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Discourses on LivyNiccolò Machiavelli

TableofContents

BookIPreface

ChapterIChapterIIChapterIIIChapterIVChapterVChapterVIChapterVIIChapterVIIIChapterIXChapterXChapterXIChapterXIIChapterXIIIChapterXIVChapterXVChapterXVIChapterXVIIChapterXVIIIChapterXIXChapterXXChapterXXIChapterXXIIChapterXXIIIChapterXXIVChapterXXVChapterXXVIChapterXXVIIChapterXXVIIIChapterXXIXChapterXXXChapterXXXIChapterXXXIIChapterXXXIIIChapterXXXIVChapterXXXV

ChapterXXXVIChapterXXXVIIChapterXXXVIIIChapterXXXIXChapterXLChapterXLIChapterXLIIChapterXLIIIChapterXLIVChapterXLVChapterXLVIChapterXLVIIChapterXLVIIIChapterXLIXChapterLChapterLIChapterLIIChapterLIIIChapterLIVChapterLVChapterLVIChapterLVIIChapterLVIIIChapterLIXChapterLX

BookIIPreface

ChapterIChapterIIChapterIIIChapterIVChapterVChapterVIChapterVIIChapterVIIIChapterIXChapterXChapterXIChapterXIIChapterXIIIChapterXIVChapterXVChapterXVIChapterXVII

ChapterXVIIIChapterXIXChapterXXChapterXXIChapterXXIIChapterXXIIIChapterXXIVChapterXXVChapterXXVIChapterXXVIIChapterXXVIIIChapterXXIXChapterXXXChapterXXXIChapterXXXIIChapterXXXIII

BookIIIChapterIChapterIIChapterIIIChapterIVChapterVChapterVIChapterVIIChapterVIIIChapterIXChapterXChapterXIChapterXIIChapterXIIIChapterXIVChapterXVChapterXVIChapterXVIIChapterXVIIIChapterXIXChapterXXChapterXXIChapterXXIIChapterXXIIIChapterXXIVChapterXXVChapterXXVIChapterXXVII

ChapterXXVIIIChapterXXIXChapterXXXChapterXXXIChapterXXXIIChapterXXXIIIChapterXXXIVChapterXXXVChapterXXXVIChapterXXXVIIChapterXXXVIIIChapterXXXIXChapterXLChapterXLIChapterXLIIChapterXLIIIChapterXLIVChapterXLVChapterXLVIChapterXLVIIChapterXLVIIIChapterXLIX

DISCOURSESONLIVY

TheFirstDecadeofTitusLivius

NiccolòMachiavelli

Translator:NinianHillThomson

DEDICATION

ToProfessorPasqualeVillari

DearProfessorVillari,

PermitmetoinscribeyournameonatranslationofMachiavelli’sDiscourseswhichIhadyourencouragementtoundertake,andinwhichIhavedonemybesttopreservesomethingoftheflavouroftheoriginal.Yoursfaithfully,

NINIANHILLTHOMSON.

FLORENCE,May17,1883.

To-ZanobiBuondelmontiandCosimoRucellai-Health

Isendyouagift,whichifitanswersilltheobligationsIoweyou,isatanyratethegreatestwhichNiccolòMachiavellihasitinhispowertooffer.ForinitIhaveexpressedwhateverIhavelearned,orhaveobservedformyselfduringalongexperienceandconstantstudyofhumanaffairs.Andsinceneitheryounoranyothercanexpectmoreatmyhands,youcannotcomplainifIhavenotgivenyoumore.

Youmayindeedlamentthepovertyofmywit,sincewhatIhavetosayisbutpoorlysaid;andtaxtheweaknessofmyjudgment,whichonmanypointsmayhaveerredinitsconclusions.Butgrantingallthis,Iknownotwhichofusislessbeholdentotheother:Itoyou,whohaveforcedmetowritewhatofmyselfInevershouldhavewritten;oryoutome,whohavewrittenwhatcangiveyounocontent.

Takethis,however,inthespiritinwhichallthatcomesfromafriendshouldbetaken,inrespectwhereofwealwayslookmoretotheintentionofthegiverthantothequalityofthegift.And,believeme,thatinonethingonlyIfindsatisfaction,namely,inknowingthatwhileinmanymattersImayhavemademistakes,atleastIhavenotbeenmistakeninchoosingyoubeforeallothersasthepersonstowhomIdedicatetheseDiscourses;bothbecauseIseemtomyself,indoingso,tohaveshownalittlegratitudeforkindnessreceived,andatthesametimetohavedepartedfromthehackneyedcustomwhichleadsmanyauthorstoinscribetheirworkstosomePrince,andblindedbyhopesoffavourorreward,topraisehimaspossessedofeveryvirtue;whereaswithmorereasontheymightreproachhimascontaminatedwitheveryshamefulvice.

ToavoidwhicherrorIhavechosen,notthosewhoarebutthosewhofromtheirinfinitemeritsdeservetobePrinces;notsuchpersonsashaveitintheirpowertoloadmewithhonours,wealth,andpreferment,butsuchasthoughtheylackthepower,haveallthewilltodoso.Formen,iftheywouldjudgejustly,shouldesteemthosewhoare,andnotthosewhosemeansenablethemtobegenerous;andinlikemannerthosewhoknowhowtogovernkingdoms,ratherthanthosewhopossessthegovernmentwithoutsuchknowledge.ForHistoriansawardhigherpraisetoHieroofSyracusewheninaprivatestationthantoPerseustheMacedonianwhenaKingaffirmingthatwhiletheformerlackednothingthataPrinceshouldhavesavethename,thelatterhadnothingoftheKingbutthekingdom.

Makethemost,therefore,ofthisgoodorthisevil,asyoumayesteemit,whichyouhavebroughtuponyourselves;andshouldyoupersistinthemistakeofthinkingmyopinionsworthyyourattention,IshallnotfailtoproceedwiththerestoftheHistoryinthemannerpromisedinmyPreface.Farewell.

BOOKI

PREFACEAlbeitthejealoustemperofmankind,evermoredisposedtocensurethantopraisetheworkofothers,hasconstantlymadethepursuitofnewmethodsandsystemsnolessperilousthanthesearchafterunknownlandsandseas;nevertheless,promptedbythatdesirewhichnaturehasimplantedinme,fearlesslytoundertakewhatsoeverIthinkoffersacommonbenefittoall,Ienteronapathwhich,beinghithertountroddenbyany,thoughitinvolvemeintroubleandfatigue,mayyetwinmethanksfromthosewhojudgemyeffortsinafriendlyspirit.Andalthoughmyfeeblediscernment,myslenderexperienceofcurrentaffairs,andimperfectknowledgeofancientevents,rendertheseeffortsofminedefectiveandofnogreatutility,theymayatleastopenthewaytosomeother,who,withbetterpartsandsounderreasoningandjudgment,shallcarryoutmydesign;whereby,ifIgainnocredit,atalleventsIoughttoincurnoblame.

WhenIseeantiquityheldinsuchreverence,thattoomitotherinstances,themerefragmentofsomeancientstatueisoftenboughtatagreatprice,inorderthatthepurchasermaykeepitbyhimtoadornhishouse,ortohaveitcopiedbythosewhotakedelightinthisart;andhowthese,again,strivewithalltheirskilltoimitateitintheirvariousworks;andwhen,ontheotherhand,Ifindthosenoblelabourswhichhistoryshowstohavebeenwroughtonbehalfofthemonarchiesandrepublicsofoldtimes,bykings,captains,citizens,lawgivers,andotherswhohavetoiledforthegoodoftheircountry,ratheradmiredthanfollowed,nay,soabsolutelyrenouncedbyeveryonethatnotatraceofthatantiqueworthisnowleftamongus,Icannotbutatoncemarvelandgrieve;atthisinconsistency;andallthemorebecauseIperceivethat,incivildisputesbetweencitizens,andinthebodilydisordersintowhichmenfall,recourseisalwayshadtothedecisionsandremedies,pronouncedorprescribedbytheancients.

Forthecivillawisnomorethantheopinionsdeliveredbytheancientjurisconsults,which,beingreducedtoasystem,teachthejurisconsultsofourowntimeshowtodetermine;whilethehealingartissimplytherecordedexperienceoftheoldphysicians,onwhichourmodernphysiciansfoundtheirpractice.Andyet,ingivinglawstoacommonwealth,inmaintainingStatesandgoverningkingdoms,inorganizingarmiesandconductingwars,indealingwithsubjectnations,andinextendingaState’sdominions,wefindnoprince,norepublic,nocaptain,andnocitizenwhoresortstotheexampleoftheancients.

ThisIpersuademyselfisdue,notsomuchtothefeeblenesstowhichthepresentmethodsofeducationhavebroughttheworld,ortotheinjurywhichapervadingapathyhaswroughtinmanyprovincesandcitiesofChristendom,astothewantofarightintelligenceofHistory,whichrendersmenincapableinreadingittoextractitstruemeaningortorelishitsflavour.WhenceithappensthatbyfarthegreaternumberofthosewhoreadHistory,takepleasureinfollowingthevarietyofincidentswhichitpresents,withoutathoughttoimitatethem;judgingsuchimitationtobenotonlydifficultbutimpossible;asthoughtheheavens,thesun,theelements,andmanhimselfwerenolongerthesameastheyformerlywereasregardsmotion,order,andpower.

Desiringtorescuemenfromthiserror,IhavethoughtfittonotedownwithrespecttoallthosebooksofTitusLiviuswhichhaveescapedthemalignityofTime,whateverseemstomeessentialtoarightunderstandingofancientandmodernaffairs;sothatanywhoshallreadtheseremarksofmine,mayreapfromthemthatprofitforthesakeofwhichaknowledgeofHistoryistobesought.Andalthoughthetaskbearduous,still,withthehelpofthoseatwhoseinstanceIassumedtheburthen,Ihopetocarryitforwardsofar,thatanothershallhavenolongwaytogotobringittoitsdestination.

CHAPTERI

OftheBeginningsofCitiesinGeneral,andinParticularofThatofRome.

NoonewhoreadshowthecityofRomehaditsbeginning,whowereitsfounders,andwhatitsordinancesandlaws,willmarvelthatsomuchexcellencewasmaintainedinitthroughmanyages,orthatitgrewafterwardstobesogreatanEmpire.

And,first,astouchingitsorigin,Isay,thatallcitieshavebeenfoundedeitherbythepeopleofthecountryinwhichtheystand,orbystrangers.Citieshavetheiroriginsintheformerofthesetwowayswhentheinhabitantsofacountryfindthattheycannotlivesecurelyiftheylivedispersedinmanyandsmallsocieties,eachofthemunable,whetherfromitssituationoritsslendernumbers,tostandaloneagainsttheattacksofitsenemies;onwhoseapproachthereisnotimelefttounitefordefencewithoutabandoningmanystrongholds,andthusbecominganeasypreytotheinvader.Toescapewhichdangers,whetheroftheirownmotionorattheinstanceofsomeofgreaterauthorityamongthem,theyrestrictthemselvestodwelltogetherincertainplaces,whichtheythinkwillbemoreconvenienttoliveinandeasiertodefend.

AmongmanycitiestakingtheirorigininthiswaywereAthensandVenice;theformerofwhich,forreasonslikethosejustnowmentioned,wasbuiltbyascatteredpopulationunderthedirectionofTheseus.Toescapethewarswhich,onthedecayoftheRomanEmpiredailyrenewedinItalybythearrivaloffreshhordesofBarbarians,numerousrefugees,shelteringincertainlittleislandsinacorneroftheAdriaticSea,gavebeginningtoVenice;where,withoutanyrecognizedleadertodirectthem,theyagreedtolivetogetherundersuchlawsastheythoughtbestsuitedtomaintainthem.Andbyreasonoftheprolongedtranquilitywhichtheirpositionsecured,theybeingprotectedbythenarrowseaandbythecircumstancethatthetribeswhothenharassedItalyhadnoshipswherewithtomolestthem,theywereablefromverysmallbeginningstoattaintothatgreatnesstheynowenjoy.

Inthesecondcase,namelyofacitybeingfoundedbystrangers,thesettlersareeitherwhollyindependent,ortheyarecontrolledbyothers,aswherecoloniesaresentfortheitherbyaprinceorbyarepublic,torelievetheircountriesofanexcessivepopulation,ortodefendnewlyacquiredterritorieswhichitissoughttosecureatsmallcost.OfthissortmanycitiesweresettledbytheRomans,andinallpartsoftheirdominions.Itmayalsohappenthatsuchcitiesarefoundedbyaprincemerelytoaddtohisrenown,withoutanyintentiononhisparttodwellthere,asAlexandriawasbuiltbyAlexandertheGreat.Citieslikethese,nothavinghadtheirbeginninginfreedom,seldommakesuchprogressastorankamongthechieftownsofkingdoms.

ThecityofFlorencebelongstothatclassoftownswhichhasnotbeenindependentfromthefirst;forwhetherweascribeitsorigintothesoldiersofSylla,or,assomehaveconjectured,tothemountaineersofFiesole(who,emboldenedbythelongpeacewhichprevailedthroughouttheworldduringthereignofOctavianus,camedowntooccupytheplainonthebanksoftheArno),ineithercase,itwasfoundedundertheauspicesofRomenorcould,atfirst,makeotherprogressthanwaspermittedbythegraceofthesovereign

State.

Theoriginofcitiesmaybesaidtobeindependentwhenapeople,eitherbythemselvesorundersomeprince,areconstrainedbyfamine,pestilence,orwartoleavetheirnativelandandseekanewhabitation.Settlersofthissorteitherestablishthemselvesincitieswhichtheyfindreadytotheirhandinthecountriesofwhichtheytakepossession,asdidMoses;ortheybuildnewones,asdidÆneas.Itisinthislastcasethatthemeritsofafounderandthegoodfortuneofthecityfoundedarebestseen;andthisgoodfortunewillbemoreorlessremarkableaccordingtothegreaterorlesscapacityofhimwhogivesthecityitsbeginning.

Thecapacityofafounderisknownintwoways:byhischoiceofasite,orbythelawswhichheframes.Andsincemenacteitherofnecessityorfromchoice,andmeritmayseemgreaterwherechoiceismorerestricted,wehavetoconsiderwhetheritmaynotbewelltochooseasteriledistrictasthesiteofanewcity,inorderthattheinhabitants,beingconstrainedtoindustry,andlesscorruptedbyease,mayliveincloserunion,findinglesscausefordivisioninthepovertyoftheirland;aswasthecaseinRagusa,andinmanyothercitiesbuiltinsimilarsituations.Suchachoicewerecertainlythewisestandthemostadvantageous,couldmenbecontenttoenjoywhatistheirownwithoutseekingtolorditoverothers.Butsincetobesafetheymustbestrong,theyarecompelledavoidthesebarrendistricts,andtoplantthemselvesinmorefertileregions;where,thefruitfulnessofthesoilenablingthemtoincreaseandmultiply,theymaydefendthemselvesagainstanywhoattackthem,andoverthrowanywhowouldwithstandtheirpower.

Andasforthatlanguorwhichthesituationmightbreed,caremustbehadthathardshipswhichthesitedoesnotenforce,shallbeenforcedbythelaws;andthattheexampleofthosewisenationsbeimitated,who,inhabitingmostfruitfulanddelightfulcountries,andsuchaswerelikelytorearalistlessandeffeminaterace,unfitforallmanlyexercises,inordertoobviatethemischiefwroughtbytheamenityandrelaxinginfluenceofthesoilandclimate,subjectedallwhoweretoserveassoldierstotheseveresttraining;whenceitcamethatbettersoldierswereraisedinthesecountriesthaninothersbynatureruggedandbarren.Such,ofold,wasthekingdomoftheEgyptians,which,thoughofalllandsthemostbountiful,yet,bytheseveretrainingwhichitslawsenforced,producedmostvaliantsoldiers,who,hadtheirnamesnotbeenlostinantiquity,mightbethoughttodeservemorepraisethanAlexandertheGreatandmanybesides,whosememoryisstillfreshinmen’sminds.Andeveninrecenttimes,anyonecontemplatingthekingdomoftheSoldan,andthemilitaryorderoftheMamelukesbeforetheyweredestroyedbySelimtheGrandTurk,musthaveseenhowcarefullytheytrainedtheirsoldiersineverykindofwarlikeexercise;showingtherebyhowmuchtheydreadedthatindolencetowhichtheirgenialsoilandclimatemighthavedisposedthem,unlessneutralizedbystrenuouslaws.Isay,then,thatitisaprudentchoicetofoundyourcityinafertileregionwhentheeffectsofthatfertilityaredulybalancedbytherestraintofthelaws.

WhenAlexandertheGreatthoughttoaddtohisrenownbyfoundingacity,DinocratesthearchitectcameandshowedhimhowhemightbuilditonMountAthos,whichnotonlyofferedastrongposition,butcouldbehandledthatthecitybuilttheremightpresentasemblanceofthehumanform,whichwouldbeathingstrangeandstriking,andworthyofsogreatamonarch.ButonAlexanderaskinghowtheinhabitantsweretolive,Dinocrates

answeredthathehadnotthoughtofthat.Whereupon,Alexanderlaughed,andleavingMountAthosasitstood,builtAlexandria;where,thefruitfulnessofthesoil,andthevicinityoftheNileandthesea,mightattractmanytotakeuptheirabode.

Tohim,therefore,whoinquiresintotheoriginofRome,ifheassignitsbeginningtoÆneas,itwillseemtobeofthosecitieswhichwerefoundedbystrangersiftoRomulus,thenofthosefoundedbythenativesofthecountry.Butinwhicheverclassweplaceit,itwillbeseentohavehaditsbeginninginfreedom,andnotinsubjectiontoanotherState.Itwillbeseen,too,ashereaftershallbenoted,howstrictwasthedisciplinewhichthelawsinstitutedbyRomulus,Numa,anditsotherfoundersmadecompulsoryuponit;sothatneitheritsfertility,theproximityofthesea,thenumberofitsvictories,northeextentofitsdominion,couldformanycenturiescorruptit,but,onthecontrary,maintaineditrepletewithsuchvirtuesaswerenevermatchedinanyothercommonwealth.

