL MINDFULNESS MODERATES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

OCCUPATIONAL STRESSORS AND STRESS OUTCOMES AMONG LAW

ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL

By

JOSHUA BENJAMIN KAPLAN

BA, Lewis & Clark University, 2010

A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the

School of Professional Psychology, Pacific University,

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

2016

ii

This Thesis for the Master of Science degree by

Joshua Benjamin Kaplan

has been approved for the

School of Professional Psychology by

_____________________________________________________

Michael S. Christopher, PhD

_____________________________________________________

Sarah Bowen, PhD

iii

Kaplan, Joshua Benjamin, BA (MS, Psychology)

Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship Between Occupational Stressors and

Stress Outcomes Among Law Enforcement Personnel

Thesis directed by Michael S. Christopher, PhD

Law enforcement personnel (LEPs) experience various occupational stressors, which

often result in significant negative personal and societal effects. Biomarkers such as salivary

cortisol, and psychological measures such as perceived stress, have been used to assess the

impact of these stressors on LEPs. Additionally, dispositional mindfulness has been shown to

negatively predict perceived stress and to moderate the relationship between stressors and

negative stress-related outcomes, such as the cortisol awakening response (CAR). In this study,

we investigated whether facets of dispositional mindfulness moderate the relationships between

occupational stressors and physiological and psychological stress in a sample of LEPs. As

predicted, nonjudging significantly moderated the relationship between organizational stressors

and perceived stress and nonreactivity significantly moderated the relationship between

operational stressors and perceived stress. Additionally, nonreactivity moderated the relationship

between organizational stressors and the CAR; however, the interaction was in the opposite of

expected direction. We also found a significant interaction between nonjudging and

nonreactivity in the prediction of perceived stress, indicating that perceived stress is highest

when both of these facets of mindfulness are low.

Keywords: mindfulness, police, stress, cortisol

iv

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ iii

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... vi

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. vii

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ viii

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1

Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 2

Stress in law enforcement personnel (LEPs) ...................................................................... 2

Indicators of stress .............................................................................................................. 3

Dispositional mindfulness ................................................................................................... 5

Present study and statement of hypotheses ......................................................................... 5

Method ........................................................................................................................................... 6

Participants .......................................................................................................................... 6

Materials and procedure ...................................................................................................... 6

Saliva collection .................................................................................................................. 7

Design and analyses ............................................................................................................ 8

Results ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Preliminary analyses ........................................................................................................... 9

Regression models ............................................................................................................ 10

Post-hoc analyses .............................................................................................................. 15

Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 20

Perceived stress ................................................................................................................. 21

v

Cortisol awakening response ............................................................................................ 22

Nonjudging and nonreactivity ........................................................................................... 23

Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 24

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 25

References .................................................................................................................................... 26

Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 34

Appendix A – Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire ...................................................... 41

Appendix B – Perceived Stress Scale ............................................................................... 43

Appendix C – Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale ............................... 44

Appendix D – Police Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale ................................... 45

vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to endlessly thank thesis chair, Mike Christopher, and reader, Sarah

Bowen, for their patience and support abounded. Also, to Alyssa Nolde, Jacob Manuel, and

Oliver for the same patience and support and much more. Lastly, to Aaron Bergman,

Dharmakaya Colgan, and the rest of the RAM Lab constituent. Onward we go!

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations ................................................................ 11

Table 2. Regression – Perceived Stress Scale .............................................................................. 12

Table 3. Regression – CAR .......................................................................................................... 14

Table 4. Regression – Post-hoc analyses ...................................................................................... 16

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. PSQ-Operational – Nonreactivity – Perceived stress ................................................... 17

Figure 2. PSQ-Organizational – Nonjudging – Perceived stress ................................................. 18

Figure 3. PSQ-Organizational – Nonreactivity – Cortisol awakening response.......................... 19

Figure 4. Nonjudging – Nonreactivity – Perceived stress ............................................................ 20

Figure 5. Nonreactivity – Nonjudging – Perceived stress ............................................................ 21

1

Introduction

Law enforcement personnel (LEPs) experience diverse and substantial stressors

(McCraty & Atkinson, 2012; Burke, 1998; Gelderen et al., 2007; Tuckey, Winwood, & Dollard,

2012). These stressors result in significant negative impacts for the personnel themselves

(Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014; Ma et al., 2015; Marmar et al., 2006; Rees & Smith, 2008; Wang et

al., 2010) and for society (Arslan, 2010; Rajaratnam et al., 2011; Kligyte, 2013). In order to

assess the degree to which these stressors manifest amongst LEPs, biomarkers such as salivary

cortisol (Taverniers, Smeets, Ruyssereld, Syroit, & von Grumbkow, 2011) and psychological

measures, such as perceived stress (Gershon et al., 2009; Christopher et al., 2015) have been

commonly used. Research among the general population shows that dispositional traits such as

mindfulness and reactivity to stress moderate the relationship between stressors and stress

outcomes (Miller & Chen, 2006; Feizi, Aliyari, & Roohafza, 2012). Additionally, dispositional

mindfulness has been shown to negatively predict perceived stress (Zimmaro et al., 2016),

mitigate the impact of stressors on negative stress-related outcomes (Chiesa et al., 2012; Marks,

Sobanski, & Hine, 2010), and moderate the relationship between stressors and the CAR

(Daubenmier, Hayden, Chang, & Epel, 2014). We hypothesize that dispositional mindfulness

may be a similarly important protective factor for high-stress occupations such as LEPs.

2

Literature Review

LEP Stressors

LEPs experience substantial and diverse occupational stressors (McCraty & Atkinson,

2012; Burke, 1998; Gelderen et al., 2007; Tuckey, Winwood, & Dollard, 2012), which are often

categorized as operational and organizational. Operational stressors include acute incidents

common for LEPs, such as high-speed chases, physical threat, shift work, and negative

interactions with the public (McCraty & Atkinson, 2012; Waters & Ussery, 2007).

Organizational stressors include internal politics, inequality of professional roles, lack of

resources, lack of diverse job-related opportunities (e.g., “stuck in patrol”), and staff shortages

(Burke, 1998; Gelderen et al., 2007; Juniper, White, & Bellamy, 2010; Shane, 2010; Tuckey,

Winwood, & Dollard, 2012). These organizational sources of stress tend to be chronic,

accumulate over time, and may have a more pernicious—yet equally detrimental—impact on

LEP health (Hickman, 2011). LEPs impacted by these stressors experience a host of negative

outcomes that impair their ability to perform their duties and interact with the community safely

and effectively.

Occupational stressors are linked to fatigue (Ma et al., 2015), sleep disruption (Gershon

et al., 2009; Rajaratnam et al., 2011), spousal and general relationship issues, burnout, and

irritability (Hickman, 2011; Wirth, 2013) among LEPs. Relative to the general population, LEPs

experience higher rates of depression (Wang et al., 2010), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD;

Marmar et al., 2006), alcohol use disorders (Rees & Smith, 2008), suicidal ideation and attempts,

chronic anxiety, and ineffective communication (Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014). Similarly, physical

health issues such as cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders (Ma et al., 2015), cancer (Wirth

3

et al., 2013), obesity, and poor nutrition (Wyllie, 2011) are also present in LEPs at higher rates

than the general population.

In addition to negative health effects of police stressors on LEPs themselves, high-stress

LEPs are also at greater risk for poor job-related outcomes, such as administrative and tactical

errors, absenteeism, falling asleep while driving, and anger and aggression toward suspects

(Rajaratnam et al., 2011). In turn, anger and aggression in LEPs have been shown to negatively

impact problem-solving (Arslan, 2010) and ethical decision making (Kligyte, 2013), and is

positively related to hostile attribution and inclination to inflict particularly harsh punishment

(Ask & Pina, 2011; Seip, 2014). Given the negative effect of occupational stressors on LEP

health and job performance, as well as the larger implications for society, an improved

understanding of factors that might mitigate the impact of stressors on stress outcomes is needed.

LEP Stress

Salivary cortisol has been used as a biomarker of stress and related consequences in

previous studies of LEPs. Temporarily heightened cortisol arousal has been related to enhanced

quickness at identifying potential targets in a training scenario (Akinola & Mendes, 2012);

however, chronically elevated cortisol is related to a higher LEP incidence of metabolic

syndrome, cardiovascular problems (Violanti et al., 2009), and truncal obesity (Sharp et al.,

2013). Among LEPs, perceived stress also predicts avoidant and negative coping behaviors,

depression, anxiety, burnout (Gershon et al., 2009), sleep disturbances (Charles et al., 2011),

cortisol (Walvekar, Ambekar, & Devaranavadagi, 2015) and is predicted by shift work (Gerber

et al., 2010).

