DISEASECAUSESSYMPTOMSTREATMENT/CONTROL

Testicular cancer(common in young and middle-aged men) detected as a hard (usually painless) swelling on the side of a testis surgical removal of the testis radiotherapy or chemotherapy

Prostrate cancer(common in men over the age of 60 years)(linked to obesity) prostrate gland tends to enlarge and interrupt the flow of urine, causing frequent urination removal of the prostrate gland removal of testes and treatment with oestrogen (since testosterone may promote the growth of the cancer)Men should check their testes regularly and men aged over 60 should report any symptoms of urination to their doctor.

Ovarian cancer(common in older women who have not had children)Many growths in the ovaries are cysts that are not harmful. Some growths are cancerous but there are no symptoms until the ovarian cancer is large and has spread to the uterus, where it causes pain. cancer may be removed in an operation drugs (chemotherapy)

Cervical cancer(common in younger women who are sexually active, have had sexually transmitted infections or an early pregnancy) (linked to obesity)No symptoms until cancer has spread detection by taking cervical smears and looking for precancerous cells radiotherapy if the cancer is not far advanced

Asthma smoke, e.g. from cigarettes allergens, e.g. dust mites feelings of anxiety exercise fungal spores breathlessness difficulty exhaling tight chest wheezing coughing, particularly in the early morning and eveningAn asthma attack: muscles of the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles are stimulated to contract mucus-secreting cells in the linings become more active steroid drug, e.g. the drug, salbutamol, in inhalers relaxes the airways

Diabetes mellitus the body stops producing insulin or target organs stop responding to it(linked to obesity) frequent urination, especially at night frequently thirsty increased appetite extreme tiredness, weight loss and loss of muscle tissue itchiness around genitals recurring infections of thrush - the growth of a yeast-like fungus promoted by glucose in urine blurred vision as lenses in the eye become very dry(Persons cannot control the glucose concentration in their blood.)Many complications, e.g. damage to retina (leading to blindness), nervous system and kidneys.Signs include: glucose in urine, detected by test strips (A glucose tolerance test can be used as confirmation.)

Diabetes type I(starts in childhood or adolescence) Insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are destroyed injection of insulin

Diabetes type II(starts later in life) genetic predisposition diet high in fat and refined sugar and inadequate in fibre obesity, high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol careful diet and exercise treatment with insulin when disease has largely progressed

Influenza virus via air droplets chills fever sore throat muscle pain headache coughing fatigue bed rest high fluid intake paracetamol (for muscle pain) antiviral drugsPrevention: ventilation, covering the mouth when sneezing or coughingLifelong immunity results from infection, but virus strains change and cause further infection.

Acute bronchitis virus or bacterium via air droplets coughing shortness of breath chest pain bed rest antibiotics (only if bacteria are in sputum)Prevention: ventilation, covering the mouth when sneezing or coughing

Pneumonia virus or bacterium via air droplets(Pathogens live in the nose and may spread to the lungs as a consequence of another disease.) coughing chest pain fever difficulty breathing bed rest high fluid intake painkillers antibiotics (for bacterial formantiviral drugs (for viral form)Prevention: ventilation, covering the mouth when sneezing or coughing

Tuberculosis bacterium by air dropletsPeople who sleep closely together are at a special risk of being infected with TB. persistent coughing brings up phlegm (which may be bloody) breathlessness loss of appetite and consequent weight loss high temperature night sweats fatigue affects lungs, lymph glands and bones antibiotics and other drugs for up to six months or more, Streptomycin was previously used until the bacterium developed resistance against the drug. BCG vaccinePrevention: ventilation, covering the mouth when sneezing or coughing

Ringworm (tinea) fungus via direct contact with infected person or with shared towels, flannels, bedding, hair brushes, etc. ring-like red rash on the skin antifungal creams or tablets (if it is on the scalp)Avoid sharing towels and take suitable precautions in public places, such as swimming pools.