AndbecausethethingsdonebyRome,andwhichTitusLiviushascelebrated,wereeffectedathomeorabroadbypublicorbyprivatewisdom,Ishallbeginbytreating,andnotingtheconsequencesofthosethingsdoneathomeinaccordancewiththepublicvoice,whichseemmosttomeritattention;andtothisobjectthewholeofthisfirstBookorfirstPartofmyDiscourses,shallbedirected.

CHAPTERII

OftheVariousKindsofGovernment;andtoWhichofThemtheRomanCommonwealthBelonged

Iforegoalldiscussionconcerningthosecitieswhichattheoutsethavebeendependentuponothers,andshallspeakonlyofthosewhichfromtheirearliestbeginningshavestoodentirelyclearofallforeigncontrol,beinggovernedfromthefirstaspleasedthemselves,whetherasrepublicsorasprincedoms.

Theseastheyhavehaddifferentorigins,solikewisehavehaddifferentlawsandinstitutions.Fortosomeattheirveryfirstcommencement,ornotlongafter,lawshavebeengivenbyasinglelegislator,andallatonetime;likethosegivenbyLycurgustotheSpartans;whiletootherstheyhavebeengivenatdifferenttimes,asneedroseoraccidentdetermined;asinthecaseofRome.Thatrepublic,indeed,maybecalledhappy,whoselothasbeentohaveafoundersoprudentastoprovideforitlawsunderwhichitcancontinuetolivesecurely,withoutneedtoamendthem;aswefindSpartapreservinghersforeighthundredyears,withoutdeteriorationandwithoutanydangerousdisturbance.Ontheotherhand,somemeasureofunhappinessattachestotheStatewhich,nothavingyieldeditselfonceforallintothehandsofasinglewiselegislator,isobligedtorecastitsinstitutionsforitself;andofsuchStates,byfarthemostunhappyisthatwhichisfurthestremovedfromasoundsystemofgovernment,bywhichImeanthatitsinstitutionsliewhollyoutsidethepathwhichmightleadittoatrueandperfectend.ForitisscarcelypossiblethataStateinthispositioncanever,byanychance,setitselftorights,whereasanotherwhoseinstitutionsareimperfect,ifithavemadeagoodbeginningandsuchasadmitsofitsamendment,mayinthecourseofeventsarriveatperfection.Itiscertain,however,thatsuchStatescanneverbereformedwithoutgreatrisk;for,asarule,menwillacceptnonewlawalteringtheinstitutionsoftheirState,unlessthenecessityforsuchachangebedemonstrated;andsincethisnecessitycannotarisewithoutdanger,theStatemayeasilybeoverthrownbeforetheneworderofthingsisestablished.InproofwhereofwemayinstancetherepublicofFlorence,whichwasreformedintheyear1502,inconsequenceoftheaffairofArezzo,butwasruinedin1512,inconsequenceoftheaffairofPrato.

Desiring,therefore,todiscussthenatureofthegovernmentofRome,andtoascertaintheaccidentalcircumstanceswhichbroughtittoitsperfection,Isay,ashasbeensaidbeforebymanywhohavewrittenofGovernments,thatofthesetherearethreeforms,knownbythenamesMonarchy,Aristocracy,andDemocracy,andthatthosewhogiveitsinstitutionstoaStatehaverecoursetooneorotherofthesethree,accordingasitsuitstheirpurpose.Other,and,asmanyhavethought,wiserteachers,willhaveit,thattherearealtogethersixformsofgovernment,threeofthemutterlybad,theotherthreegoodinthemselves,butsoreadilycorruptedthattheytooareapttobecomehurtful.Thegoodarethethreeabovenamed;thebad,threeothersdependentuponthese,andeachsolikethattowhichitisrelated,thatitiseasytopassimperceptiblyfromtheonetotheother.ForaMonarchyreadilybecomesaTyranny,anAristocracyanOligarchy,whileaDemocracytendstodegenerateintoAnarchy.SothatifthefounderofaStateshouldestablishanyoneofthese

threeformsofGovernment,heestablishesitforashorttimeonly,sincenoprecautionhemaytakecanpreventitfromslidingintoitscontrary,byreasonofthecloseresemblancewhich,inthiscase,thevirtuebearstothevice.

ThesediversitiesintheformofGovernmentspringupamongmenbychance.Forinthebeginningoftheworld,itsinhabitants,beingfewinnumber,foratimelivedscatteredafterthefashionofbeasts;butafterwards,astheyincreasedandmultiplied,gatheredthemselvesintosocieties,and,thebettertoprotectthemselves,begantoseekwhoamongthemwasthestrongestandofthehighestcourage,towhom,makinghimtheirhead,theytenderedobedience.Nextarosetheknowledgeofsuchthingsasarehonourableandgood,asopposedtothosewhicharebadandshameful.Forobservingthatwhenamanwrongedhisbenefactor,hatredwasuniversallyfeltfortheoneandsympathyfortheother,andthattheungratefulwereblamed,whilethosewhoshowedgratitudewerehonoured,andreflectingthatthewrongstheysawdonetoothersmightbedonetothemselves,toescapethesetheyresortedtomakinglawsandfixingpunishmentsagainstanywhoshouldtransgressthem;andinthiswaygrewtherecognitionofJustice.Whenceitcamethatafterwards,inchoosingtheirrulers,mennolongerlookedaboutforthestrongest,butforhimwhowasthemostprudentandthemostjust.

But,presently,whensovereigntygrewtobehereditaryandnolongerelective,hereditarysovereignsbegantodegeneratefromtheirancestors,and,quittingworthycourses,tookupthenotionthatprinceshadnothingtodobuttosurpasstherestoftheworldinsumptuousdisplayandwantonness,andwhateverelseministerstopleasuresothattheprincecomingtobehated,andthereforetofeelfear,andpassingfromfeartoinflictionofinjuries,atyrannysoonsprangup.Forthwiththerebeganmovementstooverthrowtheprince,andplotsandconspiraciesagainsthimundertakennotbythosewhowereweak,orafraidforthemselves,butbysuchasbeingconspicuousfortheirbirth,courage,wealth,andstation,couldnottoleratetheshamefullifeofthetyrant.Themultitude,followingtheleadofthesepowerfulmen,tookuparmsagainsttheprinceand,hebeinggotridof,obeyedtheseothersastheirliberators;who,ontheirpart,holdinginhatredthenameofsoleruler,formedthemselvesintoagovernmentandatfirst,whiletherecollectionofpasttyrannywasstillfresh,observedthelawstheythemselvesmade,andpostponingpersonaladvantagetothecommonwelfare,administeredaffairsbothpubliclyandprivatelywiththeutmostdiligenceandzeal.Butthisgovernmentpassing,afterwards,totheirdescendantswho,neverhavingbeentaughtintheschoolofAdversity,knewnothingofthevicissitudesofFortune,thesenotchoosingtorestcontentwithmerecivilequality,butabandoningthemselvestoavarice,ambition,andlust,converted,withoutrespecttocivilrightswhathadbeenagovernmentofthebestintoagovernmentofthefew;andsoverysoonmetwiththesamefateasthetyrant.

Forthemultitudeloathingitsrulers,lentitselftoanywhoventured,inwhateverway,toattackthem;whensomeonemanspeedilyarosewhowiththeaidofthepeopleoverthrewthem.Buttherecollectionofthetyrantandofthewrongssufferedathishandsbeingstillfreshinthemindsofthepeople,whothereforefeltnodesiretorestorethemonarchy,theyhadrecoursetoapopulargovernment,whichtheyestablishedonsuchafootingthatneitherkingnornobleshadanyplaceinit.Andbecauseallgovernmentsinspirerespectatthefirst,thisgovernmentalsolastedforawhile,butnotforlong,andseldomafterthegenerationwhichbroughtitintoexistencehaddiedout.For,suddenly,libertypassedinto

license,whereinneitherprivateworthnorpublicauthoritywasrespected,but,everyonelivingasheliked,athousandwrongsweredonedaily.Whereupon,whetherdrivenbynecessity,oronthesuggestionofsomewisermanamongthemandtoescapeanarchy,thepeoplerevertedtoamonarchy,fromwhich,stepbystep,inthemannerandforthecausesalreadyassigned,theycameroundoncemoretolicense.ForthisisthecirclerevolvingwithinwhichallStatesareandhavebeengoverned;althoughinthesameStatethesameformsofGovernmentrarelyrepeatthemselves,becausehardlyanyStatecanhavesuchvitalityastopassthroughsuchacyclemorethanonce,andstilltogether.Foritmaybeexpectedthatinsomeseaofdisaster,whenaStatemustalwaysbewantingprudentcounselsandinstrength,itwillbecomesubjecttosomeneighbouringandbetter–governedState;thoughassumingthisnottohappen,itmightwellpassforanindefiniteperiodfromoneoftheseformsofgovernmenttoanother.

Isay,then,thatallthesesixformsofgovernmentarepernicious—thethreegoodkinds,fromtheirbriefdurationthethreebad,fromtheirinherentbadness.Wiselegislatorstherefore,knowingthesedefects,andavoidingeachoftheseformsinitssimplicity,havemadechoiceofaformwhichsharesinthequalitiesofallthefirstthree,andwhichtheyjudgetobemorestableandlastingthananyoftheseseparately.Forwherewehaveamonarchy,anaristocracy,andademocracyexistingtogetherinthesamecity,eachofthethreeservesasacheckupontheother.

Amongthosewhohaveearnedspecialpraisebydevisingaconstitutionofthisnature,wasLycurgus,whosoframedthelawsofSpartaastoassigntheirproperfunctionstokings,nobles,andcommons;andinthiswayestablishedagovernment,which,tohisgreatgloryandtothepeaceandtranquilityofhiscountry,lastedformorethaneighthundredyears.Thecontrary,however,happenedinthecaseofSolon;whobytheturnhegavetotheinstitutionsofAthens,createdthereapurelydemocraticgovernment,ofsuchbriefduration,thatIhimselflivedtowitnessthebeginningofthedespotismofPisistratus.Andalthough,fortyyearslater,theheirsofPisistratusweredrivenout,andAthensrecoveredherfreedom,neverthelessbecausesherevertedtothesameformgovernmentashadbeenestablishedbySolon,shecouldmaintainitforonlyahundredyearsmore;forthoughtopreserveit,manyordinanceswerepassedforrepressingtheambitionofthegreatandtheturbulenceofthepeople,againstwhichSolonhadnotprovided,still,sinceneitherthemonarchicnorthearistocraticelementwasgivenaplaceinherconstitution,Athens,ascomparedwithSparta,hadbutashortlife.

ButletusnowturntoRome,whichcity,althoughshehadnoLycurgustogiveherfromthefirstsuchaconstitutionaswouldpreserveherlonginfreedom,throughaseriesofaccidents,causedbythecontestsbetweenthecommonsandthesenate,obtainedbychancewhattheforesightofherfoundersfailedtoprovide.SothatFortune,ifshebestowednotherfirstfavoursonRome,bestowedhersecond;because,althoughtheoriginalinstitutionsofthiscityweredefective,stilltheylaynotoutsidethetruepathwhichcouldbringthemtoperfection.ForRomulusandtheotherkingsmademanyandgoodlaws,andsuchaswerenotincompatiblewithfreedom;butbecausetheysoughttofoundakingdomandnotacommonwealth,whenthecitybecamefreemanythingswerefoundwantingwhichintheinterestoflibertyitwasnecessarytosupply,sincethesekingshadnotsuppliedthem.AndalthoughthekingsofRomelosttheirsovereignty,inthemannerandforthecausesmentionedabove,neverthelessthosewhodrovethemout,byat

oncecreatingtwoconsulstotaketheirplace,preservedinRometheregalauthoritywhilebanishingfromittheregalthrone,sothatasbothsenateandconsulswereincludedinthatrepublic,itinfactpossessedtwooftheelementsaboveenumerated,towit,themonarchicandthearistocratic.

Itthenonlyremainedtoassignitsplacetothepopularelement,andtheRomannoblesgrowinginsolentfromcauseswhichshallbenoticedhereafter,thecommonsagainstthem,when,nottolosethewholeoftheirpower,theywereforcedtoconcedeasharetothepeople;whilewiththesharewhichremained,thesenateandconsulsretainedsomuchauthoritythattheystillheldtheirownplaceintherepublic.Inthiswaythetribunesofthepeoplecametobecreated,afterwhosecreationthestabilityoftheStatewasmuchaugmented,sinceeachthethreeformsofgovernmenthadnowitsdueinfluenceallowedit.AndsuchwasthegoodfortuneofRomethatalthoughhergovernmentpassedfromthekingstothenobles,andfromthesetothepeople,bythestepsandforthereasonsnoticedabove,stilltheentireauthorityofthekinglyelementwasnotsacrificedtostrengthentheauthorityofthenobles,norwerethenoblesdivestedoftheirauthoritytobestowitonthecommons;butthree,blendingtogether,madeupaperfectState;whichperfection,asshallbefullyshowninthenexttwoChapters,wasreachedthroughthedissensionsofthecommonsandthesenate.

CHAPTERIII

OftheAccidentsWhichLedinRometotheCreationofTribunesofthePeople;WherebytheRepublicWasMadeMorePerfect

TheywholaythefoundationsofaStateandfurnishitwithlawsmust,asisshownbyallwhohavetreatedofcivilgovernment,andbyexamplesofwhichhistoryisfull,assumethat‘allmenarebad,andwillalways,whentheyhavefreefield,giveloosetotheirevilinclinations;andthatiftheseforawhileremainhidden,itisowingtosomesecretcause,which,fromourhavingnocontraryexperience,wedonotrecognizeatonce,butwhichisafterwardsrevealedbyTime,ofwhomwespeakasthefatherofalltruth.

InRome,aftertheexpulsionoftheTarquins,itseemedasthoughtheclosestunionprevailedbetweenthesenateandthecommons,andthatthenobles,layingasidetheirnaturalarrogance,hadlearnedsotosympathizewiththepeopleastohavebecomesupportablebyall,evenofthehumblestrank.Thisdissimulationremainedundetected,anditscausesconcealed,whiletheTarquinslived;forthenoblesdreadingtheTarquins,andfearingthatthepeople,iftheyusedthemill,mighttakepartagainstthem,treatedthemwithkindness.ButnosoonerweretheTarquinsgotridof,andthenoblesthusrelievedoftheirfears,whentheybegantospitforthagainstthecommonsallthevenomwhichbeforetheyhadkeptintheirbreasts,offendingandinsultingthemineverywaytheycould;confirmingwhatIhaveobservedalready,thatmenneverbehavewellunlesscompelled,andthatwhenevertheyarefreetoactastheyplease,andareundernorestrainteverythingfallsatonceintoconfusionanddisorder.Whereforeithasbeensaidthataspovertyandhungerareneededtomakemenindustrious,solawsareneededtomakethemgood.Whenwedowellwithoutlaws,lawsarenotneeded;butwhengoodcustomsareabsent,lawsareatoncerequired.

OntheextinctionoftheTarquins,therefore,thedreadofwhomhadkeptthenoblesincheck,somenewsafeguardhadtobecontrived,whichshouldeffectthesameresultashadbeeneffectedbytheTarquinswhiletheylived.Accordingly,aftermuchuproarandconfusion,andmuchdangerofviolenceensuingbetweenthecommonsandthenobles,toinsurethesafetyoftheformer,tribuneswerecreated,andwereinvestedwithsuchstationandauthorityasalwaysafterwardsenabledthemtostandbetweenthepeopleandthesenate,andtoresisttheinsolenceofthenobles.

CHAPTERIV

ThattheDissensionsBetweentheSenateandCommonsofRome,MadeRomeFreeandPowerful

TouchingthosetumultswhichprevailedinRomefromtheextinctionoftheTarquinstothecreationofthetribunesthediscussionofwhichIhavenowishtoavoid,andastocertainothermattersofalikenature,IdesiretosaysomethinginoppositiontotheopinionofmanywhoassertthatRomewasaturbulentcity,andhadfallenintoutterdisorder,thathadnothergoodfortuneandmilitaryprowessmadeamendsforotherdefects,shewouldhavebeeninferiortoeveryotherrepublic.

IcannotindeeddenythatthegoodfortuneandthearmiesofRomewerethecausesofherempire;yetitcertainlyseemstomethatthoseholdingthisopinionfailtoperceive,thatinaStatewheretherearegoodsoldierstheremustbegoodorder,and,generallyspeaking,goodfortune.Andlookingtotheothercircumstancesofthiscity,Iaffirmthatthosewhocondemnthesedissensionsbetweenthenoblesandthecommons,condemnwhatwastheprimecauseofRomebecomingfree;andgivemoreheedtothetumultanduproarwherewiththesedissensionswereattended,thantothegoodresultswhichfollowedfromthem;notreflectingthatwhileineveryrepublictherearetwoconflictingfactions,thatofthepeopleandthatofthenobles,itisinthisconflictthatalllawsfavourabletofreedomhavetheirorigin,asmayreadilybeseentohavebeenthecaseinRome.ForfromthetimeoftheTarquinstothatoftheGracchi,aperiodofoverthreehundredyears,thetumultsinRomeseldomgaveoccasiontopunishmentbyexile,andveryseldomtobloodshed.Sothatwecannottrulydeclarethosetumultstohavebeendisastrous,orthatrepublictohavebeendisorderly,whichduringallthattime,onaccountofherinternalbroils,banishednomorethaneightortenofhercitizens,putveryfewtodeath,andrarelyinflictedmoneypenalties.Norcanwereasonablypronouncethatcityill–governedwhereinwefindsomanyinstancesofvirtue;forvirtuousactionshavetheirorigininrighttraining,righttraininginwiselaws,andwiselawsintheseverytumultswhichmanywouldthoughtlesslycondemn.Forhewholookswelltotheresultsofthesetumultswillfindthattheydidnotleadtobanishments,nortoviolencehurtfultothecommongood,buttolawsandordinancesbeneficialtothepublicliberty.AndshouldanyobjectthatthebehaviouroftheRomanswasextravagantandoutrageous;thatfortheassembledpeopletobeheardshoutingagainstthesenate,thesenateagainstthepeople;forthewholecommonstobeseenrushingwildlythroughthestreets,closingtheirshops,andquittingthetown,werethingswhichmightwellaffrighthimevenwhoonlyreadsofthem;itmaybeanswered,thattheinhabitantsofallcities,moreespeciallyofcitieswhichseektomakeuseofthepeopleinmattersofimportance,havetheirownwaysofgivingexpressiontotheirwishes;amongwhichthecityofRomehadthecustom,thatwhenitspeoplesoughttohavealawpassedtheyfollowedoneoranotherofthosecoursesmentionedabove,orelserefusedtobeenrolledassoldierswhen,topacifythem,somethingoftheirdemandshadtobeconceded.Butthedemandsofafreepeoplearehurtfultofreedom,sincetheyoriginateeitherinbeingoppressed,orinthefearthattheyareabouttobeso.Whenthisfearisgroundless,itfindsitsremedyinpublicmeetings,whereinsomeworthypersonmaycome

forwardandshowthepeoplebyargumentthattheyaredeceivingthemselves.Forthoughtheybeignorant,thepeoplearenottherefore,asCicerosays,incapableofbeingtaughtthetruth,butarereadilyconvincedwhenitistoldthembyoneinwhosehonestytheycantrust.