Also among LEPs, several studies have found that general occupational stressors (Inslicht

et al., 2011; Walvekar et al., 2015), shift work (Wirth et al., 2013), and traumatic stress (Ouellet-

4

Morin et al., 2011) are predictive of cortisol and perceived stress. Despite a body of research

concluding that chronic, acute, and occupational stressors are related to the CAR and perceived

stress among the general public (e.g., Kudielka et al., 2012; Hirvikoski, Lindholm, Nordstrom, &

Lajic, 2009; Walker et al., 2011; Gartland, O’Connor, Lawton, & Bristow, 2014; Powell &

Schlotz, 2012), other studies have found they are not (Vasunilashorn et al., 2014; Greaves-Lord

et al., 2007). Additional studies have found negative affect, anxiety, and rumination do not

reliably relate to the CAR (Chida & Steptoe, 2009; Zoccola & Dickerson, 2012). These findings

suggest the possibility that other moderating variables may account for the inconsistent

relationship between stressors and stress outcomes. Dispositional traits such as reactivity to

stress (Miller & Chen, 2006), mental distress, and other health problems (Shah, Hasan, Malik, &

Sreeramareddy, 2010) have been shown to impact the relationship between stressors and

perceived stress.

Dispositional mindfulness

Dispositional mindfulness has been defined as an innate characteristic reflecting an

individuals’ natural occurring ability to inhabit an intentional stance of awareness (Brown &

Ryan, 2003). Dispositional mindfulness negatively predicts mental health outcomes such as

perceived stress (Zimmaro et al., 2016), and has been shown to moderate the relationship

between stressors and outcomes such as dysphoria (Chiesa et al., 2012), rumination (Ciesla,

Reilly, Dickson, Emanuel, & Updegraff, 2012), and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress

(Marks, Sobanski, & Hine, 2010). Moreover, nonjudging of inner experience moderates the

relationship between neuroticism and suicidal ideation, acting with awareness moderates the

relationship between stressful life events and negative depression and anxiety (van Son et al.,

2014), and acceptance moderates the relationship between perceived stress and the CAR

5

(Daubenmier, Hayden, Chang, & Epel, 2014). Taken together, these studies suggest that facets

of dispositional mindfulness may mitigate the impact of stressors on perceived stress and the

CAR.

Mindfulness research on LEPs is limited; however acceptance negatively predicts

depression among law enforcement personnel in training (Williams et al., 2010) and PTSD

symptoms among active-duty LEPs (Chopko & Schwartz, 2013). Additionally, mindfulness has

been shown to reduce occupational stressors and anger amongst LEPs (Bergman, Christopher, &

Bowen, 2016). Dispositional mindfulness may buffer the impact of operational and

organizational stressors among LEPs. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine whether

three facets of dispositional mindfulness (i.e., acting with awareness, nonreactivity, and

nonjudging of inner experience) moderate the relationships between police stressors and the

CAR, and police stressors and perceived stress among LEPs, such that when dispositional

mindfulness is high, the relationship between stressors and psychological/physiological stress is

weaker than when it is low.

Method

Participants

Participants were recruited from a police department in a medium-sized city in the Pacific

Northwestern United States from Spring 2013 to Spring 2014. All eligible personnel in the

department were invited to participate in an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Resilience Training

course (see Christopher et al., 2016 for details). In this secondary data analysis, we only used

baseline data, which resulted in a sample of 72 participants. The sample was 57% male, the

average age was 43.53 years (SD = 7.72; range = 24-61), and in terms of race and ethnicity, 58

(81%) were Euro-American; 9 (13%) were Latino/a American; and 5 (6%) identified as Other.

6

The sample was composed of 48 officers, 10 civilian support staff, 9 sergeants, 3 lieutenants, and

2 other. The average number of years on the force was 13.28 (SD = 5.94; range 2-25).

Self-Report Measures

The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form (FFMQ-SF; Bohlmeijer et al.,

2011) is 24-item measure adapted from the FFMQ (Baer et al., 2006). It was developed using

factor analyses of existing questionnaires assessing individuals’ dispositional tendency to be

mindful in daily life. The full FFMQ consists of five facets of mindfulness: observing,

describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner

experience; we only used the acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and

nonreactivity to inner experience subscales because the describing and observing facets have

been found to be relatively less reliable across individuals with differing levels of meditation

experience (e.g., Christopher et al., 2012; de Bruin et al., 2012). Each of these facets had five

items resulting in a 15-item scale and the internal consistency of the scale in the present sample

was good (α = .82).