Typhoid bacterium via faecal contamination of drinking water or food Houseflies are vectors delirium (typhoid) rash ( typhoid) damage/inflammation of the stomach and/or intestine ulcers to the walls bleeding diarrhoea vomiting dehydration abdominal pains/cramps fever oral rehydration therapy antibiotics, e.g. tetracycline (Penicillin has no effect on the bacterium that causes cholera.) Pain medicines Anti emetics- stop the vomiting. Trace carriers and treat with antibiotics

Prevention and control: Proper disposal of faeces Chlorination of water, boil water Hygienic food preparation- wash vegetables with clean water etc. Hand washing- soap and clean water Hand sanitisers Control of houseflies- removal of rubbish, clean surroundings, cover refuse so that the flies cannot lay their eggs in it, insecticides, swatting, fly paper, cover all food, cover cooking utensils. keep all food covered Immunisation (typhoid)

Cholera

Gastroenteritis bacterium of the Salmonella groupHousefly picks up infected material from food or faeces, and passes it onto human food during feeding infectious diseases, e.g. cholera and typhoid non-infectious diseases, e.g. food intolerance

Genital herpes sexually transmitted virusMales: painful sores on penis and scrotumFemales: painful sores and blisters around genitals antiviral drugs taken orally and applied as creams (no cure) contact tracing health awareness campaigns by government health departments, non-governmental agencies, schools and charities

HIV/AIDS

sexually transmitted virus in semen and vaginal fluids during unprotected sexual intercourse in blood if there is blood-to-blood contact between two people, e.g. intravenous drug users sharing needles to inject drugs in blood that is used in transfusion, if it is not heat-treated to kill HIV from mother to baby during birth and breast milk

HIV infects T-helper lymphocytes. The genetic material of the virus is in the form of RNA. An enzyme in the virus uses the RNA to make DNA which combines with the DNA in the chromosomes of the host cells, so that the host cell makes new copies of the virus particles when it uses this DNA to make RNA copies. The lymphocyte also makes protein coats and assembles the new virus particles. These virus particles bud off from the surface to infect other cells. no symptoms for some time collapse of immune system leading to cancers and variety of infectious diseases Infected pregnant women, if untreated, give birth to babies with HIV who require treatment throughout life.Symptoms may not appear until ten years after the initial infection.

AIDS is not a single disease - it is a syndrome, meaning that it is a collection of different diseases, e.g. cancers and infectious diseases (called opportunistic infections). antiviral drugs for HIV: interfere with the copying of RNA to DNA shortly after infection; side effects of these drugs include nausea, fever, diarrhoea, skin rashes and mood swings. antibiotics for secondary fungal and bacterial infections(no cure) condoms and other barrier methods of contraception (e.g. diaphragm which is less effective) HIV tests: Some detect protein antibodies produced by lymphocytes to protect against HIV. contact tracing health awareness campaigns by government health departments, non-governmental agencies, schools and charities

Gonorrhoea sexually transmitted bacteriumMales: pain when urinating yellow discharge from penisFemales: usually no symptomsBabies: The foetus may be infected during pregnancy, increasing the chance of a miscarriage. The bacteria may infect the eyes. Left untreated, the disease may lead to serious blood or joint infections and meningitis in the baby.

antibiotics, e.g. Penicillin, Streptomycin contact tracing health awareness campaigns by government health departments, non-governmental agencies, schools and charities

Syphilis sexually transmitted bacterium sores on the genitals Syphilis increases the chances of having a miscarriage, stillbirth or premature birth. Babies may be born with a variety of symptoms which may develop into serious health problems later in life, especially with poor eyesight, poor mental health and weak bones and teeth. The bacteria may infect the eyes. Left untreated, the disease may lead to serious blood or joint infections and meningitis in the baby. antibiotics, e.g. Penicillin contact tracing health awareness campaigns by government health departments, non-governmental agencies, schools and charities

Malaria group of protozoa called Plasmodium, e.g. Plasmodium falciparum tropical disease (as the parasite does not complete its life cycle at temperatures below 20oC) transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes

death in young children fever nausea headache muscle pain shivering sweating drugs such as Paludrin and Larium limit the entry of Plasmodium to the liver and reducing multiplication. tonic water, containing quinine no vaccines sleeping under mosquito nets spraying insect-repellents onto skin, e.g. those containing DEET which is an insecticide with an odour disliked by mosquitoes. wearing long-sleeved clothing especially during the evening spraying oil on water surfaces to block breathing tubes draining marshes and swamps introducing mosquito fish, which feed on larvae and pupae insecticides such as DDT