Weshould,therefore,becarefulhowwecensurethegovernmentofRome,andshouldreflectthatallthegreatresultseffectedbythatrepublic,couldnothavecomeaboutwithoutgoodcause.Andifthepopulartumultsledthecreationofthetribunes,theymeritallpraise;sincethesemagistratesnotonlygaveitsdueinfluencetothepopularvoiceinthegovernment,butalsoactedastheguardiansofRomanfreedom,asshallbeclearlyshowninthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERV

WhethertheGuardianshipofPublicFreedomisSaferintheHandsoftheCommonsoroftheNobles;andWhetherThoseWhoSeektoAcquirePowerorTheyWhoSeektoMaintainItAretheGreaterCauseofCommotions.

Oftheprovisionsmadebywisefoundersofrepublics,oneofthemostnecessaryisforthecreationofaguardianshipofliberty;foraccordingasthisisplacedingoodorbadhands,thefreedomoftheStatewillbemoreorlesslasting.Andbecauseineveryrepublicwefindthetwopartiesofnoblesandcommons,thequestionarises,towhichofthesetwothisguardianshipcanmostsafelybeentrusted.AmongtheLacedæmoniansofold,asnowwiththeVenetians,itwasplacedinthehandsofthenobles,butwiththeRomansitwasvestedinthecommons.Wehave,therefore,todeterminewhichoftheseStatesmadethewiserchoice.Ifwelooktoreasons,somethingistobesaidonbothsidesofthequestion;thoughwerewetolooktoresults,weshouldhavetopronounceinfavourofthenobles,inasmuchasthelibertyofSpartaandVenicehashadalongerlifethanthatofRome.

Astouchingreasons,itmaybepleadedfortheRomanmethod,thattheyaremostfittohavechargeofathing,wholeastdesiretopervertittotheirownends.And,doubtless,ifweexaminetheaimswhichthenoblesandthecommonsrespectivelysetbeforethem,weshallfindintheformeragreatdesiretodominate,inthelattermerelyadesirenottobedominatedover,andhenceagreaterattachmenttofreedom,sincetheyhavelesstogainthantheothersbydestroyingit.Wherefore,whenthecommonsareputforwardasthedefendersofliberty,theymaybeexpectedtotakebettercareofit,and,astheyhavenodesiretotamperwithitthemselves,tobelessapttosufferotherstodoso.

Ontheotherhand,hewhodefendsthemethodfollowedbytheSpartansandVenetians,mayurge,thatbyconfidingthisguardianshiptothenobles,twodesirableendsareserved:first,thatfrombeingallowedtoretainintheirownhandsaweaponwhichmakesthemthestrongerpartyintheState,theambitionofthisclassismorefullysatisfied;and,second,thatanauthorityiswithdrawnfromtheunstablemultitudewhichasusedbythemislikelytoleadtoendlessdisputesandtumults,andtodrivethenoblesintodangerousanddesperatecourses.IninstancewhereofmightbecitedthecaseofRomeitself,whereinthetribunesofthepeoplebeingvestedwiththisauthority,notcontenttohaveoneconsulaplebeian,insistedonhavingboth;andafterwardslaidclaimtothecensorship,theprætorshipandalltheothermagistraciesinthecity.Norwasthisenoughforthem,but,carriedawaybythesamefactiousspirit,theybeganafteratimetopaycourttosuchmenastheythoughtabletoattackthenobility,andsogaveoccasiontotheriseofMariusandtheoverthrowofRome.

Whereforeonewhoweighsbothsidesofthequestionwell,mighthesitatewhichpartyheshouldchooseastheguardianofpublicliberty,beinguncertainwhichclassismoremischievousinacommonwealth,thatwhichwouldacquirewhatithasnot,orthatwhichwouldkeeptheauthoritywhichithasalready.But,onthewhole,onacarefulbalanceofargumentswemaysumupthus:—EitherwehavetodealwitharepubliceagerlikeRometoextenditspower,orwithonecontentmerelytomaintainitself;intheformercaseitis

necessarytodoinallthingsasRomedid;inthelatter,forthereasonsandinthemannertobeshowninthefollowingChapter,wemayimitateVeniceandSparta.

Butrevertingtothequestionwhichclassofcitizensismoremischievousinarepublic,thosewhoseektoacquireorthosewhofeartolosewhattheyhaveacquiredalready,InotethatwhenMarcusMeneniusandMarcusFulvius,bothofthemmenofplebeianbirth,weremadetheonedictator,theothermasteroftheknights,thattheymightinquireintocertainplotsagainstRomecontrivedinCapua,theyhadatthesametimeauthoritygiventhembythepeopletoinvestigatewhether,inRomeitself,irregularandcorruptpracticeshadbeenusedtoobtaintheconsulshipandotherhonoursofthecity.Thenoblessuspectingthatthepowersthusconferredweretobeturnedagainstthem,everywheregaveoutthatifhonourshadbeensoughtbyanybyirregularandunworthymeans,itwasnotbythem,butbytheplebeians,who,withneitherbirthnormerittorecommendthem,hadneedtoresorttocorruption.Andmoreparticularlytheyaccusedthedictatorhimself.Andsotellingwastheeffectofthesecharges,thatMenenius,afterharanguingthepeopleandcomplainingtothemofthecalumniescirculatedagainsthim,laiddownhisdictatorship,andsubmittedhimselftowhateverjudgmentmightbepasseduponhim.Whenhiscausecametobetriedhewasacquitted;butatthehearingitwasmuchdebated,whetherhewhowouldretainpowerorhewhowouldacquireit,isthemoredangerouscitizen;thedesiresofbothbeinglikelytoleadtothegreatestdisorders.

Nevertheless,Ibelievethat,asarule,disordersaremorecommonlyoccasionedbythoseseekingtopreservepower,becauseinthemthefearoflossbreedsthesamepassionsasarefeltbythoseseekingtoacquire;sincemenneverthinktheyholdwhattheyhavesecurely,unlesswhentheyaregainingsomethingnewfromothers.Itisalsotobesaidthattheirpositionenablesthemtooperatechangeswithlesseffortandgreaterefficacy.Further,itmaybeadded,thattheircorruptandinsolentbehaviourinflamesthemindsofthosewhohavenothing,withthedesiretohave;eitherforthesakeofpunishingtheiradversariesbydespoilingthem,ortoobtainforthemselvesashareofthoserichesandhonourswhichtheyseetheothersabuse.

CHAPTERVI

WhetherItWasPossibleinRometoContriveSuchaGovernmentasWouldHaveComposedtheDifferencesBetweentheCommonsandtheSenate.

IhavespokenaboveoftheeffectsproducedinRomebythecontroversiesbetweenthecommonsandthesenate.Now,astheselasteddowntothetimeoftheGracchi,whentheybroughtabouttheoverthrowoffreedom,somemaythinkitmatterforregretthatRomeshouldnothaveachievedthegreatthingsshedid,withoutbeingtornbysuchdisputes.Wherefore,itseemstomeworthwhiletoconsiderwhetherthegovernmentofRomecouldeverhavebeenconstitutedinsuchawayastopreventlikecontroversies.

Inmakingthisinquirywemustfirstlooktothoserepublicswhichhaveenjoyedfreedomforagreatwhile,undisturbedbyanyviolentcontentionsortumults,andseewhattheirgovernmentwas,andwhetheritwouldhavebeenpossibletointroduceitintoRome.OfsuchrepublicswehaveanexampleinancienttimesinSparta,inmoderntimesinVenice,ofbothwhichStatesIhavealreadymademention.Spartacreatedforherselfagovernmentconsistingofakingandalimitedsenate.Venicehasmadenodistinctioninthetitlesofherrulers,allqualifiedtotakepartinhergovernmentbeingclassedundertheonedesignationof“Gentlemen,”anarrangementduerathertochancethantotheforesightofthosewhogavethisStateitsconstitution.Formanypersons,fromcausesalreadynoticed,seekingshelterontheserocksonwhichVenicenowstands,aftertheyhadsomultipliedthatiftheyweretocontinuetolivetogetheritbecamenecessaryforthemtoframelaws,establishedaformofgovernment;andassemblingoftenintheircouncilstoconsultfortheinterestsoftheircity,whenitseemedtothemthattheirnumbersweresufficientforpoliticalexistence,theyclosedtheentrancetocivilrightsagainstallwhocameafterwardstolivethere,notallowingthemtotakeanypartinthemanagementofaffairs.Andwhenincourseoftimetherecametobemanycitizensexcludedfromthegovernment,toaddtotheimportanceofthegoverningbody,theynamedthese“Gentlemen”(gentiluomini),theothers“Plebeians”(popolani).Andthisdistinctioncouldgrowupandmaintainitselfwithoutcausingdisturbance;forasatthetimeofitsorigin,whosoeverthenlivedinVenicewasmadeoneofthegoverningbody,nonehadreasontocomplain;whilethosewhocametolivethereafterwards,findingthegovernmentinacompletedform,hadneithergroundnoropportunitytoobject.Noground,becausenothingwastakenfromthem;andnoopportunity,becausethoseinauthoritykeptthemundercontrol,andneveremployedtheminaffairsinwhichtheycouldacquireimportance.Besideswhich,theywhocamelatertodwellinVenicewerenotsonumerousastodestroyallproportionbetweenthegovernorsandthegoverned;thenumberofthe“Gentlemen”beingasgreatas,orgreaterthanthatofthe“Plebeians.”Forthesereasons,therefore,itwaspossibleforVenicetomakeherconstitutionwhatitis,andtomaintainitwithoutdivisions.

Sparta,again,beinggoverned,asIhavesaid,byakingandalimitedsenate,wasabletomaintainherselfforthelongperiodshedid,because,fromthecountrybeingthinlyinhabitedandfurtherinfluxofpopulationforbidden,andfromthelawsofLycurgus(theobservancewhereofremovedallgroundofdisturbance)beingheldinhighesteem,the

citizenswereabletocontinuelonginunity.ForLycurgushavingbyhislawsestablishedinSpartagreatequalityastoproperty,butlessequalityastorank,thereprevailedthereanequalpoverty;andthecommonswerelessambitious,becausetheofficesoftheState,whichwereheldtotheirexclusion,wereconfinedtoafew;andbecausethenoblesneverbyharshtreatmentarousedinthemanydesiretousurptheseoffices.AndthiswasduetotheSpartankings,who,beingappointedtothatdignityforlife,andplacedinthemidstofthisnobility,hadnostrongersupporttotheirauthoritythanindefendingthepeopleagainstinjustice.Whenceitresultedthatasthepeopleneitherfearednorcovetedthepowerwhichtheydidnotpossess,theconflictswhichmighthavearisenbetweenthemandthenobleswereescaped,togetherwiththecauseswhichwouldhaveledtothem;andinthiswaytheywereabletolivelongunited.ButofthisunityinSpartathereweretwochiefcauses:one,thefewnessofitsinhabitants,whichallowedoftheirbeinggovernedbyafew;theother,thatbydenyingforeignersadmissionintotheircountry,thepeoplehadlessoccasiontobecomecorrupted,andneversoincreasedinnumbersastoprovetroublesometotheirfewrulers.

Weighingallwhichcircumstances,weseethattohavekeptRomeinthesametranquilitywhereintheserepublicswerekept,oneoftwocoursesmusthavebeenfollowedbyherlegislators;foreither,liketheVenetians,theymusthaverefrainedfromemployingthecommonsinwar,orelse,liketheSpartans,theymusthaveclosedtheircountrytoforeigners.Whereas,inbothparticulars,theydidtheopposite,armingthecommonsandincreasingtheirnumber,andthusaffordingendlessoccasionsfordisorder.AndhadtheRomancommonwealthgrowntobemoretranquil,thisinconveniencewouldhaveresulted,thatitmustatthesametimehavegrownweaker,sincetheroadwouldhavebeenclosedtothatgreatnesstowhichitcame,forinremovingthecausesofhertumults,Romemusthaveinterferedwiththecausesofhergrowth.

Andhewholookscarefullyintothematterwillfind,thatinallhumanaffairs,wecannotridourselvesofoneinconveniencewithoutrunningintoanother.Sothatifyouwouldhaveyourpeoplenumerousandwarlike,totheendthatwiththeiraidyoumayestablishagreatempire,youwillhavethemofsuchasortasyoucannotafterwardscontrolatyourpleasure;whileshouldyoukeepthemfewandunwarlike,totheendthatyoumaygovernthemeasily,youwillbeunable,shouldyouextendyourdominions,topreservethem,andwillbecomesocontemptibleastobethepreyofanywhoattackyou.Forwhichreasoninallourdeliberationsweoughttoconsiderwherewearelikelytoencounterleastinconvenience,andacceptthatasthecoursetobepreferred,sinceweshallneverfindanylineofactionentirelyfreefromdisadvantage.

Romemight,therefore,followingtheexampleofSparta,havecreatedakingforlifeandasenateoflimitednumbers,butdesiringtobecomeagreatempire,shecouldnot,likeSparta,haverestrictedthenumberofhercitizens.Sothattohavecreatedakingforlifeandalimitedsenatehadbeenoflittleservicetoher.

Wereanyone,therefore,abouttofoundawhollynewrepublic,hewouldhavetoconsiderwhetherhedesiredittoincreaseasRomedidinterritoryanddominion,ortocontinuewithinnarrowlimits.IntheformercasehewouldhavetoshapeitsconstitutionasnearlyaspossibleonthepatternoftheRoman,leavingroomfordissensionsandpopulartumults,forwithoutagreatandwarlikepopulationnorepubliccaneverincrease,orincreasing

maintainitself.InthesecondcasehemightgivehisrepublicaconstitutionlikethatofVeniceorSparta;butsinceextensionistheruinofsuchrepublics,thelegislatorwouldhavetoprovideineverypossiblewayagainsttheStatewhichhehadfoundedmakinganyadditionstoitsterritories.Forthese,whensuperimposeduponafeeblerepublic,aresuretobefataltoit:asweseetohavebeenthecasewithSpartaandVenice,theformerofwhich,aftersubjugatingnearlyallGreece,onsustainingatriflingreverse,betrayedtheinsufficiencyofherfoundations,forwhen,aftertherevoltofThebesunderPelopidas,othercitiesalsorebelled,theSpartankingdomwasutterlyoverthrown.Veniceinlikemanner,aftergainingpossessionofagreatportionofItaly(mostofitnotbyherarmsbutbyherwealthandsubtlety),whenherstrengthwasputtotheproof,lostallinonepitchedbattle.

Icanwellbelieve,then,thattofoundarepublicwhichshalllongendure,thebestplanmaybetogiveitinternalinstitutionslikethoseofSpartaorVenice;placingitinanaturallystrongsituation,andsofortifyingitthatnonecanexpecttogetthebetterofiteasily,yet,atthesametime,notmakingitsogreatastobeformidabletoitsneighbours;sincebytakingtheseprecautions,itmightlongenjoyitsindependence.Fortherearetwocauseswhichleadtowarsbeingmadeagainstarepublic;one,yourdesiretobeitsmaster,theotherthefearlestitshouldmasteryou;bothofwhichdangerstheprecautionindicatedwillgofartoremove.Forif,aswearetoassume,thisrepublicbewellpreparedfordefence,andconsequentlydifficultofattack,itwillseldomorneverhappenthatanyonewillformthedesigntoattackit,andwhileitkeepswithinitsownboundaries,andisseenfromexperiencenottobeinfluencedbyambition,noonewillbeled,outoffearforhimself,tomakewaruponit,moreparticularlywhenitslawsandconstitutionforbiditsextension.Andwereitpossibletomaintainthingsinthisequilibrium,Iveritablybelievethathereinwouldbefoundthetrueformofpoliticallife,andthetruetranquilityofarepublic.Butallhumanaffairsbeinginmovement,andincapableofremainingastheyare,theymusteitherriseorfall;andtomanyconclusionstowhichwearenotledbyreason,wearebroughtbynecessity.SothatwhenwehavegiveninstitutionstoaStateonthefootingthatitistomaintainitselfwithoutenlargement,shouldnecessityrequireitsenlargement,itsfoundationswillbecutfrombelowit,anditsdownfallquicklyensue.Ontheotherhand,werearepublicsofavouredbyHeavenastolieundernonecessityofmakingwar,theresultofthiseasewouldbetomakeiteffeminateanddividedwhichtwoevilstogether,andeachbyitself,wouldinsureitsruin.Andsinceitisimpossible,asIbelieve,tobringaboutanequilibrium,ortoadherestrictlytothemeanpath,wemust,inarrangingourrepublic,considerwhatisthemorehonourablecourseforittotake,andsocontrivethatevenifnecessitycompelitsenlargement,itmaybeabletokeepwhatitgains.