The Police Stress Questionnaire (PSQ; McCreary & Thompson, 2006) is a 40-item

questionnaire consisting of two subscales measuring operational stressors (20 job content items)

and organizational stressors (20 job context items). For each type of stress, all items were

summed to create a total score. The organizational and operational subscales have demonstrated

excellent factorial validity and expected correlations with other constructs (Shane, 2010). In the

present sample, both operational (α = .85) and organizational (α = .88) factors demonstrated

good internal consistency.

The 4-item Perceived Stress Scale-4 (PSS-4; Cohen & Williamson, 1988) was used to

assess the degree to which situations in life are perceived as stressful. Items on the PSS-4 are

7

designed to capture how unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded participants find their

lives. The PSS-4 has demonstrated expected correlations with a variety of constructs (Cohen &

Williamson, 1988), and in the present sample demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (α =

.69).

Saliva Collection

Self-collected saliva from participants was collected in 5 ml polypropylene tubes. This

method is noninvasive, and can be undertaken at home with minimum interferences with normal

daily routines. Participants self-collected approximately 2-3 ml of saliva at 0, 30, and 45 minutes

after awakening in the morning. Participants were directed to document their study code

number, as well as the date and time they collected each sample directly on a label affixed to

each tube. Awakening was either arranged via alarm or spontaneous. Participants were

instructed to refrain from eating, drinking (except small amounts of water), smoking, brushing

teeth, taking medications, and exercising prior to completing saliva collection. Saliva was then

processed and assayed for cortisol with an FDA-approved direct (non-extracted) salivary EIA

cortisol kit (Pantex). Cortisol was measured in 25 microliter increments by slight modifications

of a previously described method (Du et al., 2013). Inter-assay coefficient of variation for

cortisol is 8% at 1ng/ml, 7.1% at 4ng/ml, and 7.6% at 12.9 ng/ml. The detectable limit is 0.1 to

30ng/ml. All cortisol values were converted from ng/ml to nmol/L. In all analyses, we

computed the area under the curve with respect to increase (AUCI). Cortisol levels were

transformed into a single value by calculating the AUCI for the three collection times (0, 30, and

45 min after awakening).

The regulation of cortisol in humans follows a strong circadian rhythm – levels are

highest in the morning after awakening, and decline throughout the day with the nadir around

8

midnight, to rise again in the early morning hours (Matousek, Proussner, & Dobkin, 2011). A

distinct characteristic of the HPA axis is the cortisol awakening response (CAR). The CAR,

reflecting the organism’s response to the natural stressor of awakening, is a discrete part of the

cortisol circadian cycle. In healthy individuals, it is characterized by a sharp rise (between 50

and 75%) of cortisol levels within the first 30 minutes after awakening (Clow, Hucklebridge, &

Thorn, 2010). Repeated measurement of free cortisol levels within the 60 minutes after

awakening in the morning is considered a stable and reliable biological marker of adrenocortical

activity (Preussner et al., 1997). Salivary cortisol was only collected from a portion of

participants; therefore, the sample size for all cortisol analyses is 48.

Design and Analyses

To investigate if dispositional mindfulness moderates the relationship between police

stressors and physiological/psychological stress, PROCESS (Hayes, 2012) for SPSS Statistics (v.

22) was used. The interaction between each independent variable (operational stress and

organizational stress) and moderator variable (nonreactivity, nonjudging, and act with

awareness) was examined separately for each dependent variable (CAR and perceived stress) for

a total of 12 regression analyses. For each model, either organizational or operational stress was

entered in Step 1, either act with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, or nonreactivity to

inner experience was entered in Step 2; and the interaction term between these two variables was

entered in Step 3. A p value of .05 was retained for significance testing despite multiple analytic

models due to small sample size and the exploratory nature and novel population in the study.

Results

Preliminary analyses

9

Prior to data analyses, all variables were examined using SPSS-23 (SPSS Inc., 2013) to

examine univariate and multivariate data assumptions. Although there were no univariate

outliers, two multivariate outliers identified using Mahalanobis Distance, and both cases were

excluded from the analysis. Data obtained from the second cortisol collection time point (i.e., 30

minutes after waking) was substantially skewed (1.158), and transformed via square root prior to

the calculation of the AUCI. Descriptive statistics and correlations between study variables are

in Table 1.