The female Anopheles mosquito takes a blood meal from an infected person. Plasmodium multiplies in the stomach wall of the mosquito, then migrates to the salivary glands. It may reproduce sexually, resulting in variation and difficulty in the development of vaccines.The mosquito then passes the parasites onto an uninfected human, through the piercing mouthparts from the mosquito's salivary glands. Parasites then multiply in the human's liver, after which they are released into the bloodstream and invade red blood cells where they feed on haemoglobin and divide by multiple fission. The infected erythrocytes burst and release parasites into the bloodstream. (This causes tiredness and fever.) An uninfected mosquito may then pick up parasites from the blood of the infected person.

Dengue fever four strains of virus: DENV-1 to DENV-4 tropical transmitted in the saliva of the Aedes aegypti mosquitoes high fever nausea painful body aches severe headaches skin rashA period of no symptoms if followed by a second attack of severe symptoms.

bed rest high fluid intake paracetamol as painkiller(no cure)

DISEASETRANSMISSION

Leptospirosis (Weil's disease) bacterium passed from animals to humans The bacteria pass out in the urine and may come into contact with breaks in the skin, the membranes of the eyes or into the nose. Drinking infected water or eating contaminated food Rodents are vectors

Dengue fever Virus DENV-1 to DENV-4 Aedes aegypti mosquito bites and drinks the blood of an infected person and passes the virus on in its saliva

Gastroenteritis Bacterium of the Salmonella group Housefly picks up infected material from food or from faeces, and then passes it on to human food as it feeds The mouthparts of a housefly consist of a long, grooved tongue with two channels, one which releases saliva and the other channel sucks up digested foodstuffs. During feeding, the fly squirts saliva containing digestive enzymes to partially digest its food and the resulting liquid is sucked up into the fly's intestine where digestion is completed. The decaying remains of dead animals, dung and the remains of food on rubbish tips on which the houseflies feed contain the microbes which cause typhoid, typhus, cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis and gastroenteritis, together with some tapeworm and threadworm eggs. These microbes and eggs stick to the housefly's feet, mouthparts and body and may be spread as the housefly settles on human food and drinks. infectious diseases, e.g. cholera and typhoid non-infectious diseases, e.g. food intolerance causes inflammation of the stomach and/or intestine and diarrhoea Prevention: good sanitation (keep human wastes from drinking water), e.g. In many countries, sewage is carried by a drainage system to a sewage works. The water supply is treated to kill potential pathogens and is distributed in a network of pipes.

Most chronic diseases cannot be cured but can be treated to reduce symptoms. General prevention includes: balanced diet exercise (improves circulatory, skeletal and muscular systems as well as improves mental health) not smoking drinking in moderation or not at all

Response system:1. The epidermis of the skin is a barrier against the entry of pathogens. Sebum secreted by the sebaceous glands in the skin acts as an antiseptic. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach and lactic acid in the vagina provide acidic conditions which prevent the growth of bacteria. Mucus is secreted by cells of the respiratory tract onto cilia which move it away from the lungs. Lysozyme in many body secretions, e.g. tears, is an enzyme which breaks down the cell walls of bacteria.2. When pathogens get through these defences, phagocytes in the blood may engulf and destroy them. When viruses, e.g. common cold and flu, enter cells, the infected cells secrete chemicals to warn other cells of the invasion. These are non-specific defences.3. The body has an immune system consisting of tissues, cells and molecules dispersed throughout the body to produce specific defences if pathogens breach the second line of defence. Then, the phagocytes 'cut them up' and 'show' them to lymphocytes which recognise the antigens and multiply by mitosis. These B-lymphocytes become filled with endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes so that they secrete protein molecules, called antibodies, into the lymph and blood.4. The forked end of the antibody recognises and binds to the surface antigen to label it. The other end acts as a signal to phagocytes or T-lymphocytes.5. These labelled antigens stick together in clumps to be ingested by phagocytes, are destroyed by T-lymphocytes which burst their membranes or are destroyed by the antibodies themselves which destroy the pathogen's cell walls or membranes.6. Antitoxins are antibodies that combine with the toxic waste products of bacteria and neutralise them so that they have no effect, e.g. bacteria of tetanus and diphtheria.7. Other lymphocytes are activated to patrol the body looking for infected cells, which they destroy to stop the production of pathogens.8. Some lymphocytes remain as memory lymphocytes which can recognise a second infection and destroy pathogens before symptoms even develop.An antigen is a protein or carbohydrate on the surface of a pathogen which provokes the immune system of the host. An antibody is a Y-shaped protein produced by lymphocytes which are able to recognise, bind to and destroy pathogens. An antitoxin is an antibody which neutralises toxic waste products of bacteria (toxins).DRUGEFFECT