Butreturningtothepointfirstraised,IbelieveitnecessaryforustofollowthemethodoftheRomansandnotthatoftheotherrepublics,forIknowofnomiddleway.Wemust,consequently,putupwiththosedissensionswhicharisebetweencommonsandsenate,lookingonthemasevilswhichcannotbeescapedifwewouldarriveatthegreatnessofRome.

InconnectionwiththeargumentshereusedtoprovethattheauthorityofthetribuneswasessentialinRometotheguardianshipoffreedom,wemaynaturallygoontoshowwhatadvantagesresulttoarepublicfromthepowerofimpeachment;which,togetherwith

others,wasconferreduponthetribunes;asubjecttobenoticedinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERVII

ThattoPreserveLibertyinaStateThereMustExisttheRighttoAccuse.

Tothosesetforwardinacommonwealthasguardiansofpublicfreedom,nomoreusefulornecessaryauthoritycanbegiventhanthepowertoaccuse,eitherbeforethepeople,orbeforesomecouncilortribunal,thosecitizenswhoinanywayhaveoffendedagainstthelibertyoftheircountry.

AlawofthiskindhastwoeffectsmostbeneficialtoaState:first,thatthecitizensfromfearofbeingaccused,donotengageinattemptshurtfultotheState,ordoingso,areputdownatonceandwithoutrespectofpersons:andnext,thataventisgivenfortheescapeofallthoseevilhumourswhich,fromwhatevercause,gatherincitiesagainstparticularcitizens;forunlessanoutletbedulyprovidedforthesebythelaws,theyflowintoirregularchannelsandoverwhelmtheState.Thereisnothing,therefore,whichcontributessomuchtothestabilityandpermanenceofaState,astotakecarethatthefermentationofthesedisturbinghumoursbesuppliedbyoperationoflawwitharecognizedoutlet.Thismightbeshownbymanyexamples,butbynonesoclearlyasbythatofCoriolanusrelatedbyLivius,wherehetellsus,thatatatimewhentheRomannobleswereangrywiththeplebeians(thinkingthattheappointmentoftribunesfortheirprotectionhadmadethemtoopowerful),ithappenedthatRomewasvisitedbyagrievousfamine,tomeetwhichthesenatesenttoSicilyforcorn.ButCoriolanus,hatingthecommons,soughttopersuadethesenatethatnowwasthetimetopunishthem,andtodeprivethemoftheauthoritywhichtheyhadusurpedtotheprejudiceofthenobles,bywithholdingthedistributionofcorn,andsosufferingthemtoperishofhunger.Whichadviceofhiscomingtotheearsofthepeople,kindledthemtosuchfuryagainsthim,thattheywouldhaveslainhimashelefttheSenateHouse,hadnotthetribunescitedhimtoappearandanswerbeforethemtoaformalcharge.

InrespectofthisincidentIrepeatwhatIhavejustnowsaid,howusefulandnecessaryitisforrepublicstoprovidebytheirlawsachannelbywhichthedispleasureofthemultitudeagainstasinglecitizenmayfindavent.Forwhennonesuchisregularlyprovided,recoursewillbehadtoirregularchannels,andthesewillassuredlyleadtomuchworseresults.Forwhenacitizenisbornedownbytheoperationortheordinarylaws,eventhoughhebewronged,littleornodisturbanceisoccasionedtothestate:theinjuryhesuffersnotbeingwroughtbyprivateviolence,norbyforeignforce,whicharethecausesoftheoverthrowoffreeinstitutions,butbypublicauthorityandinaccordancewithpublicordinances,which,havingdefinitelimitssetthem,arenotlikelytopassbeyondthesesoastoendangerthecommonwealth.ForproofofwhichIamcontenttorestonthisoldexampleofCoriolanus,sinceallmayseewhatadisasteritwouldhavebeenforRomehadhebeenviolentlyputtodeathbythepeople.For,asbetweencitizenandcitizen,awrongwouldhavebeendoneaffordinggroundforfear,fearwouldhavesoughtdefence,defencehaveledtofaction,factiontodivisionsintheState,andthesetoitsruin.Butthematterbeingtakenupbythosewhoseofficeitwastodealwithit,alltheevilswhichmusthavefollowedhaditbeenleftinprivatehandswereescaped.

InFlorence,ontheotherhand,andinourowndays,wehaveseenwhatviolentcommotionsfollowwhenthepeoplecannotshowtheirdispleasureagainstparticularcitizensinaformrecognizedbythelaws,intheinstanceofFrancescoValori,atonetimelookeduponastheforemostcitizenofourrepublic.Butmanythinkinghimambitious,andlikelyfromhishighspiritanddaringtooverstepthelimitsofcivilfreedom,andtherebeingnowaytoopposehimsavebysettingupanadversefaction,theresultwas,that,apprehendingirregularattacks,hesoughttogainpartisansforhissupport;whilehisopponents,ontheirside,havingnocourseopentothemofwhichthelawsapproved,resortedtocoursesofwhichthelawsdidnotapprove,and,atlast,toopenviolence.Andashisinfluencehadtobeattackedbyunlawfulmethods,thesewereattendedbyinjurynottohimonly,buttomanyothernoblecitizens;whereas,couldhehavebeenmetbyconstitutionalrestraints,hispowermighthavebeenbrokenwithoutinjurytoanysavehimself.ImightalsocitefromourFlorentinehistorythefallofPieroSoderini,whichhadnoothercausethantherenotbeinginourrepublicanylawunderwhichpowerfulandambitiouscitizenscanbeimpeached.Fortoformatribunalbywhichapowerfulcitizenistobetried,eightjudgesonlyarenotenough;thejudgesmustbenumerous,becauseafewwillalwaysdothewillofafew.Buthadtherebeenpropermethodsforobtainingredress,eitherthepeoplewouldhaveimpeachedPieroifhewasguilty,andthushavegivenventtotheirdispleasurewithoutcallingintheSpanisharmy;orifhewasinnocent,wouldnothaveventured,throughfearofbeingaccusedthemselves,tohavetakenproceedingsagainsthim.Sothatineithercasethebitterspiritwhichwasthecauseofallthedisorderwouldhavehadanend.Wherefore,whenwefindoneofthepartiesinaStatecallinginaforeignpower,wemaysafelyconcludethatitisbecausethedefectivelawsofthatStateprovidenoescapeforthosemalignanthumourswhicharenaturaltomen;whichcanbestbedonebyarrangingforanimpeachmentbeforeasufficientnumberofjudges,andbygivingcountenancetothisprocedure.ThiswassowellcontrivedinRomethatinspiteoftheperpetualstrugglemaintainedbetweenthecommonsandthesenate,neitherthesenatenorthecommons,noranysinglecitizen,eversoughtredressatthehandsofaforeignpower;forhavingaremedyathome,therewasnoneedtoseekoneabroad.

AlthoughtheexamplesabovecitedbeproofsufficientofwhatIaffirm,Idesiretoadduceoneother,recordedbyTitusLiviusinhishistory,whereherelatesthatasisterofArunshavingbeenviolatedbyaLucumoofClusium,thechiefoftheEtruscantowns,Arunsbeingunable,fromtheinterestofherravisher,toavengeher,betookhimselftotheGaulswhoruledintheprovincewenownameLombardy,andbesoughtthemtocomewithanarmedforcetoClusium;showingthemhowwithadvantagetothemselvestheymightavengehiswrongs.Now,hadArunsseenthathecouldhavehadredressthroughthelawsofhiscountry,heneverwouldhaveresortedtotheseBarbariansforhelp.

Butastherighttoaccuseisbeneficialinarepublic,socalumny,ontheotherhand,isuselessandhurtful,asinthefollowingChapterIshallproceedtoshow.

CHAPTERVIII

ThatCalumnyisasHurtfulinaCommonwealthasthePowertoAccuseisUseful.

SuchweretheservicesrenderedtoRomebyFuriusCamillusinrescuingherfromtheoppressionoftheGauls,thatnoRoman,howeverhighhisdegreeorstation,helditderogatorytoyieldplacetohim,saveonlyManliusCapitolinus,whocouldnotbrooksuchgloryanddistinctionbeinggiventoanother.ForhethoughtthatinsavingtheCapitol,hehadhimselfdoneasmuchasCamillustopreserveRome,andthatinrespectofhisotherwarlikeachievementshewasnowhitbehindhim.Sothat,burstingwithjealousy,andunabletoremainatrestbyreasonoftheother’srenown,andseeingnowaytosowdiscordamongtheFathers,hesethimselftospreadabroadsinisterreportsamongthecommons;throwingout,amongothercharges,thatthetreasurecollectedtobegiventotheGauls,butwhich,afterwards,waswithheld,hadbeenembezzledbycertaincitizens,andifrecoveredmightbeturnedtopublicusesinrelievingthepeoplefromtaxesorfromprivatedebts.Theseassertionssoprevailedwiththecommonsthattheybegantoholdmeetingsandtoraisewhattumultstheylikedthroughoutthecity.Butthisdispleasingthesenate,andthematterappearingtothemgraveanddangerous,theyappointedadictatortoinquireintoit,andtorestraintheattacksofManlius.Thedictator,forthwith,causedManliustobecitedbeforehim;andthesetwowerethusbroughtfacetofaceinthepresenceofthewholecity,thedictatorsurroundedbythenobles,andManliusbythecommons.Thelatter,beingdesiredtosaywithwhomthetreasureofwhichhehadspokenwastobefound,sincethesenatewereasanxioustoknowthisasthecommons,madenodirectreply,butansweredevasivelythatitwasneedlesstotellthemwhattheyalreadyknew.Whereuponthedictatororderedhimtoprison.

InthispassagewearetaughthowhatefulathingiscalumnyinallfreeStates,as,indeed,ineverysociety,andhowwemustneglectnomeanswhichmayservetocheckit.Andtherecanbenomoreeffectualmeansforcheckingcalumnythanbyaffordingamplefacilitiesforimpeachment,whichisasusefulinacommonwealthastheotherispernicious.Andbetweenthemthereisthisdifference,thatcalumnyneedsneitherwitness,norcircumstantialprooftoestablishit,sothatanymanmaybecalumniatedbyanyother;butnotimpeached;sinceimpeachmentdemandsthattherebesubstantivechargesmade,andtrustworthyevidencetosupportthem.Again,itisbeforethemagistrates,thepeople,orthecourtsofjusticethatmenareimpeached;butinthestreetsandmarketplacesthattheyarecalumniated.Calumny,therefore,ismostrifeinthatStatewhereinimpeachmentisleastpractised,andthelawsleastfavourit.ForwhichreasonsthelegislatorshouldsoshapethelawsofhisStatethatitshallbepossiblethereintoimpeachanyofitscitizenswithoutfearorfavour;and,afterdulyprovidingforthis,shouldvisitcalumniatorswiththesharpestpunishments.Thosepunishedwillhavenocausetocomplain,sinceitwasintheirpowertohaveimpeachedopenlywheretheyhavesecretlycalumniated.Wherethisisnotseento,gravedisorderswillalwaysensue.Forcalumniesstingwithoutdisabling;andthosewhoarestungbeingmoremovedbyhatredoftheirdetractorsthanbyfearofthethingstheysayagainstthem,seekrevenge.

Thismatter,aswehavesaid,waswellarrangedforinRome,buthasalwaysbeenbadlyregulatedinourcityofFlorence.AndastheRomanordinanceswithregardtoitwereproductiveofmuchgood,sothewantoftheminFlorencehasbredmuchmischief.Foranyonereadingthehistoryofourcitymayperceive,howmanycalumnieshaveatalltimesbeenaimedagainstthoseofitscitizenswhohavetakenaleadingpartinitsaffairs.Thus,ofoneitwouldbesaidthathehadplunderedthepublictreasury,ofanother,thathehadfailedinsomeenterprisebecausehehadbeenbribed;ofathird,thatthisortheotherdisasterhadoriginatedinhisambition.Hencehatredsprunguponeveryside,andhatredgrowingtodivision,theseledtofactions,andtheseagaintoruin.ButhadthereexistedinFlorencesomeprocedurewherebycitizensmighthavebeenimpeached,andcalumniatorspunished,numberlessdisorderswhichhavetakentherewouldhavebeenprevented.Forcitizenswhowereimpeached,whethercondemnedoracquitted,wouldhavehadnopowertoinjuretheState;andtheywouldhavebeenimpeachedfarseldomerthantheyhavebeencalumniated;forcalumny,asIhavesaidalready,isaneasiermatterthanimpeachment.

Some,indeed,havemadeuseofcalumnyasameansforraisingthemselvestopower,andhavefoundtheiradvantageintraducingeminentcitizenswhowithstoodtheirdesigns;forbytakingthepartofthepeople,andconfirmingthemintheirill–opinionofthesegreatmen,theymadethemtheirfriends.Ofthis,thoughIcouldgivemanyinstances,Ishallcontentmyselfwithone.AtthesiegeofLuccatheFlorentinearmywascommandedbyMesserGiovanniGuicciardini,asitscommissary,throughwhosebadgeneralshiporill–fortunethetownwasnottaken.Butwhateverthecauseofthisfailure,MesserGiovannihadtheblame;andtherumourranthathehadbeenbribedbythepeopleofLucca.Whichcalumnybeingfosteredbyhisenemies,broughtMesserGiovannitoveryvergeofdespair;andthoughtoclearhimselfhewouldwillinglyhavegivenhimselfuptotheCaptainofJusticehefoundhecouldnot,therebeingnoprovisioninthelawsoftherepublicwhichallowedofhisdoingso.HencearosethebitteresthostilitybetweenthefriendsofMesserGiovanni,whoweremostlyoftheoldnobility(grandi),andthosewhosoughttoreformthegovernmentofFlorence;andfromthisandthelikecauses,theaffairgrewtosuchdimensionsastobringaboutthedownfallofourrepublic.

ManliusCapitolinus,then,wasacalumniator,notanaccuser;andintheirtreatmentofhimtheRomansshowedhowcalumniatorsshouldbedealtwith;bywhichImean,thattheyshouldbeforcedtobecomeaccusers;andiftheiraccusationbeprovedtrue,shouldberewarded,oratleastnotpunished,butifprovedfalseshouldbepunishedasManliuswas.

CHAPTERIX

ThattoGiveNewInstitutionstoaCommonwealth,ortoReconstructOldInstitutionsonanEntirelyNewBasis,MustbetheWorkofOneMan

ItmayperhapsbethoughtthatIshouldnothavegotsofarintothehistoryofRome,withoutsomementionofthosewhogavethatcityitsinstitutions,andsayingsomethingoftheseinstitutionsthemselves,sofarastheyrelatetoreligionandwar.AsIhavenowishtokeepthosewhowouldknowmyviewsonthesemattersinsuspense,Isayatonce,thattomanyitmightseemofevilomenthatthefounderofacivilgovernmentlikeRomulus,shouldfirsthaveslainhisbrother,andafterwardshaveconsentedtothedeathofTitusTatiustheSabine,whomhehadchosentobehiscolleagueinthekingship;sincehiscountrymen,ifmovedbyambitionandlustofpowertoinflictlikeinjuriesonanywhoopposedtheirdesigns,mightpleadtheexampleoftheirprince.ThisviewwouldbeareasonableonewerewetodisregardtheobjectwhichledRomulustoputthosementodeath.Butwemusttakeitasaruletowhichthereareveryfewifanyexceptions,thatnocommonwealthorkingdomeverhassalutaryinstitutionsgivenitfromthefirstorhasitsinstitutionsrecastinanentirelynewmould,unlessbyasingleperson.Onthecontrary,itmustbefromonemanthatitreceivesitsinstitutionsatfirst,andupononemanthatallsimilarreconstructionmustdepend.Forthisreasonthewisefounderofacommonwealthwhoseekstobenefitnothimselfonly,orthelineofhisdescendants,buthisStateandcountry,mustendeavourtoacquireanabsoluteandundividedauthority.Andnonewhoiswisewilleverblameanyaction,howeverextraordinaryandirregular,whichservestolaythefoundationofakingdomortoestablisharepublic.Foralthoughtheactcondemnthedoer,theendmayjustifyhim;andwhen,asinthecaseofRomulus,theendisgood,itwillalwaysexcusethemeans;sinceitishewhodoesviolencewithintenttoinjure,nothewhodoesitwiththedesigntosecuretranquility,whomeritsblame.Suchapersonoughthowevertobesoprudentandmoderateastoavoidtransmittingtheabsoluteauthorityheacquires,asaninheritancetoanother;forasmenare,bynature,morepronetoevilthantogood,asuccessormayturntoambitiousendsthepowerwhichhispredecessorhasusedtopromoteworthyends.Moreover,thoughitbeonemanthatmustgiveaStateitsinstitutions,oncegiventheyarenotsolikelytolastlongrestingforsupportontheshouldersofonemanonly,aswhenentrustedtothecareofmany,andwhenitisthebusinessofmanytomaintainthem.ForthoughthemultitudebeunfittosetaStateinorder,sincetheycannot,byreasonofthedivisionswhichprevailamongthem,agreewhereinthetruewell–beingoftheStatelies,yetwhentheyhaveoncebeentaughtthetruth,theyneverwillconsenttoabandonit.AndthatRomulus,thoughheputhisbrothertodeath,isyetofthosewhoaretobepardoned,sincewhathedidwasdoneforthecommongoodandnotfrompersonalambition,isshownbyhisatoncecreatingasenate,withwhomhetookcounsel,andinaccordancewithwhosevoicehedetermined.AndwhosoevershallwellexaminetheauthoritywhichRomulusreservedtohimself,willfindthathereservednothingbeyondthecommandofthearmywhenwarwasresolvedon,andtherighttoassemblethesenate.Thisisseenlater,onRomebecomingfreebytheexpulsionoftheTarquins,whentheRomansalterednoneoftheirancientinstitutionssave

inappointingtwoconsulsforayearinsteadofakingforlife;forthisprovesthatalltheoriginalinstitutionsofthatcityweremoreinconformitywithafreeandconstitutionalgovernment,thanwithanabsoluteanddespoticone.