Regression Models

As shown in Tables 2 and 3, three of the twelve interactions tested were found to be

statistically significant. First, nonreactivity moderated the relationship between operational

stressors and perceived stress (p = .01). As predicted, simple slope analyses revealed that when

nonreactivity is high (+1 SD), the relationship between operational stressors and perceived stress

is non-significant, whereas this relationship is statistically significant at average (Mean; p = .004)

and low (-1 SD; p < .001) levels of nonreactivity (see Figure 1). Second, nonjudging moderated

the relationship between organizational stressors and perceived stress (p = .04). Unexpectedly,

simple slope analyses revealed that when nonjudging was low (-1 SD), the relationship between

organizational stressors and perceived stress was non-significant, whereas it was significant at

average (Mean; p = .003) and high (+1 SD; p < .001) levels of nonjudging. However, although

the simple slope analysis revealed that organizational stressors predicted perceived stress at only

average and high levels of nonjudging, those who were low in nonjudging endorsed higher levels

of perceived stress at all levels of organizational stress, which partially explains the interaction,

and is consistent with prediction (see Figure 2). Third, nonreactivity moderated the relationship

between organizational stressors and the CAR (p =. 03). Simple slope analyses revealed that the

10

relationship between organizational stressors and the CAR was significant only at very low (-3

SD; p = .05) levels of nonreactivity (see Figure 3).

Post-hoc analyses

Given that the relationship between operational stressors and perceived stress was non-

significant when nonjudging is low (-1 SD) and when nonreactivity is high (+1 SD), we tested

the interaction between these facets in predicting perceived stress in order to examine their

synergistic impact (see Table 4). Both of these facets were entered in Step 1, and nonjudging (β

= -.46, p < .001) and nonreactivity (β = -.31, p = .008) were both found to significantly

negatively predict perceived stress. In Step 2, the interaction between nonjudging and

nonreactivity was entered, which was a significant predictor of perceived stress (β = 1.72, p =

.013). Simple slopes were plotted for each combination of the moderation (see Figures 4 and 5),

which revealed that when either nonreactivity or nonjudging were low (-1 SD), the relationship

between the other facet and perceived stress was significant. However, when either nonreactivity

or nonjudging were high (+1 SD), the relationship between the other facet and perceived stress

was not significant.

11

Table 1.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations for study variables

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Nonreactivity 14.40 2.97 ---

2. Nonjudging 16.94 3.66 .414** ---

3. Act with Awareness 14.36 3.29 .116 .258* ---

4. CAR 69.29 17.94 .082 .309* .217 ---

5. PSQ-Org 62.80 18.29 -.137 -.168 -.218 .000 ---

6. PSQ-Op 9.80 2.78 -.063 -.172 -.129 .012 .504** ---

7. PSS 18.39 41.32 -.313** -.458** -.482** -.070 .364** .356**

Note: Nonreactivity = Nonreactivity facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire,

Nonjudging = Nonjudging facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, Act with

awareness = Act with awareness facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, PSQ Org =

Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale, PSQ Op = Police Stress Questionnaire:

Operational subscale, CAR = cortisol awakening response, PSS = Perceived Stress Scale

*p < .05, **p < .001

12

Table 2.

Results of regression models testing interactions between facets of dispositional mindfulness