Sedative or tranquiliser, e.g. Valium, Librium slows down bodily functions to reduce anxiety induces sleep overdose of sedatives may be fatal especially if taken with alcohol Valium makes it more difficult for neurotransmitters to cross synapses

Antidepressant, e.g. Prozac relieves depression may be taken for other conditions, e.g. pain relief severe side effects even if taken within the prescribed dose, e.g. untypical violent behaviour

Painkillers, e.g. Paracetamol, Aspirin, Ibuprofen relieve pain by interfering with the production of chemicals that cause inflammation overdose of aspirin may cause bleeding of the stomach overdose of paracetamol may lead to liver failure and death

Antibiotics used to control the spread of bacterial diseases in the body kill bacteria or stop them from reproducing target processes such as cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis in ribosomes and movement of substances across membranes

Anti-fungal drugs controls the growth of fungi, e.g. thrush and ringworm interfere with enzymes that are only found in fungi and not in human cells

Antiviral drugs control the spread of viral diseases, e.g. genital herpes prevent the production of viral genetic material interfere with viral protease enzymes

Stimulant, e.g. cocaine, amphetamines (such as ecstasy) greater alertness and wakefulness Stimulants speed up (promote) the action of the nervous system Cocaine is highly addictive. Ecstasy: enables dehydration may lead to death or disability, due to high body temperatures or rapid dehydration reduces the number of nerve cell connections in the brain in the long-term, causing memory loss and inability to perform specific tasks affects coordination is especially dangerous for persons with high blood pressure, heart problems or epilepsy, being a stimulant

Hallucinogen, e.g. LSD, marijuana causes changes in consciousness that users compare to having dreams or going into trances by upsetting the normal memory pathways in the association areas so that a normal stimulus may connect to an unusual response and the user may experience hallucinations (vivid waking dreams)

Depressant, e.g. heroin (obtained from opium poppies), alcohol reduce feelings of anxiety provides pain relief may induce sleep lowers blood pressure, heart rate and breathing rate Withdrawal symptoms of heroin from as little as four hours without the drug include: vomiting trembling profuse sweating severe abdominal pain Alcohol: affects emotional centres in the forebrain, acts as a depressant, overruling normal social constraints depresses the life-support centres in the medulla in high concentrations, stopping breathing, causing brain damage or even death reduces the effect of ADH on the kidney, dehydrating the body as water is not reabsorbed and causing a headache can upset normal sleeping patterns by reducing the levels of a 'calming agent' in the brain slows down nerve impulses in peripheral nerves, causing slower reactions; affects nerves that control blood flow to the skin, dilating skin blood vessels, causing flushing of the skin and hypothermia at low environmental temperatures stimulates sex organs and cause them not to work well has cardiovascular effects, e.g. anaemia (alcohol poisons bone marrow) and increased deposits of fat in coronary arteries causes irritation of the intestines, causing indigestion, nausea, diarrhoea and ulcers has liver cells work harder to detoxify alcohol, damaging cells lining blood vessels and causing cirrhosis of the liver crosses the placenta in pregnant women, impairing the development of the development of the child's nervous system, called foetal alcohol syndrome increases the risk of cancer of the tongue and oesophagus causes delirium tremens: withdrawal symptoms, e.g. tremors, high pulse rate, sweating and visual hallucination, which is treated with sedatives and multivitamins