Insupportofwhathasbeensaidabove,Imightciteinnumerableinstances,asofMoses,Lycurgus,Solon,andotherfoundersofkingdomsandcommonwealths,who,fromthefullpowersgiventhem,wereenabledtoshapetheirlawstothepublicadvantage;butpassingovertheseexamples,asofcommonnotoriety,Itakeone,notindeedsofamous,butwhichmeritstheattentionofallwhodesiretoframewiselaws.Agis,KingofSparta,desiringtobringbackhiscountrymentothoselimitswithinwhichthelawsofLycurgushadheldthem,becausehethoughtthat,fromhavingsomewhatdeviatedfromthem,hiscityhadlostmuchofitsancientvirtueand,consequentlymuchofitsstrengthandpower,was,attheveryoutsetofhisattempts,slainbytheSpartanEphori,asonewhosoughttomakehimselfatyrant.ButCleomenescomingafterhiminthekingdom,and,onreadingthenotesandwritingswhichhefoundofAgiswhereinhisdesignsandintentionswereexplained,beingstirredbythesamedesire,perceivedthathecouldnotconferthisbenefitonhiscountryunlessheobtainedsolepower.Forhesawthattheambitionofothersmadeitimpossibleforhimtodowhatwasusefulformanyagainstthewillofafew.Wherefore,findingfitoccasion,hecausedtheEphoriandallotherslikelytothrowobstaclesinhisway,tobeputtodeath;afterwhich,hecompletelyrenewedthelawsofLycurgus.AndtheresultofhismeasureswouldhavebeentogivefreshlifetoSparta,andtogainforhimselfarenownnotinferiortothatofLycurgus,haditnotbeenforthepoweroftheMacedoniansandtheweaknessoftheotherGreekStates.Forwhileengagedwiththesereforms,hewasattackedbytheMacedonians,andbeingbyhimselfnomatchforthem,andhavingnonetowhomhecouldturnforhelp,hewasoverpowered;andhisplans,thoughwiseandpraiseworthy,wereneverbroughttoperfection.

Allwhichcircumstancesconsidered,IconcludethathewhogivesnewinstitutionstoaStatemuststandalone;andthatforthedeathsofRemusandTatius,Romulusistobeexcusedratherthanblamed.

CHAPTERX

ThatinProportionastheFounderofaKingdomorCommonwealthMeritsPraise,HeWhoFoundsaTyrannyDeservesBlame.

Ofallwhoarepraisedtheyarepraisedthemost,whoaretheauthorsandfoundersofreligions.Afterwhomcomethefoundersofkingdomsandcommonwealths.Nexttothese,theyhavethegreatestnamewhoascommandersofarmieshaveaddedtotheirowndominionsorthoseoftheircountry.Afterthese,again,arerankedmenofletters,whobeingofvariousshadesofmeritarecelebratedeachinhisdegree.Toallothers,whosenumberisinfinite,isascribedthatmeasureofpraisetowhichhisprofessionoroccupationentitleshim.And,conversely,allwhocontributetotheoverthrowofreligion,ortotheruinofkingdomsandcommonwealths,allwhoarefoestolettersandtotheartswhichconferhonourandbenefitonthehumanrace(amongwhomIreckontheimpious,thecruel,theignorant,theindolent,thebaseandtheworthless),areheldininfamyanddetestation.

Noone,whetherhebewiseorfoolish,badorgood,ifaskedtochoosebetweenthesetwokindsofmen,willeverbefoundtowithholdpraisefromwhatdeservespraise,orblamefromwhatistobeblamed.Andyetalmostall,deceivedbyafalsegoodandafalseglory,allowthemselveseitherignorantlyorwilfullytofollowinthefootstepssuchasdeserveblameratherthanpraise;and,haveitintheirpowertoestablish,totheirlastingrenown,acommonwealthorkingdom,turnasidetocreateatyrannywithoutathoughthowmuchtheytherebyloseinname,fame,security,tranquility,andpeaceofmind;andinnamehowmuchinfamy,scorn,danger,anddisquiettheyare?Butweretheytoreadhistory,andturntoprofitthelessonsofthepast,itseemsimpossiblethatthoselivinginarepublicasprivatecitizens,shouldnotprefertheirnativecity,toplaythepartofScipioratherofCæsar;orthatthosewhobygoodfortuneormerithaverisentoberulers,shouldnotseekrathertoresembleAgesilaus,Timoleon,andDion,thantoNabis,PhalarisandDionysius;sincetheywouldseehowthelatterareloadedwithinfamy,whiletheformerhavebeenextolledbeyondbounds.Theywouldsee,too,howTimoleonandotherslikehim,hadasgreatauthorityintheircountryasDionysiusorPhalarisintheirs,whileenjoyingfargreatersecurity.NorletanyonefindingCæsarcelebratedbyacrowdofwriters,bemisledbyhisglory;forthosewhopraisehimhavebeencorruptedbygoodfortune,andoverawedbythegreatnessofthatempirewhich,beinggovernedinhisname,wouldnotsufferanytospeaktheirmindsopenlyconcerninghim.ButlethimwhodesirestoknowhowhistorianswouldhavewrittenofCæsarhadtheybeenfreetodeclaretheirthoughtsmarkwhattheysayofCatiline,thanwhomCæsarismorehateful,inproportionashewhodoesismoretobecondemnedthanhewhoonlydesirestodoevil.LethimseealsowhatpraisestheylavishuponBrutus,becausebeingunable,outofrespectforhispower,toreproachCæsar,theymagnifyhisenemy.AndifhewhohasbecomeprinceinanyStatewillbutreflect,how,afterRomewasmadeanempire,fargreaterpraisewasearnedthoseemperorswholivedwithinthelaws,andworthily,thanbythosewholivedinthecontraryway,hewillseethatTitus,Nerva,Trajan,Hadrian,AntoninusandMarcushadnoneedofprætoriancohorts,orofcountlesslegionstoguardthem,butweredefendedbytheirown

goodlives,thegood–willoftheirsubjects,andtheattachmentofthesenate.InlikemannerhewillperceiveinthecaseofCaligula,Nero,Vitellius,andeversomanymoreofthoseevilemperors,thatallthearmiesoftheeastandofthewestwereofnoavailtoprotectthemfromtheenemieswhomtheirbadanddepravedlivesraisedupagainstthem.Andwerethehistoryoftheseemperorsrightlystudied,itwouldbeasufficientlessontoanyprincehowtodistinguishthepathswhichleadtohonourandsafetyfromthosewhichendinshameandinsecurity.Forofthetwenty–sixemperorsfromCæsartoMaximinus,sixteencametoaviolent,tenonlytoanaturaldeath;andthoughoneortwoofthosewhodiedbyviolencemayhavebeengoodprinces,asGalbaorPertinax,theymettheirfateinconsequenceofthatcorruptionwhichtheirpredecessorshadleftbehindinthearmy.Andifamongthosewhodiedanaturaldeath,therebefoundsomebademperors,likeSeverus,itistobeascribedtotheirsignalgoodfortuneandtotheirgreatabilities,advantagesseldomfoundunitedinthesameman.Fromthestudythishistorywemayalsolearnhowagoodgovernmentistobeestablished;forwhilealltheemperorswhosucceededtothethronebybirth,exceptTitus,werebad,allweregoodwhosucceededbyadoption;asinthecaseofthefivefromNervatoMarcus.Butsosoonastheempirefelloncemoretotheheirsbybirth,itsruinrecommenced.

LetaprincethereforelooktothatperiodwhichextendsfromNervatoMarcus,andcontrastitwiththatwhichwentbeforeandthatwhichcameafter,andthenlethimsayinwhichofthemhewouldwishtohavebeenbornortohavereigned.Forduringthesetimesinwhichgoodmengoverned,hewillseetheprincesecureinthemidstofhappysubjects,andthewholeworldfilledwithpeaceandjustice.Hewillfindthesenatemaintainingitsauthority,themagistratesenjoyingtheirhonours,richcitizenstheirwealth,rankandmeritheldinrespect,easeandcontenteverywhereprevailing,rancour,licencecorruptionandambitioneverywherequenched,andthatgoldenagerestoredinwhicheveryonemightholdandsupportwhatopinionshepleased.Hewillsee,inshort,theworldtriumphing,thesovereignhonouredandrevered,thepeopleanimatedwithlove,andrejoicingintheirsecurity.Butshouldheturntoexaminethetimesoftheotheremperors,hewillfindthemwastedbybattles,tornbyseditions,cruelalikeinwarandpeace;manyprincesperishingbythesword;manywarsforeignanddomestic;Italyoverwhelmedwithunheard–ofdisasters;hertownsdestroyedandplundered;Romeburned;theCapitolrazedtothegroundbyRomancitizens;theancienttemplesdesolated;theceremoniesofreligioncorrupted;thecitiesrankwithadultery;theseascoveredwithexilesandtheislandspollutedwithblood.Hewillseeoutragefollowoutrage;rank,riches,honours,and,aboveall,virtueimputedasmortalcrimes;informersrewarded;slavesbribedtobetraytheirmasters,freedmentheirpatrons,andthosewhowerewithoutenemiesbroughttodestructionbytheirfriends;andthenhewillknowthetruenatureofthedebtwhichRome,Italy,andtheworldowetoCæsar;andifhepossessasparkofhumanfeeling,willturnfromtheexampleofthoseeviltimes,andkindlewithaconsumingpassiontoimitatethosewhichweregood.

Andintruththeprincewhoseeksforworldlygloryshoulddesiretobetherulerofacorruptcity;notthat,likeCæsar,hemaydestroyit,butthat,likeRomulus,hemayrestoreit;sincemancannothopefor,norHeavenofferanybetteropportunityoffame.WereitindeednecessaryingivingaconstitutiontoaStatetoforfeititssovereignty,theprincewho,toretainhisstation,shouldwithholdaconstitution,mightpleadexcuse;butforhim

whoingivingaconstitutioncanstillretainhissovereignty,noexcuseistobemade.

LetthosethereforetowhomHeavenhasaffordedthisopportunity,rememberthattwocourseslieopentothem;onewhichwillrenderthemsecurewhiletheyliveandgloriouswhentheydie;anotherwhichexposesthemtocontinualdifficultiesinlife,andcondemnsthemtoeternalinfamyafterdeath.

CHAPTERXI

OftheReligionoftheRomans.

ThoughRomehadRomulusforherfirstfounder,andasadaughterowedhimherbeingandnurture,nevertheless,whentheinstitutionsofRomuluswereseenbyHeaventobeinsufficientforsogreataState,theRomansenateweremovedtochooseNumaPompiliusashissuccessor,thathemightlooktoallmatterswhichRomulushadneglected.Hefindingthepeoplefierceandturbulent,anddesiringwiththehelpofthepeacefulartstobringthemtoorderandobedience,calledintheaidofreligionasessentialtothemaintenanceofcivilsociety,andgaveitsuchaform,thatformanyagesGodwasnowheresomuchfearedasinthatrepublic.TheeffectofthiswastorendereasyanyenterpriseinwhichthesenateorgreatmenofRomethoughtfittoengage.Andwhosoeverpaysheedtoaninfinityofactionsperformed,sometimesbytheRomanpeoplecollectively,oftenbysinglecitizens,willsee,thatesteemingthepowerofGodbeyondthatofman,theydreadedfarmoretoviolatetheiroaththantotransgressthelaws;asisclearlyshownbytheexamplesofScipioandofManliusTorquatus.ForafterthedefeatoftheRomansbyHannibalatCannæ,manycitizensmeetingtogether,resolved,intheirterroranddismay,toabandonItalyandseekrefugeinSicily.ButScipio,gettingwordofthis,wentamongthem,andmenacingthemwithhisnakedsword,madethemswearnevertoabandontheircountry.Again,whenLuciusManliuswasaccusedbythetribuneMarcusPomponius,beforethedayfixedfortrial,TitusManlius,afterwardsnamedTorquatus,sontoLucius,wenttoseekthisMarcus,andthreateninghimwithdeathifhedidnotwithdrawthechargeagainsthisfather,compelledhimtoswearcompliance;andhe,throughfear,havingsworn,kepthisoath.Inthefirstofthesetwoinstances,therefore,citizenswhomloveoftheircountryanditslawscouldnothaveretainedinItaly,werekepttherebytheoathforceduponthem;andinthesecond,thetribuneMarcus,tokeephisoath,laidasidethehatredheborethefather,andoverlookedtheinjurydonehimbytheson,andhisowndishonour.AndthisfromnoothercausethanthereligionwhichNumahadimpresseduponthiscity.

AnditwillbeplaintoanyonewhocarefullystudiesRomanHistory,howmuchreligionhelpedindiscipliningthearmy,inunitingthepeople,inkeepinggoodmengood,andputtingbadmentoshame;sothathadittobedecidedtowhichprince,RomulusorNuma,Romeowedthegreaterdebt,IthinkthebalancemustturninfavourofNuma;forwhenreligionisonceestablishedyoumayreadilybringinarms;butwhereyouhavearmswithoutreligionitisnoteasyafterwardstobringinreligion.Wesee,too,thatwhileRomulusinordertocreateasenate,andtoestablishhisotherordinancescivilandmilitary,needednosupportfromDivineauthority,thiswasverynecessarytoNuma,whofeignedtohaveintercoursewithaNymphbywhoseadvicehewasguidedincounsellingthepeople.Andthis,becausedesiringtointroduceinRomenewanduntriedinstitutions,hefearedthathisownauthoritymightnoteffecthisend.Nor,indeed,hasanyattempteverbeenmadetointroduceunusuallawsamongapeople,withoutresortingtoDivineauthority,sincewithoutsuchsanctiontheyneverwouldhavebeenaccepted.Forthewiserecognizemanythingstobegoodwhichdonotbearsuchreasonsonthefaceofthemas

commandtheiracceptancebyothers;wherefore,wisemenwhowouldobviatethesedifficulties,haverecoursetoDivineaid.ThusdidLycurgus,thusSolon,andthushavedonemanybesideswhohavehadthesameendinview.

TheRomans,accordingly,admiringtheprudenceandvirtuesofNuma,assentedtoallthemeasureswhichherecommended.This,however,istobesaid,thatthecircumstanceofthesetimesbeingdeeplytincturedwithreligiousfeeling,andofthemenwithwhomhehadtodealbeingrudeandignorant,gaveNumabetterfacilitytocarryouthisplans,asenablinghimtomouldhissubjectsreadilytoanynewimpression.And,doubtless,hewhoshouldseekatthepresentdaytoformanewcommonwealth,wouldfindthetaskeasieramongaraceofsimplemountaineers,thanamongthedwellersincitieswheresocietyiscorrupt;asthesculptorcanmoreeasilycarveafairstatuefromaroughblock,thanfromtheblockwhichhasbeenbadlyshapedoutbyanother.Buttakingallthisintoaccount,ImaintainthatthereligionintroducedbyNumawasoneofthechiefcausesoftheprosperityofRome,sinceitgaverisetogoodordinances,whichinturnbroughtwiththemgoodfortune,andwithgoodfortune,happyissuestowhatsoeverwasundertaken.

AndastheobservanceoftheordinancesofreligionisthecauseofthegreatnessofaState,sotheirneglectistheoccasionofitsdecline;sinceakingdomwithoutthefearofGodmusteitherfalltopieces,ormustbemaintainedbythefearofsomeprincewhosuppliesthatinfluencenotsuppliedbyreligion.Butsincethelivesofprincesareshort,thelifeofthisprince,also,andwithithisinfluence,mustsooncometoanend;whenceithappensthatakingdomwhichrestswhollyonthequalitiesofitsprince,lastsforabrieftimeonly;becausethesequalities,terminatingwithhislife,arerarelyrenewedinhissuccessor.ForasDantewiselysays:—

“Seldomthroughtheboughsdothhumanworthrenewitself;forsuchthewillofHimwhogivesit,thattoHimwemayascribeit.”[1]

Itfollows,therefore,thatthesafetyofacommonwealthorkingdomlies,notinitshavingarulerwhogovernsitprudentlywhilehelives,butinhavingonewhosoordersthings,thatwhenhedies,theStatemaystillmaintainitself.Andthoughitbeeasiertoimposenewinstitutionsoranewfaithonrudeandsimplemen,itisnotthereforeimpossibletopersuadetheiradoptionbymenwhoarecivilized,andwhodonotthinkthemselvesrude.ThepeopleofFlorencedonotesteemthemselvesrudeorignorant,andyetwerepersuadedbytheFriarGirolamoSavonarolathathespokewithGod.Whetherinthishesaidtruthorno,Itakenotonmetopronounce,sinceofsogreatamanwemustspeakwithreverence;butthisIdosay,thatverymanybelievedhimwithouthavingwitnessedanythingextraordinarytowarranttheirbelief;hislife,hisdoctrines,thematterwhereofhetreated,beingsufficienttoenlisttheirfaith.

Letnoman,therefore,loseheartfromthinkingthathecannotdowhatothershavedonebeforehim;for,asIsaidinmyPreface,menareborn,andlive,anddie,alwaysinaccordancewiththesamerules.

[1]L’umanaprobitate:equestovuole

Queicheladà,perchèdaluisichiami.Purg.vii.121–123.

CHAPTERXII

ThatItisofMuchMomenttoMakeAccountofReligion;andThatItaly,ThroughtheRomanChurch,BeingWantingTherein,HasBeenRuined

Princesandcommonwealthsthatwouldsavethemselvesfromgrowingcorrupted,shouldbeforeallthingskeepuncorruptedtheritesandceremoniesofreligion,andalwaysholdtheminreverence;sincewecanhavenosurersignofthedecayofaprovincethantoseeDivineworshipheldthereinincontempt.Thisiseasilyunderstoodwhenitisseenonwhatfoundationthatreligionrestsinwhichamanisborn.Foreveryreligionhasitsrootincertainfundamentalordinancespeculiartoitself.