and police stressors on perceived stress

Perceived stress

Predictor ΔR2 β SE B p

Model 1

Step 1 .12 .002

PSQ Organizational .36 .018 .06

Step 2 .28 .012

PSQ Organizational

Act with awareness

.27

-.42

.016

.088

.04

-.36

< .001

Step 3 .29 .53

PSQ Organizational

Act with awareness

PSQ Org x AWA

-.26

-.88

.63

.063

.301

.004

-.04

-.74

.006

.016

.18

Model 2

Step 1 .12 .002

PSQ Organizational .36 .018 .06

Step 2 .27 .006

PSQ Organziational

Nonjudgment

.30

-.41

.016

.079

.05

-.31

<.001

Step 3 .31 .17

PSQ Organizational

Nonjudgment

PSQ Org x NJ

-.66

-1.20

1.15

.074

.302

.004

-.10

-.91

.009

.004

.044

Model 3

Step 1 .13 .002

PSQ Organizational .36 .018 .06

Step 2 .20 .004

PSQ Organizational

Nonreactivity

.33

-.27

.017

.103

.05

-.25

.017

Step 3 .20 .60

PSQ Organizational

Nonreactivity

PSQ Org x NR

.25

-.33

.10

.073

.349

.005

.04

-.31

.001

.38

.86

Model 4

Step 1 PSQ Operational .11 .36 .017 .05 .003

Step 2 PSQ Operational

Act with awareness

.30

.30

-.44

.015

.086

.05

-.38

.005

.000

Step 3 PSQ Operational

Act with awareness

PSQ Op x AWA

.29 .43

-.35

-.15

.066

.266

.004

.07

-.30

-.001

.33

.27

.76

Model 5

Step 1 .11 .003

13

PSQ Operational .36 .017 .05

Step 2 .30 .008

PSQ Operational

Nonjudgment

.29

-.41

.016

.079

.04

-.31

<.001

Step 3 .29 .200

PSQ Operational

Nonjudgment

PSQ Op x NJ

.68

-.16

-.43

.079

.265

.004

.10

-.12

-.003

.66

.45

Model 6

Step 1 .11 .003

PSQ Operational .36 .017 .05

Step 2 .19 .003

PSQ Operational

Nonreactivity

.34

-.29

.017

.102

.05

-.27

.009

Step 3 ,25 .002

PSQ Operational

Nonreactivity

PSQ Op x NR

1.32

.36

-1.18

.061

.260

.004

.20

.34

-.01

.20

.013

Note: PSQ Organizational = Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale, PSQ Operational = Police

Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale, AWA = Act with awareness facet of Five Facet Mindfulness

Questionnaire, NJ = Nonjudging facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, NR = Nonreactivity facet of

Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

14

Table 3

Results of regression models testing interactions between facets of dispositional mindfulness

and police stressors on cortisol awakening response

Cortisol awakening response

Predictor ΔR2 β SE B p

Model 1

Step 1 -.022 .999

PSQ Organizational .000 .37 .000

Step 2 .006 .79

PSQ Organizational

Act with awareness

.04

.22

.37

1.88

.10

2.85

.14

Step 3 .030 .19

PSQ Organizational

Act with awareness

PSQ Org x AWA

-.856

-.52

1.08

1.59

6.80

.10

-2.14

-6.61

.15

.34

.16

Model 2

Step 1 -.022 .999

PSQ Organizational .000 .37 .000

Step 2 .059 .67

PSQ Organziational

Nonjudgment

.06

.32

.36

1.70

.15

3.78

.03

Step 3 .068 .28

PSQ Organizational

Nonjudgment

PSQ Org x NJ

-.78

-.37

.99

1.77

6.97

.11

-1.93

-4.34

.13

.54

.24

Model 3

Step 1 -.022 .999

PSQ Organizational .000 .37 .000

Step 2 -.037 .95

PSQ Organizational

Nonreactivity

.01

.08

.37

1.95

.02

1.09

.58

Step 3 .043 .04

PSQ Organizational

Nonreactivity

PSQ Org x NR

-1.28

-.96

1.59

1.51

6.50

.10

-3.17

-12.49

.22

.06

.03

Model 4

Step 1 -.022 .94

PSQ Operational .01 .34 .03

Step 2 .007 .75

PSQ Operational

Act with awareness

.05

.22

.34

1.88

.11

2.85

.14

Step 3 -.013 .77

PSQ Operational

Act with awareness

-.19

.06

1.50

5.89

-.44

.78

.90

15

PSQ Op x AWA .27 .09 .04 .71

Model 5

Step 1 -.022 .94

PSQ Operational .01 .34 .03

Step 2 .059 .66

PSQ Operational

Nonjudgment

.06

.32

.33

1.69

.15

3.76

.03

Step 3 .038 .93

PSQ Operational

Nonjudgment

PSQ Op x NJ

.07

.32

-.003

1.66

5.53

.09

.15

3.78

.000

.50

.997

Model 6

Step 1 -.022 .94

PSQ Operational .01 .33 .03

Step 2 -.037 .94

PSQ Operational

Nonreactivity

.01

.08

.34

1.93

.03

1.07

.58

Step 3 .017 .09

PSQ Operational

Nonreactivity

PSQ Op x NR

-.90

-.57

1.15

1.15

4.89

.08

-2.04

-7.35

.15

.14

.07

Note: PSQ Organizational = Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale, PSQ Operational = Police

Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale, AWA = Act with awareness facet of Five Facet Mindfulness

Questionnaire, NJ = Nonjudging facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, NR = Nonreactivity facet of

Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

16

Table 4.

Results of regression models testing interactions between Nonjudging and Nonreactivity on

perceived stress

Perceived stress Predictor Adj. R2 β SE B p

Model 1

Step 1 .198 <.001

Nonjudging -.46 .08 -.35

Step 2 .205 .001

Nonjudging

Nonreactivity

-.40

-.15

.09

.11

-.30

-.14

.21

Step 3 .266 .001

Nonjudging

Nonreactivity

NJ x NR

-1.36

-1.22

1.72

.30

.41

.02

-1.03

-1.14

.05

.007

.013

Model 2

Step 1 .085 .008

Nonreactivity -.31 .11 -.29

Step 2 .205 .21

Nonreactivity

Nonjudging

-.15

-.40

.11

.09

-.14

-.30

.001

Step 3 .298 .007

Nonreactivity

Nonjudging

NR x NJ

-1.22

-1.36

1.72

.41

.30

.02

-1.14

-1.03

.05

.001

.013

Note: NJ = Nonjudging facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, NR = Nonreactivity

facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

17

Figure 1.

Police Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale and Nonreactivity

Note: PSS = Perceived Stress Scale, PSQ-OP = Police

Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale, FFMQ = Five

Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

18

Figure 2.

Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscales and Nonjudging

Note: PSS = Perceived Stress Scale, PSQ-Org = Police Stress

Questionnaire: Organizational subscale, FFMQ = Five Facet

Mindfulness Questionnaire

19

Figure 3.

Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale and the CAR

Note: CAR = Cortisol awakening response, PSQ-Org =

Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale,

FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire,

Nonreactivity = Nonreactivity facet of Five Facet

Mindfulness Questionnaire

20

Figure 4.

Nonjudging and Nonreactivity

Note: PSS = Perceived Stress Scale, FFMQ = Five Facet

Mindfulness Questionnaire, Nonjudging = Nonjudging facet

of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, Nonreactivity =

Nonreactivity facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

21

Figure 5.

Nonreactivity and nonjudging

Note: PSS = Perceived Stress Scale, FFMQ = Five Facet

Mindfulness Questionnaire, Nonjudging = Nonjudging facet

of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, Nonreactivity =

Nonreactivity facet of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

22

Discussion

The goal of this study was to examine the role of dispositional mindfulness in mitigating

the impact of occupational stressors on stress outcomes among LEPs. We hypothesized that

when dispositional mindfulness is high, the relationship between stressors and

psychological/physiological stress would be weaker than when it is low. To our knowledge this

is the first study to explore the potential protective nature of dispositional mindfulness in an LEP

sample. Results suggest that both nonjudging and nonreactivity are significant moderators of the

relationship between occupational stressors and stress outcomes.

Perceived Stress

As expected, operational and organizational stressors and all three facets of mindfulness

(nonjudging, nonreactivity, and acting with awareness) independently and significantly predicted

perceived stress. Moreover, as predicted, several interactions between a mindfulness facet and a

domain of police stressor were statistically significant. Specifically, we found that at low levels

of nonreactivity, the relationship between operational stressors and perceived stress was

significant, but at higher levels of nonreactivity the relationship was non-significant. This

finding is consistent with research that has shown occupational stressors experienced by LEPs

are reliably related to perceived stress (Inslicht et al., 2011; Walvekar et al., 2015; Wirth et al.,

2013), and that dispositional traits, such as reactivity to stress, moderate this relationship (Miller

& Chen, 2006). These results have been replicated in the general population as well;

nonreactivity is an important mitigating trait for severe stress outcomes such as overall PTSD

symptomology (Kalill, Treanor, & Roemer, 2014). Furthermore, our findings align with previous

research, demonstrating that mindfulness negatively predicts both occupational stressors and

23

stress-related outcomes in LEPs (Bergman et al., 2016). Building on limited extant research, our

findings suggest that nonreactivity may be an important dispositional trait that helps mitigate the

impact of occupational stressors on LEPs.

Similarly, nonjudging moderated the relationship between organizational stressors and

perceived stress; however, unexpectedly, the relationship between organizational stressors and

perceived stress was significant at average and higher levels of nonjudging, and not lower levels,

as we had predicted. However, closer inspection of the simple slope analysis revealed that those

who were low in nonjudging endorsed higher levels of perceived stress at all levels of

organizational stress, whereas those who were high in nonjudging endorsed much lower levels of

perceived stress when organizational stress was low. These findings suggest that nonjudging

may indeed confer some protective benefits at lower levels of stressors. This interaction may

also be partially explained by the nature of LEP training. LEPs are trained to make rapid

judgments in various situations pertinent to their occupation (Storey, Gibas, Reeves, & Hart

2011), a tendency that has been shown to be helpful in many crucial aspects of their work (Vrij

et al., 2007; Reynolds & Miles, 2009; McNiel et al., 2008).

Cortisol Awakening Response

Unlike perceived stress, neither organizational nor operational police stressors were

predictive of CAR. Similarly, only the nonjudging facet of mindfulness predicted CAR, and

nonreactivity was the only significant moderator (of organizational stressors and CAR).