ThereligionoftheGentileshaditsbeginningintheresponsesoftheoraclesandintheprognosticsoftheaugursandsoothsayers.Alltheirotherceremoniesandobservancesdependeduponthese;becausemennaturallybelievedthattheGodwhocouldforecasttheirfuturewealorwoe,couldalsobringthemtopass.Whereforethetemples,theprayers,thesacrifices,andalltheotherritesoftheirworship,hadtheirorigininthis,thattheoraclesofDelos,ofDodona,andotherscelebratedinantiquity,heldtheworldadmiringanddevout.But,afterwards,whentheseoraclesbegantoshapetheiranswerstosuittheinterestsofpowerfulmen,andtheirimposturestobeseenthroughbythemultitude,mengrewincredulousandreadytooverturneverysacredinstitution.Forwhichreason,therulersofkingdomsandcommonwealthsshouldmaintainthefoundationsofthefaithwhichtheyhold;sincethusitwillbeeasyforthemtokeeptheircountryreligious,and,consequently,virtuousandunited.Towhichendtheyshouldcountenanceandfurtherwhatsoevertellsinfavourofreligion,evenshouldtheythinkituntrue;andthewisertheyare,andthebettertheyareacquaintedwithnaturalcauses,themoreoughttheytodoso.Itisfromthiscoursehavingbeenfollowedbythewise,thatthemiraclescelebratedeveninfalsereligions,havecometobeheldinrepute;forfromwhateversourcetheyspring,discreetmenwillextolthem,whoseauthorityafterwardsgivesthemcurrencyeverywhere.

ThesemiracleswerecommonenoughinRome,andamongothersthiswasbelieved,thatwhentheRomansoldiersweresackingthecityofVeii,certainofthementeredthetempleofJunoandspoketothestatueofthegoddess,saying,“WiltthoucomewithustoRome?”whentosomeitseemedthatsheinclinedherheadinassent,andtoothersthattheyheardheranswer,“Yea.”Forthesemenbeingfilledwithreligiousawe(whichTitusLiviusshowsusbythecircumstancethat,inenteringthetemple,theyentereddevoutly,reverently,andwithouttumult),persuadedthemselvestheyheardthatanswertotheirquestion,which,perhaps,theyhadformedbeforehandintheirminds.ButtheirfaithandbeliefwerewhollyapprovedofandconfirmedbyCamillusandbytheotherchiefmenofthecity.

HadreligionbeenmaintainedamongtheprincesofChristendomonthefootingonwhichitwasestablishedbyitsFounder,theChristianStatesandrepublicshadbeenfarmoreunitedandfarmoreprosperousthantheynoware;norcanwehavesurerproofofitsdecaythaninwitnessinghowthosecountrieswhicharethenearestneighboursoftheRomanChurch,theheadofourfaith,havelessdevoutnessthananyothers;sothatany

onewhoconsidersitsearliestbeginningsandobserveshowwidelydifferentisitspresentpractice,mightwellbelieveitsruinoritschastisementtobecloseathand.

ButsincesomeareofopinionthatthewelfareofItalydependsupontheChurchofRome,Idesiretoputforwardcertainargumentswhichoccurtomeagainstthatview,andshalladducetwoverystrongones,which,tomymind,admitofnoanswer.Thefirstis,that,throughtheillexampleoftheRomanCourt,thecountryhaslostallreligiousfeelinganddevoutness,alosswhichdrawsafteritinfinitemischiefsanddisorders;forasthepresenceofreligionimplieseveryexcellence,sothecontraryisinvolvedinitsabsence.TotheChurch,therefore,andtothepriests,weItaliansowethisfirstdebt,thatthroughthemwehavebecomewickedandirreligious.Andastillgreaterdebtweowethemforwhatistheimmediatecauseofourruin,namely,thatbytheChurchourcountryiskeptdivided.Fornocountrywaseverunitedorprosperouswhichdidnotyieldobediencetosomeoneprinceorcommonwealth,ashasbeenthecasewithFranceandSpain.AndtheChurchisthesolecausewhyItalystandsonadifferentfooting,andissubjecttonoonekingorcommonwealth.Forthoughsheholdshereherseat,andexertshertemporalauthority,shehasneveryetgainedstrengthandcouragetoseizeupontheentirecountry,ormakeherselfsupreme;yetneverhasbeensoweakthatwheninfearoflosinghertemporaldominion,shecouldnotcallinsomeforeignpotentatetoaidheragainstanyItalianStatebywhichshewasovermatched.Ofwhichwefindmanyinstances,bothinearlytimes,aswhenbytheinterventionofCharlestheGreatshedrovetheLombards,whohadmadethemselvesmastersofnearlythewholecountry,outofItaly;andalsoinrecenttimes,aswhen,withthehelpofFrance,shefirststrippedtheVenetiansoftheirterritories,andthen,withthehelpoftheSwiss,expelledtheFrench.

TheChurch,therefore,neverbeingpowerfulenoughherselftotakepossessionoftheentirecountry,while,atthesametime,preventinganyoneelsefromdoingso,hasmadeitimpossibletobringItalyunderonehead;andhasbeenthecauseofheralwayslivingsubjecttomanyprincesorrulers,bywhomshehasbeenbroughttosuchdivisionandweaknessastohavebecomeaprey,nottoBarbariankingsonly,buttoanywhohavethoughtfittoattackher.Forthis,Isay,weItalianshavenonetothankbuttheChurch.AndwereanymanpowerfulenoughtotransplanttheCourtofRome,withalltheauthorityitnowwieldsovertherestofItaly,intotheterritoriesoftheSwiss(theonlypeoplewhoatthisday,bothasregardsreligionandmilitarydiscipline,liveliketheancients,)hewouldhaveclearproofofthetruthofwhatIaffirm,andwouldfindthatthecorruptmannersofthatCourthad,inalittlewhile,wroughtgreatermischiefintheseterritoriesthananyotherdisasterwhichcouldeverbefallthem.

CHAPTERXIII

OftheUsetheRomansMadeofReligioninGivingInstitutionstoTheirCity,inCarryingOutTheirEnterprises,andinQuellingTumults.

HereitseemstomenotoutofplacetociteinstancesoftheRomansseekingassistancefromreligioninreformingtheirinstitutionsandincarryingouttheirwarlikedesigns.AndalthoughmanysucharerelatedbyTitusLivius,Icontentmyselfwithmentioningthefollowingonly:TheRomanshavingappointedtribuneswithconsularpowers,allofthem,saveone,plebeians,itsochancedthatinthatveryyeartheywerevisitedbyplagueandfamine,accompaniedbymanystrangeportents.Takingoccasionfromthis,thenobles,atthenextcreationoftribunes,gaveoutthatthegodswereangrywithRomeforloweringthemajestyofhergovernment,norcouldbeappeasedbutbythechoiceoftribunesbeingrestoredtoafairfooting.Whereuponthepeople,smittenwithreligiousawe,choseallthetribunesfromthenobles.Again,atthesiegeofVeii,wefindtheRomancommandersmakinguseofreligiontokeepthemindsoftheirmenwelldisposedtowardsthatenterprise.Forwhen,inthelastyearofthesiege,thesoldiers,disgustedwiththeirprotractedservice,begantoclamourtobeledbacktoRome,ontheAlbanlakesuddenlyrisingtoanuncommonheight,itwasfoundthattheoraclesatDelphiandelsewherehadforetoldthatVeiishouldfallthatyearinwhichtheAlbanlakeoverflowed.Thehopeofnearvictorythusexcitedinthemindsofthesoldiers,ledthemtoputupwiththewearinessofthewar,andtocontinueinarms;until,onCamillusbeingnameddictator,Veiiwastakenafteratenyears’siege.Inthesecases,therefore,weseereligion,wiselyused,assistinthereductionofthiscity,andinrestoringthetribuneshiptothenobles;neitherofwhichendscouldwellhavebeeneffectedwithoutit.

OneotherexamplebearingonthesamesubjectImustnotomit.ConstantdisturbanceswereoccasionedinRomebythetribuneTerentillus,who,forreasonstobenoticedintheirplace,soughttopassacertainlaw.Thenobles,intheireffortstobafflehim,hadrecoursetoreligion,whichtheysoughttoturntoaccountintwoways.ForfirsttheycausedtheSibyllinebookstobesearched,andafeignedanswerreturned,thatinthatyearthecityrangreatriskoflosingitsfreedomthroughcivildiscord;whichfraud,althoughexposedbythetribunes,neverthelessarousedsuchalarminthemindsofthecommonsthattheyslackenedintheirsupportoftheirleaders.Theirothercontrivancewasasfollows:AcertainAppiusHerdonius,attheheadofabandofslavesandoutlaws,tothelumberoffourthousand,havingseizedtheCapitolbynight,analarmwasspreadthatweretheEquiansandVolscians,thoseperpetualenemiesoftheRomanname,thentoattackthecity,theymightsucceedintakingit.Andwhen,inspiteofthis,thetribunesstubbornlypersistedintheireffortstopassthelaw,declaringtheactofHerdoniustobeadeviceofthenoblesandnorealdanger.PubliusRubetius,acitizenofweightandauthority,cameforthfromtheSenateHouse,andinwordspartlyfriendlyandpartlymenacing,showedthemtheperilinwhichthecitystood,andthattheirdemandswereunseasonable;andspoketosucheffectthatthecommonsboundthemselvesbyoathtostandbytheconsul;infulfilmentofwhichengagementtheyaidedtheconsul,PubliusValerius,tocarrytheCapitolbyassault.ButValeriusbeingslainintheattack,TitusQuintiuswasatonce

appointedinhisplace,who,toleavethepeoplenobreathingtime,norsuffertheirthoughtstoreverttotheTerentillianlaw,orderedthemtoquitRomeandmarchagainsttheVolscians;declaringthemboundtofollowhimbyvirtueoftheoaththeyhadswornnottodeserttheconsul.Andthoughthetribuneswithstoodhim,contendingthattheoathhadbeensworntothedeadconsulandnottoQuintius,yetthepeopleundertheinfluenceofreligiousawe,choserathertoobeytheconsulthanbelievethetribunes.AndTitusLiviuscommendstheirbehaviourwhenhesays:“Thatneglectofthegodswhichnowprevails,hadnotthenmadeitswaynorwasitthenthepracticeforeverymantointerprethisoath,orthelaws,tosuithisprivateends.”Thetribunesaccordingly,fearingtolosetheirentireascendency,consentedtoobeytheconsul,andtorefrainforayearfrommovinginthematteroftheTerentillianlaw;whiletheconsuls,ontheirpart,undertookthatforayearthecommonsshouldnotbecalledforthtowar.Andthus,withthehelpofreligion,thesenatewereabletoovercomeadifficultywhichtheynevercouldhaveovercomewithoutit.

CHAPTERXIV

ThattheRomansInterpretedtheAuspicestoMeettheOccasion;andMadeaPrudentShowofObservingtheRitesofReligionEvenWhenForcedtoDisregardThem;andAnyWhoRashlySlightedReligionTheyPunished.

Augurieswerenotonly,aswehaveshownabove,amainfoundationoftheoldreligionoftheGentiles,butwerealsothecauseoftheprosperityoftheRomancommonwealth.Accordingly,theRomansgavemoreheedtothesethantoanyotheroftheirobservances;resortingtothemintheirconsularcomitia;inundertakingnewenterprises;incallingouttheirarmies;ingoingintobattle;and,inshort,ineverybusinessofimportance,whethercivilormilitary.Norwouldtheyeversetforthonanywarlikeexpedition,untiltheyhadsatisfiedtheirsoldiersthatthegodshadpromisedthemvictory.

Amongothermeansofdeclaringtheauguries,theyhadintheirarmiesaclassofsoothsayers,namedbythempullarii,whom,whentheydesiredtogivebattle,theywouldasktotaketheauspices,whichtheydidbyobservingthebehaviouroffowls.Ifthefowlspecked,theengagementwasbegunwithafavourableomen.Iftheyrefused,battlewasdeclined.Nevertheless,whenitwasplainonthefaceofitthatacertaincoursehadtobetaken,theytakeitatallhazards,eventhoughtheauspiceswereadverse;contriving,however,tomanagematterssoadroitlyasnottoappeartothrowanyslightonreligion;aswasdonebytheconsulPapiriusinthegreatbattlehefoughtwiththeSamniteswhereinthatnationwasfinallybrokenandoverthrown.ForPapiriusbeingencampedoveragainsttheSamnites,andperceivingthathefought,victorywascertain,andconsequentlybeingeagertoengage,desiredtheomenstobetaken.Thefowlsrefusedtopeck;butthechiefsoothsayerobservingtheeagernessofthesoldierstofightandtheconfidencefeltbothbythemandbytheircaptain,nottodeprivethearmyofsuchanopportunityofglory,reportedtotheconsulthattheauspiceswerefavourable.WhereuponPapiriusbegantoarrayhisarmyforbattle.Butsomeamongthesoothsayershavingdivulgedtocertainofthesoldiersthatthefowlshadnotpecked,thiswastoldtoSpuriusPapirius,thenephewoftheconsul,whoreportingittohisuncle,thelatterstraightwaybadehimmindhisownbusiness,forthatsofarashehimselfandthearmywereconcerned,theauspiceswerefair;andifthesoothsayerhadlied,theconsequenceswereonhishead.Andthattheeventmightaccordwiththeprognostics,hecommandedhisofficerstoplacethesoothsayersinfrontofthebattle.Itsochancedthatastheyadvancedagainsttheenemy,thechiefsoothsayerwaskilledbyaspearthrownbyaRomansoldier;which,theconsulhearingof,said,“Allgoeswell,andastheGodswouldhaveit,forbythedeathofthisliarthearmyispurgedofblameandabsolvedfromwhateverdispleasurethesemayhaveconceivedagainstit.”Andcontriving,inthiswaytomakehisdesignstallywiththeauspices,hejoinedbattle,withoutthearmyknowingthattheordinancesofreligionhadinanydegreebeendisregarded.

ButanoppositecoursewastakenbyAppiusPulcher,inSicily,inthefirstCarthaginianwar.Fordesiringtojoinbattle,hebadethesoothsayerstaketheauspices,andontheirannouncingthatthefowlsrefusedtofeed,heanswered,“Letussee,then,whetherthey

willdrink,”and,sosaying,causedthemtobethrownintothesea.Afterwhichhefoughtandwasdefeated.ForthishewascondemnedatRome,whilePapiriuswashonoured;notsomuchbecausetheonehadgainedwhiletheotherhadlostabattle,asbecauseintheirtreatmentoftheauspicestheonehadbehaveddiscreetly,theotherwithrashness.And,intruth,thesoleobjectofthissystemoftakingtheauspiceswastoinsurethearmyjoiningbattlewiththatconfidenceofsuccesswhichconstantlyleadstovictory;adevicefollowednotbytheRomansonly,butbyforeignnationsaswell;ofwhichIshallgiveanexampleinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXV

HowtheSamnites,asaLastResourceinTheirBrokenFortunes,HadRecoursetoReligion.

TheSamnites,whobeforehadmetwithmanydefeatsatthehandsoftheRomans,wereatlastdecisivelyroutedbytheminEtruria,wheretheirarmieswerecuttopiecesandtheircommandersslain.Andbecausetheiralliesalso,suchastheEtruscans,theUmbrians,andtheGauls,werelikewisevanquished,they“couldnownolonger”asLiviustellsus,“eithertrusttotheirownstrengthortoforeignaid;yet,forallthat,wouldnotceasefromhostilities,norresignthemselvestoforfeitthelibertywhichtheyhadunsuccessfullydefended,preferringnewdefeatstoaninglorioussubmission.”Theyresolved,therefore,tomakeafinaleffort;andastheyknewthatvictorywasonlytobesecuredbyinspiringtheirsoldierswithastubborncourage,towhichendnothingcouldhelpsomuchasreligion,attheinstanceoftheirhighpriest,OviusPaccius,theyrevivedanancientsacrificialriteperformedbytheminthemannerfollowing.Afterofferingsolemnsacrificetheycausedallthecaptainsoftheirarmies,standingbetweentheslainvictimsandthesmokingaltars,toswearnevertoabandonthewar.Theythensummonedthecommonsoldiers,onebyone,andbeforethesamealtars,andsurroundedbyaringofmanycenturionswithdrawnswords,firstboundthembyoathnevertorevealwhattheymightseeorhear;andthen,afterimprecatingtheDivinewrath,andrecitingthemostterribleincantations,madethemvowandsweartothegods,astheywouldnothaveacurselightontheirraceandoffspring,tofollowwherevertheircaptainsled,nevertoturnbackfrombattle,andtoputanytheysawturnbacktodeath.Somewhointheirterrordeclinedtoswear,wereforthwithslainbythecenturions.Therest,warnedbytheircruelfate,complied.Assemblingthereaftertothenumberoffortythousand,one–halfofwhom,torendertheirappearanceofunusualsplendourwerecladinwhite,withplumesandcrestsovertheirhelmets,theytookuptheirgroundintheneighbourhoodofAquilonia.ButPapirius,beingsentagainstthem,badehissoldiersbeofgoodcheer,tellingthem“thatfeathersmadenowounds,andthataRomanspearwouldpierceapaintedshield;_”andtolessentheeffectwhichtheoathtakenbytheSamniteshaduponthemindsoftheRomans,hesaidthatsuchanoathmustratherdistractthanstrengthenthoseboundbyit,sincetheyhadtofear,atonce,theirenemies,theircomrades,andtheirGods.Inthebattlewhichensued,theSamniteswererouted,anyfirmnesslentthembyreligionorbytheoaththeyhadsworn,beingbalancedbytheRomanvalour,andtheterrorinspiredbypastdefeats.Stillweseethat,intheirownjudgment,theyhadnootherrefugetowhichtoturn,norotherremedyforrestoringtheirbrokenhopes;andthisisstrongtestimonytothespiritwhichreligionrightlyusedcanarouse.

SomeoftheincidentswhichIhavenowbeenconsideringmaybethoughttorelaterathertotheforeignthantothedomesticaffairsofRome,whichlastaloneformthepropersubjectofthisBook;neverthelesssincethematterconnectsitselfwithoneofthemostimportantinstitutionsoftheRomanrepublic,Ihavethoughtitconvenienttonoticeithere,soasnottodividethesubjectandbeobligedtoreturntoithereafter.

CHAPTERXVI

ThataPeopleAccustomedtoLiveUnderaPrince,ifbyAnyAccidentItBecomeFree,CanHardlyPreserveThatFreedom.

Shouldapeopleaccustomedtoliveunderaprincebyanyaccidentbecomefree,asdidtheRomansontheexpulsionoftheTarquins,weknowfromnumberlessinstancesrecordedinancienthistory,howharditwillbeforittomaintainthatfreedom.Andthisisnomorethanwemightexpect.Forapeopleinsuchcircumstancesmaybelikenedtothewildanimalwhich,thoughdestinedbynaturetoroamatlargeinthewoods,hasbeenrearedinthecageandinconstantconfinementandwhich,shoulditchancetobesetfreeintheopencountry,beingunusedtofinditsownfood,andunfamiliarwiththecovertswhereitmightlieconcealed,fallsapreytothefirstwhoseekstorecaptureit.Eventhusitfareswiththepeoplewhichhasbeenaccustomedtobegovernedbyothers;sinceignoranthowtoactbyitselfeitherforattackordefence,andneitherknowingforeignprincesnorbeingknownofthem,itisspeedilybroughtbackundertheyoke,andoftenunderaheavieryokethanthatfromwhichithasjustfreeditsneck.Thesedifficultieswillbemetwith,evenwherethegreatbodyofthecitizenshasnotbecomewhollycorrupted;butwherethecorruptioniscomplete,freedom,asshallpresentlybeshown,isnotmerelyfleetingbutimpossible.WhereforemyremarksaretobetakenasapplyingtothoseStatesonlywhereincorruptionhasasyetmadenogreatprogress,andinwhichthereismorethatissoundthanunsound.

Tothedifficultiesabovenoticed,anotherhastobeadded,whichis,thataStateinbecomingfreemakesforitselfbitterenemiesbutnotwarmfriends.Allbecomeitsbitterenemieswho,drawingtheirsupportfromthewealthofthetyrant,flourishedunderhisgovernment.Forthesemen,whenthecauseswhichmadethempowerfularewithdrawn,cannolongerlivecontented,butareoneandallimpelledtoattempttherestorationofthetyrannyinhopesofregainingtheirformerimportance.Ontheotherhand,asIhavesaid,theStatewhichbecomesfreedoesnotgainforitselfwarmfriends.Forafreegovernmentbestowsitshonoursandrewardsinaccordancewithcertainfixedrules,andonconsiderationsofmerit,withoutwhichnoneishonouredorrewarded.Butwhenamanobtainsonlythosehonoursorrewardswhichheseemstohimselftodeserve,hewillneveradmitthatheisunderanyobligationtothosewhobestowthem.Moreoverthecommonbenefitsthatallderivefromafreegovernment,whichconsistinthepowertoenjoywhatisourown,openlyandundisturbed,inhavingtofeelnoanxietyforthehonourofwifeorchild,noranyfearforpersonalsafety,arehardlyrecognizedbymenwhiletheystillpossessthem,sincenonewilleverconfessobligationtohimwhomerelyrefrainsfrominjury.Forthesereasons,Irepeat,aStatewhichhasrecentlybecomefree,islikelytohavebitterenemiesandnowarmfriends.

Now,tomeetthesedifficultiesandtheirattendantdisorders,thereisnomorepotent,effectual,wholesome,andnecessaryremedythantoslaythesonsofBrutus.They,asthehistoriantellsus,werealongwithotheryoungRomansledtoconspireagainsttheircountry,simplybecausetheunusualprivilegeswhichtheyhadenjoyedunderthekings,werewithheldundertheconsuls;sothattothemitseemedasthoughthefreedomofthe

peopleimpliedtheirservitude.Anyone,therefore,whoundertakestocontrolapeople,eitherastheirprinceorastheheadofacommonwealth,anddoesnotmakesureworkwithallwhoarehostiletohisnewinstitutions,foundsagovernmentwhichcannotlastlong.Undoubtedlythoseprincesaretobereckonedunhappy,who,tosecuretheirposition,areforcedtoadvancebyunusualandirregularpaths,andwiththepeoplefortheirenemies.Forwhilehewhohastodealwithafewadversariesonly,caneasilyandwithoutmuchorseriousdifficultysecurehimself,hewhohasanentirepeopleagainsthimcanneverfeelsafeandthegreatertheseverityheusestheweakerhisauthoritybecomes;sothathisbestcourseistostrivetomakethepeoplehisfriends.

ButsincetheseviewsmayseemtoconflictwithwhatIhavesaidabove,treatingthereofarepublicandhereofaprince,thatImaynothavetoreturntothesubjectagain,Iwillinthisplacediscussitbriefly.Speaking,thenofthoseprinceswhohavebecomethetyrantsoftheircountry,Isaythattheprincewhoseekstogainoveranunfriendlypeopleshouldfirstofallexaminewhatitisthepeoplereallydesire,andhewillalwaysfindthattheydesiretwothings:first,toberevengeduponthosewhoarethecauseoftheirservitude;andsecond,toregaintheirfreedom.Thefirstofthesedesirestheprincecangratifywholly,thesecondinpart.Asregardstheformer,wehaveaninstanceexactlyinpoint.Clearchus,tyrantofHeraclea,beinginexile,itsohappenedthatonafeudarisingbetweenthecommonsandthenoblesofthatcity,thelatter,perceivingtheywereweakerthantheiradversaries,begantolookwithfavouronClearchus,andconspiringwithhim,inoppositiontothepopularvoicerecalledhimtoHeracleaanddeprivedthepeopleoftheirfreedom.Clearchusfindinghimselfthusplacedbetweenthearroganceofthenobles,whomhecouldinnowayeithersatisfyorcorrect,andthefuryofthepeople,whocouldnotputupwiththelossoftheirfreedom,resolvedtoridhimselfatastrokefromtheharassmentofthenoblesandrecommendhimselftothepeople.Wherefore,watchinghisopportunity,hecausedallthenoblestobeputtodeath,andthus,totheextremedelightofthepeople,satisfiedoneofthosedesiresbywhichtheyarepossessed,namely,thedesireforvengeance.

Asfortheotherdesireofthepeople,namely,torecovertheirfreedom,theprince,sincehenevercancontenttheminthis,shouldexaminewhatthecausesarewhichmakethemlongtobefree;andhewillfindaveryfewofthemdesiringfreedomthattheymayobtainpower,butalltherest,whosenumberiscountless,onlydesiringitthattheymaylivesecurely.Forinallrepublics,whatevertheformoftheirgovernment,barelyfortyorfiftycitizenshaveanyplaceinthedirectionofaffairs;who,fromtheirnumberbeingsosmall,caneasilybereckonedwith,eitherbymakingawaywiththem,orbyallowingthemsuchashareofhonoursas,lookingtotheirposition,mayreasonablycontentthem.Allthoseotherswhosesoleaimitistolivesafely,arewellcontentedwheretheprinceenactssuchlawsandordinancesasprovideforthegeneralsecurity,whiletheyestablishhisownauthority;andwhenhedoesthis,andthepeopleseethatnothinginduceshimtoviolatetheselaws,theysoonbegintolivehappilyandwithoutanxiety.OfthiswehaveanexampleinthekingdomofFrance,whichenjoysperfectsecurityfromthiscausealone,thatitskingsareboundtocompliancewithaninfinityoflawsuponwhichthewell–beingofthewholepeopledepends.AndhewhogavethisStateitsconstitutionalloweditskingstodoastheypleasedasregardsarmsandmoney;butprovidedthatasregardseverythingelsetheyshouldnotinterferesaveasthelawsmightdirect.Thoserulers,therefore,who

omittoprovidesufficientlyforthesafetyoftheirgovernmentattheoutset,must,liketheRomans,dosoonthefirstoccasionwhichoffers;andwhoeverletstheoccasionslip,willrepenttoolateofnothavingactedasheshould.TheRomans,however,beingstilluncorruptedatthetimewhentheyrecoveredtheirfreedom,wereable,afterslayingthesonsofBrutusandgettingridoftheTarquins,tomaintainitwithallthosesafeguardsandremedieswhichwehaveelsewhereconsidered.Buthadtheyalreadybecomecorrupted,noremedycouldhavebeenfound,eitherinRomeoroutofit,bywhichtheirfreedomcouldhavebeensecured;asIshallshowinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXVII

ThataCorruptPeopleObtainingFreedomCanHardlyPreserveIt.

Ibelievethatifherkingshadnotbeenexpelled,RomemustverysoonhavebecomeaweakandinconsiderableState.Forseeingtowhatapitchofcorruptionthesekingshadcome,wemayconjecturethatiftwoorthreemorelikereignshadfollowed,andthetaintspreadfromtheheadtothemembers,sosoonasthelatterbecameinfected,curewouldhavebeenhopeless.Butfromtheheadbeingremovedwhilethetrunkwasstillsound,itwasnotdifficultfortheRomanstoreturntoafreeandconstitutionalgovernment.

Itmaybeassumed,however,asmostcertain,thatacorruptedcitylivingunderaprincecanneverrecoveritsfreedom,evenweretheprinceandallhislinetobeexterminated.Forinsuchacityitmustnecessarilyhappenthatoneprincewillbereplacedbyanother,andthatthingswillneversettledownuntilanewlordbeestablished;unless,indeed,thecombinedgoodnessandvalourofsomeonecitizenshouldmaintainfreedom,which,eventhen,willendureonlyforhislifetime;ashappenedtwiceinSyracuse,firstundertheruleofDion,andagainunderthatofTimoleon,whosevirtueswhiletheylivedkepttheircityfree,butonwhosedeathitfelloncemoreunderatyranny.

ButthestrongestexamplethatcanbegivenisthatofRome,whichontheexpulsionoftheTarquinswasableatoncetoseizeonlibertyandtomaintainit;yet,onthedeathsofCæsar,Caligula,andNero,andontheextinctionoftheJulianline,wasnotonlyunabletoestablishherfreedom,butdidnotevenventureastepinthatdirection.Resultssooppositearisinginoneandthesamecitycanonlybeaccountedforbythis,thatinthetimeoftheTarquinstheRomanpeoplewerenotyetcorrupted,butintheselatertimeshadbecomeutterlycorrupt.Foronthefirstoccasion,nothingmorewasneededtoprepareanddeterminethemtoshakeofftheirkings,thanthattheyshouldbeboundbyoathtosuffernokingeveragaintoreigninRome;whereas,afterwards,theauthorityandausterevirtueofBrutus,backedbyallthelegionsoftheEast,couldnotrousethemtomaintaintheirholdofthatfreedom,whichhe,followinginthefootstepsofthefirstBrutus,hadwonforthem;andthisbecauseofthecorruptionwherewiththepeoplehadbeeninfectedbytheMarianfaction,whereofCæsarbecominghead,wasablesotoblindthemultitudethatitsawnottheyokeunderwhichitwasabouttolayitsneck.

ThoughthisexampleofRomebemorecompletethananyother,Idesiretoinstancelikewise,tothesameeffect,certainpeopleswellknowninourowndays;andImaintainthatnochange,howevergraveorviolent,couldeverrestorefreedomtoNaplesorMilan,becauseintheseStatestheentirebodyofthepeoplehasgrowncorrupted.AndsowefindthatMilan,althoughdesiroustoreturntoafreeformofgovernment,onthedeathofFilippoVisconti,hadneithertheforcenortheskillneededtopreserveit.

Mostfortunate,therefore,wasitforRomethatherkingsgrewcorruptsoon,soastobedrivenoutbeforethetaintoftheircorruptionhadreachedthevitalsofthecity.ForitwasbecausetheseweresoundthattheendlesscommotionswhichtookplaceinRome,sofarfrombeinghurtful,were,fromtheirobjectbeinggood,beneficialtothecommonwealth.Fromwhichwemaydrawthisinference,thatwherethebodyofthepeopleisstillsound,

tumultsandotherlikedisordersdolittlehurt,butthatwhereithasbecomecorrupted,laws,howeverwelldevised,areofnoadvantage,unlessimposedbysomeonewhoseparamountauthoritycausesthemtobeobserveduntilthecommunitybeoncemorerestoredtoasoundandhealthycondition.

WhetherthishaseverhappenedIknownot,norwhetheritevercanhappen.Forwesee,asIhavesaidalittlewayback,thatacitywhichowingtoitspervadingcorruptionhasoncebeguntodecline,ifitistorecoveratall,mustbesavednotbytheexcellenceofthepeoplecollectively,butofsomeonemanthenlivingamongthem,onwhosedeathitatoncerelapsesintoitsformerplight;ashappenedwithThebes,inwhichthevirtueofEpaminondasmadeitpossiblewhilehelivedtopreservetheformofafreeGovernment,butwhichfellagainonhisdeathintoitsolddisorders;thereasonbeingthathardlyanyrulerlivessolongastohavetimetoaccustomtorightmethodsacitywhichhaslongbeenaccustomedtowrong.Wherefore,unlessthingsbeputonasoundfootingbysomeonerulerwholivestoaveryadvancedage,orbytwovirtuousrulerssucceedingoneanother,thecityupontheirdeathatoncefallsbackintoruin;or,ifitbepreserved,mustbesobyincurringgreatrisks,andatthecostofmuchblood.ForthecorruptionIspeakof,iswhollyincompatiblewithafreegovernment,becauseitresultsfromaninequalitywhichpervadestheStateandcanonlyberemovedbyemployingunusualandveryviolentremedies,suchasfewarewillingorknowhowtoemploy,asinanotherplaceIshallmorefullyexplain.

CHAPTERXVIII

HowaFreeGovernmentExistinginaCorruptCityMaybePreserved,orNotExistingMaybeCreated.

Ithinkitneitheroutofplace,norinconsistentwithwhathasbeensaidabove,toconsiderwhetherafreegovernmentexistinginacorruptcitycanbemaintained,or,notexisting,canbeintroduced.AndonthisheadIsaythatitisverydifficulttobringabouteitheroftheseresults,andnexttoimpossibletolaydownrulesastohowitmaybedone;becausethemeasurestobetakenmustvarywiththedegreeofcorruptionwhichprevails.

Nevertheless,sinceitiswelltoreasonthingsout,Iwillnotpassthismatterby,butwillassume,inthefirstplace,thecaseofaverycorruptcity,andthentakethecaseofoneinwhichcorruptionhasreachedastillgreaterheight;butwherecorruptionisuniversal,nolawsorinstitutionswilleverhaveforcetorestrainit.Becauseasgoodcustomsstandinneedofgoodlawsfortheirsupport,solaws,thattheymayberespected,standinneedofgoodcustoms.Moreover,thelawsandinstitutionsestablishedinarepublicatitsbeginning,whenmenweregood,arenolongersuitablewhentheyhavebecomebad;butwhilethelawsofacityarealteredtosuititscircumstances,itsinstitutionsrarelyorneverchange;whenceitresultsthattheintroductionofnewlawsisofnoavail,becausetheinstitutions,remainingunchanged,corruptthem.

Andtomakethisplainer,IsaythatinRomeitwasfirstofalltheinstitutionsoftheState,andnextthelawsasenforcedbythemagistrates,whichkeptthecitizensundercontrol.TheinstitutionsoftheStateconsistedintheauthorityofthepeople,thesenate,thetribunes,andtheconsuls;inthemethodsofchoosingandappointingmagistrates;andinthearrangementsforpassinglaws.Theseinstitutionschangedlittle,ifatall,withcircumstances.Butthelawsbywhichthepeoplewerecontrolled,asforinstancethelawrelatingtoadultery,thesumptuarylaws,thelawastocanvassingatelections,andmanyothers,werealteredasthecitizensgrewmoreandmorecorrupted.Hence,theinstitutionsoftheStateremainingthesamealthoughfromthecorruptionofthepeoplenolongersuitable,amendmentsinthelawscouldnotkeepmengood,thoughtheymighthaveprovedveryusefulifatthetimewhentheyweremadetheinstitutionshadlikewisebeenreformed.

Thatitsoriginalinstitutionsarenolongeradaptedtoacitythathasbecomecorrupted,isplainlyseenintwomattersofgreatmoment,Imeanintheappointmentofmagistratesandinthepassingoflaws.FortheRomanpeopleconferredtheconsulshipandothergreatofficesoftheirStateonnonesavethosewhosoughtthem;whichwasagoodinstitutionatfirst,becausethennonesoughttheseofficessavethosewhothoughtthemselvesworthyofthem,andtoberejectedwashelddisgraceful;sothat,tobedeemedworthy,allwereontheirbestbehaviour.Butinacorruptedcitythisinstitutiongrewtobemostmischievous.Foritwasnolongerthoseofgreatestworth,butthosewhohadmostinfluence,whosoughtthemagistracies;whileallwhowerewithoutinfluence,howeverdeserving,refrainedthroughfear.Thisuntowardresultwasnotreachedallatonce,butlikeothersimilarresults,bygradualsteps.ForaftersubduingAfricaandAsia,andreducingnearly

thewholeofGreecetosubmission,theRomansbecameperfectlyassuredoftheirfreedom,andseemedtothemselvesnolongertohaveanyenemywhomtheyhadcausetofear.Butthissecurityandtheweaknessoftheiradversariesledtheminconferringtheconsulship,nolongertolooktomerit,butonlytofavour,selectingfortheofficethosewhoknewbesthowtopaycourttothem,notthosewhoknewbesthowtovanquishtheirenemies.Andafterwards,insteadofselectingthosewhowerebestliked,theycametoselectthosewhohadmostinfluence;andinthisway,fromtheimperfectionoftheirinstitutions,goodmencametobewhollyexcluded.