Unexpectedly, at low levels of nonreactivity, there was a significant negative relationship

between organizational stressor and CAR, whereas at higher levels of nonreactivity, the

relationship between organizational stressors and CAR was positive and statistically significant.

This finding is counterintuitive, as past research has shown that dispositional mindfulness is

24

negatively related to salivary cortisol (Daubenmier, 2014; Garland, Beck, Lipschitz, &

Nakamura, 2015; Taren et al., 2013; Way et al., 2010). However, other studies have failed to

demonstrate such a link, which suggests that salivary cortisol may be an unreliable indicator of

stress response (Chida & Steptoe, 2009; Zoccola & Dickerson, 2012). This inconsistency may

be partially attributable to several factors. First, cortisol is influenced by traumatic and stressful

experiences (Ouellet-Morin et al., 2011), and LEPs who experience chronic stress may exhibit a

blunted cortisol response (Galatzer-Levy et al., 2014). Second, and specific to this study,

although we adhered to the standard protocol of acquiring three cortisol collection times within

60 minutes after waking, we relied on a single day of testing, whereas multiple days of testing is

preferable, given the day-to-day variability in cortisol production (Matousek et al., 2010).

Nonjudging and Nonreactivity

In a post-hoc analysis, we found that nonjudging and nonreactivity interacted to confer

additional protective factors against stress, over and beyond the other alone. More specifically,

lower levels of both nonjudging and nonreactivity were related to higher levels of perceived

stress, and higher levels of both nonjudging and nonreactivity were related to lower levels of

perceived stress. This finding may indicate that these facets of mindfulness have a synergistic

impact on perceived stress. These two facets of mindfulness have been suggested to be

particularly important, and may be conceptualized as a type of acceptance (Baer, 2006). In the

present sample, nonjudging and nonreactivity may interact to help LEPs approach thoughts,

feelings, and experiences with acceptance, and therefore perceive events as being less stressful.

Similarly, in separate MBI studies, improvements in nonreactivity and nonjudging both predicted

depression symptoms in veterans (Colgan, Christopher, Michael, & Wahbeh, 2016), and

improved nonjudging predicted stress and anger outcomes amongst law enforcement officers

25

(Bergman et al., 2016). Relatedly, when investigating the facets of the FFMQ, Peters, Eisenlohr-

Moul, Upton, and Baer (2013) found that nonjudging and acting with awareness had synergistic

effects in predicting impulsivity and anger (Peters, Eisenlohr-Moul, Upton, & Baer, 2013).

These findings suggest that it may be helpful to examine the relationship between facets of

mindfulness in predicting outcomes, and that combinations of these facets may describe semi-

unique constructs.

Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting and

generalizing results. First, as noted above, our use of a single-day saliva collection may have

limited our ability to detect and interpret CAR-related findings. Additionally, the small sample

size, particularly for cortisol data (n = 48) may have resulted in limited power, and reduced our

ability to detect significant moderations. Also, as mentioned previously, exposure to trauma may

result in a blunted CAR (Matousek et al., 2011). Given the often-traumatic nature of police

work, and the similarity between our baseline cortisol data and the data provided in a sample of

breast cancer patients (Matousek et al., 2011), it is likely that our sample may have also had a

blunted CAR. Second, several measures (i.e., PSS-4, PSQ) had acceptable, but not excellent

internal consistency. Third, cross-sectional data from a single police department limits

generalizability.

Conclusion

Despite these limitations, we believe this finding may have important implications. LEPs

face unique and substantial stressors throughout their careers. The current study suggests that

several facets of mindfulness may protect against the impact of occupational stressors for this

population, despite the severity and urgency of the stressors they face. While this study

26

contributes to this growing body of literature, mechanisms by which mindfulness interventions

may serve to mitigate negative health outcomes among LEPs and other first responders has yet to

be systematically studied. A potential mechanism might be enhanced resilience, or the ability to

make a rapid recovery from psychological distress (Bao, Xue, & Kong, 2015). A number of

studies of mindfulness-based interventions have shown that resilience mediates the relationship

mindfulness and positive health outcomes among college students (Bajaj & Pande, 2016), the

general population (Nitzan-Assayag, Aderka, & Bernstein, 2015), and first responders (Kaplan et

al., 2016). While these promising preliminary findings need further study, they offer an exciting

possibility for improving first responder health, and subsequently improving the well being of

the communities they serve.

27

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Appendix A

Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

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Appendix B

Perceived Stress Scale

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Appendix C

Police Stress Questionnaire: Organizational subscale

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Appendix D

Police Stress Questionnaire: Operational subscale