Again,astomakinglaws,anyofthetribunesandcertainothersofthemagistrateswereentitledtosubmitlawstothepeople;butbeforethesewerepasseditwasopentoeverycitizentospeakeitherfororagainstthem.Thiswasagoodsystemsolongasthecitizensweregood,sinceitisalwayswellthateverymanshouldbeabletoproposewhathethinksmaybeofusetohiscountry,andthatallshouldbeallowedtoexpresstheirviewswithregardtohisproposal;sothatthepeople,havingheardall,mayresolveonwhatisbest.Butwhenthepeoplegrewdepraved,thisbecameaverymischievousinstitution;forthenitwasonlythepowerfulwhoproposedlaws,andthesenotintheinterestofpublicfreedombutoftheirownauthority;andbecause,throughfear,nonedurstspeakagainstthelawstheyproposed,thepeoplewereeitherdeceivedorforcedintovotingtheirowndestruction.

Inorder,therefore,thatRomeaftershehadbecomecorruptedmightstillpreserveherfreedom,itwasnecessarythat,asinthecourseofeventsshehadmadenewlaws,solikewisesheshouldframenewinstitutions,sincedifferentinstitutionsandordinancesareneededinacorruptStatefromthosewhichsuitaStatewhichisnotcorrupted;forwherethematteriswhollydissimilar,theformcannotbesimilar.

Butsinceoldinstitutionsmusteitherbereformedallatonce,assoonastheyareseentobenolongerexpedient,orelsegradually,astheimperfectionofeachisrecognized,Isaythateachofthesetwocoursesisallbutimpossible.Fortoeffectagradualreformrequiresasagaciousmanwhocandiscernmischiefwhileitisstillremoteandinthegerm.Butitmaywellhappenthatnosuchpersonisfoundinacity;orthat,iffound,heisunabletopersuadeothersofwhatheishimselfpersuaded.Formenusedtoliveinonewayareloathtoleaveitforanother,especiallywhentheyarenotbroughtfacetofacewiththeevilagainstwhichtheyshouldguard,andonlyhaveitindicatedtothembyconjecture.Andasforasuddenreformofinstitutionswhichareseenbyalltobenolongergood,Isaythatdefectswhichareeasilydiscernedarenoteasilycorrected,becausefortheircorrectionitisnotenoughtouseordinarymeans,thesebeinginthemselvesinsufficient;butrecoursemustbehadtoextraordinarymeans,suchasviolenceandarms;and,asapreliminary,youmustbecomeprinceofthecity,andbeabletodealwithitatyourpleasure.ButsincetherestorationofaStatetonewpoliticallifepresupposesagoodman,andtobecomeprinceofacitybyviolencepresupposesabadman,itcan,consequently,veryseldomhappenthat,althoughtheendbegood,agoodmanwillbefoundreadytobecomeaprincebyevilways,orthatabadmanhavingbecomeaprincewillbedisposedtoactvirtuously,orthinkofturningtogoodaccounthisill–acquiredauthority.

Fromallthesecausescomesthedifficulty,orrathertheimpossibility,whichacorruptedcityfindsinmaintaininganexistingfreegovernment,orinestablishinganewone.Sothat

hadwetoestablishormaintainagovernmentinthatcity,itwouldbenecessarytogiveitamonarchical,ratherthanapopularform,inorderthatmentooarroganttoberestrainedbythelaws,mightinsomemeasurebekeptincheckbyapoweralmostabsolute;sincetoattempttomakethemgoodotherwisewouldbeaverycruelorawhollyfutileendeavour.This,asIhavesaid,wasthemethodfollowedbyCleomenes;andifhe,thathemightstandalone,puttodeaththeEphori;andifRomulus,withalikeobject,puttodeathhisbrotherandTitusTatiustheSabine,andifbothafterwardsmadegooduseoftheauthoritytheythusacquired,itisneverthelesstoberememberedthatitwasbecauseneitherCleomenesnorRomulushadtodealwithsocorruptapeopleasthatofwhichIamnowspeaking,thattheywereabletoeffecttheirendsandtogiveafaircolourtotheiracts.

CHAPTERXIX

AfteraStrongPrinceaWeakPrinceMayMaintainHimself:ButAfterOneWeakPrinceNoKingdomCanStandaSecond.

WhenwecontemplatetheexcellentqualitiesofRomulus,Numa,andTullus,thefirstthreekingsofRome,andnotethemethodswhichtheyfollowed,werecognizetheextremegoodfortuneofthatcityinhavingherfirstkingfierceandwarlike,hersecondpeacefulandreligious,andherthird,likethefirst,ofahighspiritandmoredisposedtowarthantopeace.ForitwasessentialforRomethatalmostattheoutsetofhercareer,arulershouldbefoundtolaythefoundationsofhercivillife;but,afterthathadbeendone,itwasnecessarythatherrulersshouldreturntothevirtuesofRomulus,sinceotherwisethecitymusthavegrownfeeble,andbecomeapreytoherneighbours.

Andherewemaynotethataprincewhosucceedstoanotherofsuperiorvalour,mayreignonbyvirtueofhispredecessor’smerits,andreapthefruitsofhislabours;butifhelivetoagreatage,orifhebefollowedbyanotherwhoiswantinginthequalitiesofthefirst,thatthenthekingdommustnecessarilydwindle.Conversely,whentwoconsecutiveprincesareofrareexcellence,wecommonlyfindthemachievingresultswhichwinforthemenduringrenown.David,forexample,notonlysurpassedinlearningandjudgment,butwassovaliantinarmsthat,afterconqueringandsubduingallhisneighbours,helefttohisyoungsonSolomonatranquilState,whichthelatter,thoughunskilledintheartsofwar,couldmaintainbytheartsofpeace,andthushappilyenjoytheinheritanceofhisfather’svalour.ButSolomoncouldnottransmitthisinheritancetohissonRehoboam,whoneitherresemblinghisgrandfatherinvalour,norhisfatheringoodfortune,withdifficultymadegoodhisrighttoasixthpartofthekingdom.InlikemannerBajazet,sultanoftheTurks,thoughamanofpeaceratherthanofwar,wasabletoenjoythelaboursofMahomethisfather,who,likeDavid,havingsubduedhisneighbours,lefthissonakingdomsosafelyestablishedthatitcouldeasilyberetainedbyhimbypeacefularts.ButhadSelim,sontoBajazet,beenlikehisfather,andnotlikehisgrandfather,theTurkishmonarchymusthavebeenoverthrown;asitis,heseemslikelytooutdothefameofhisgrandsire.

Iaffirmittobeprovedbytheseexamples,thatafteravaliantprinceafeebleprincemaymaintainhimself;butthatnokingdomcanstandwhentwofeebleprincesfollowinsuccession,unless,asinthecaseofFrance,itbesupportedbyitsancientordinances.Byfeebleprinces,Imeansuchasarenotvaliantinwar.And,toputthemattershortly,itmaybesaid,thatthegreatvalourofRomulusleftNumaaperiodofmanyyearswithinwhichtogovernRomebypeacefularts;thatafterNumacameTullus,whorenewedbyhiscouragethefameofRomulus;andthatheinturnwassucceededbyAncus,aprincesogiftedbynaturethathecouldequallyavailhimselfofthemethodsofpeaceorwar;whosettinghimselfatfirsttopursuetheformer,whenhefoundthathisneighboursjudgedhimtobeeffeminate,andthereforeheldhiminslightesteem,understoodthattopreserveRomehemustresorttoarmsandresembleRomulusratherthanNuma.FromwhoseexampleeveryrulerofaStatemaylearnthataprincelikeNumawillholdorlosehispoweraccordingasfortuneandcircumstancesbefriendhim;butthattheprincewho

resemblesRomulus,andlikehimisfortifiedwithforesightandarms,willholdhisStatewhateverbefall,unlessdeprivedofitbysomestubbornandirresistibleforce.ForwemayreckonwithcertaintythatifRomehadnothadforherthirdkingonewhoknewhowtorestorehercreditbydeedsofvalour,shecouldnot,oratanyratenotwithoutgreatdifficulty,haveafterwardsheldherground,norcouldeverhaveachievedthegreatexploitsshedid.

AndforthesereasonsRome,whileshelivedunderherkings,wasinconstantdangerofdestructionthroughakingwhomightbeweakorbad.

CHAPTERXX

ThattheConsecutiveReignsofTwoValiantPrincesProduceGreatResults:AndThatWell-orderedCommonwealthsAreAssuredofaSuccessionofValiantRulersbyWhomTheirPowerandGrowthAreRapidlyExtended

WhenRomehaddrivenoutherkings,shewasfreedfromthosedangerstowhich,asIhavesaid,shewasexposedbythepossiblesuccessionofaweakorwickedprince.Forthechiefshareinthegovernmentthendevolvedupontheconsuls,whotooktheirauthoritynotbyinheritance,noryetbycraftorbyambitiousviolence,butbythefreesuffragesoftheirfellow–citizens,andwerealwaysmenofsignalworth;bywhosevalourandgoodfortuneRomebeingconstantlyaided,wasabletoreachtheheightofhergreatnessinthesamenumberofyearsasshehadlivedunderherkings.Andsincewefindthattwosuccessivereignsofvaliantprinces,asofPhilipofMacedonandhissonAlexander,sufficetoconquertheworld,thisoughttobestilleasierforacommonwealth,whichhasitinitspowertochoose,nottwoexcellentrulersonly,butanendlessnumberinsuccession.Andineverywellorderedcommonwealthprovisionwillbemadeforasuccessionofthissort.

CHAPTERXXI

ThatItisaGreatReproachtoaPrinceortoaCommonwealthtobeWithoutaNationalArmy

Thoseprincesandrepublicsofthepresentdaywholackforcesoftheirown,whetherforattackordefence,shouldtakeshametothemselves,andshouldbeconvincedbytheexampleofTullus,thattheirdeficiencydoesnotarisefromwantofmenfitforwarlikeenterprises,butfromtheirownfaultinnotknowinghowtomaketheirsubjectsgoodsoldiers.ForafterRomehadbeenatpeaceforfortyyears,Tullus,succeedingtothekingdom,foundnotasingleRomanwhohadeverbeeninbattle.Neverthelesswhenhemadeuphismindtoenteronawar,itneveroccurredtohimtohaverecoursetotheSamnites,ortheEtruscans,ortoanyotheroftheneighbouringnationsaccustomedtoarms,butheresolved,liketheprudentprincehewas,torelyonhisowncountrymen.Andsuchwashisabilitythat,underhisrule,thepeopleverysoonbecameadmirablesoldiers.Fornothingismoretruethanthatwhereacountry,havingmen,lackssoldiers,itresultsfromsomefaultinitsruler,andnotfromanydefectinthesituationorclimate.Ofthiswehaveaveryrecentinstance.Everyoneknows,how,onlytheotherday,theKingofEnglandinvadedtherealmofFrancewithanarmyraisedwhollyfromamonghisownpeople,althoughfromhiscountryhavingbeenatpeaceforthirtyyears,hehadneithermennorofficerswhohadeverlookedanenemyintheface.Nevertheless,hedidnothesitatewithsuchtroopsashehad,toattackakingdomwellprovidedwithofficersandexcellentsoldierswhohadbeenconstantlyunderarmsintheItalianwars.AndthiswaspossiblethroughtheprudenceoftheEnglishkingandthewiseordinancesofhiskingdom,whichneverintimeofpeacerelaxesitswarlikediscipline.Sotoo,inoldtimes,PelopidasandEpaminondastheThebans,aftertheyhadfreedThebesfromhertyrants,andrescuedherfromthraldomtoSparta,findingthemselvesinacityusedtoservitudeandsurroundedbyaneffeminatepeople,scruplednot,sogreatwastheircourage,tofurnishthesewitharms,andgoforthwiththemtomeetandtoconquertheSpartanforcesonthefield.Andhewhorelatesthis,observes,thatthesetwocaptainsverysoonshowedthatwarriorsarenotbredinLacedæmonalone,butineverycountrywheremenarefound,ifonlysomeoneariseamongthemwhoknowshowtodirectthemtoarms;asweseeTullusknewhowtodirecttheRomans.NorcouldVirgilbetterexpressthisopinion,orshowbyfitterwordsthathewasconvincedofitstruththan,whenhesays:—

“ToarmsshallTullusrouseHissluggishwarriors.”[2]

[2]ResidesquemovebitTullusinarmaviros.Virg.Aen.vi.814.

CHAPTERXXII

WhatistobeNotedintheCombatoftheThreeRomanHoratiiandtheThreeAlbanCuriatii

ItwasagreedbetweenTulluskingofRome,andMetiuskingofAlba,thatthenationwhosechampionswerevictoriousincombatshouldruleovertheother.ThethreeAlbanCuriatiiwereslain;oneoftheRomanHoratiisurvived.WhereupontheAlbankingwithallhispeoplebecamesubjecttotheRomans.ThesurvivingHoratiusreturningvictorioustoRome,andmeetinghissister,wifetooneofthedeadCuriatii,bewailingthedeathofherhusband,slewher;andbeingtriedforthiscrime,was,aftermuchcontention,liberated,ratherontheentreatiesofhisfatherthanforhisowndeserts.

Hereinthreepointsaretobenoted.First,thatweshouldneverperilourwholefortunesonthesuccessofonlyapartofourforces.Second,thatinawell–governedState,meritshouldneverbeallowedtobalancecrime.Andthird,thatthoseareneverwisecovenantswhichwecannotorshouldnotexpecttobeobserved.Now,foraStatetobeenslavedissoterribleacalamitythatitoughtnevertohavebeensupposedpossiblethateitherofthesekingsornationswouldrestcontentunderaslaveryresultingfromthedefeatofthreeonlyoftheirnumber.AndsoitappearedtoMetius;foralthoughonthevictoryoftheRomanchampions,heatonceconfessedhimselfvanquished,andpromisedobedience;nevertheless,intheveryfirstexpeditionwhichheandTullusundertookjointlyagainstthepeopleofVeii,wefindhimseekingtocircumventtheRoman,asthoughperceivingtoolatetherashparthehadplayed.

ThisisenoughtosayofthethirdpointwhichInotedasdeservingattention.OftheothertwoIshallspeakinthenexttwoChapters.

CHAPTERXXIII

ThatWeShouldNeverHazardOurWholeFortunesWhereWePutNotForthOurEntireStrength;forWhichReasontoGuardaDefileisOften

Hurtful

Itwasneverjudgedaprudentcoursetoperilyourwholefortuneswhereyouputnotforthyourwholestrength;asmayhappeninmorewaysthanone.OneofthesewayswasthattakenbyTullusandMetius,wheneachstakedtheexistenceofhiscountryandthecreditofhisarmyonthevalourandgoodfortuneofthreeonlyofhissoldiers,thatbeinganutterlyinsignificantfractionoftheforceathisdisposal.ForneitherofthesekingsreflectedthatallthelaboursoftheirpredecessorsinframingsuchinstitutionsfortheirStates,asmight,withtheaidofthecitizensthemselves,maintainthemlonginfreedom,wererenderedfutile,whenthepowertoruinallwasleftinthehandsofsosmallanumber.Norasherstep,therefore,couldhavebeentaken,thanwastakenbythesekings.

Alikeriskisalmostalwaysincurredbythosewho,ontheapproachofanenemy,resolvetodefendsomeplaceofstrength,ortoguardthedefilesbywhichtheircountryisentered.Forunlessroombefoundinthisplaceofstrengthforalmostallyourarmy,theattempttoholditwillalmostalwaysprovehurtful.Ifyoucanfindroom,itwillberighttodefendyourstrongplaces;butifthesebedifficultofaccess,andyoucannottherekeepyourentireforcetogether,theefforttodefendismischievous.Icometothisconclusionfromobservingtheexampleofthosewho,althoughtheirterritoriesbeenclosedbymountainsandprecipices,havenot,onbeingattackedbypowerfulenemies,attemptedtofightonthemountainsorinthedefiles,buthaveadvancedbeyondthemtomeettheirfoes;or,ifunwillingtoadvance,haveawaitedattackbehindtheirmountains,onlevelandnotonbrokenground.Thereasonofwhichis,asIhaveaboveexplained,thatmanymencannotbeassembledinthesestrongplacesfortheirdefence;partlybecausealargenumberofmencannotlongsubsistthere,andpartlybecausesuchplacesbeingnarrowandconfined,affordroomforafewonly;sothatnoenemycantherebewithstood,whocomesinforcetotheattack;whichhecaneasilydo,hisdesignbeingtopassonandnottomakeastay;whereashewhostandsonthedefensivecannotdosoinforce,because,fromnotknowingwhentheenemymayentertheconfinedandsteriletractsofwhichIspeak,hemayhavetolodgehimselfthereforalongtime.Butshouldyoulosesomepasswhichyouhadreckonedonholding,andonthedefenceofwhichyourcountryandarmyhaverelied,therecommonlyfollowssuchpanicamongyourpeopleandamongthetroopswhichremaintoyou,thatyouarevanquishedwithoutopportunitygivenforanydisplayofvalour,andloseeverythingwithoutbringingallyourresourcesintoplay.

EveryonehasheardwithwhatdifficultyHannibalcrossedtheAlpswhichdivideFrancefromLombardy,andafterwardsthosewhichseparateLombardyfromTuscany.NeverthelesstheRomansawaitedhim,inthefirstinstanceonthebanksoftheTicino,inthesecondontheplainofArezzo,preferringtobedefeatedongroundwhichatleastgavethemachanceofvictory,toleadingtheirarmyintomountainfastnesseswhereitwaslikelytobedestroyedbythemeredifficultiesoftheground.Andanywhoreadhistory

withattentionwillfind,thatveryfewcapablecommandershaveattemptedtoholdpassesofthisnature,aswellforthereasonsalreadygiven,asbecausetoclosethemallwereimpossible.Formountains,likeplains,aretraversednotonlybywell–knownandfrequentedroads,butalsobymanyby–ways,which,thoughunknowntostrangers,arefamiliartothepeopleofthecountry,underwhoseguidanceyoumayalways,andinspiteofanyopposition,beeasilyconductedtowhateverpointyouplease.Ofthiswehavearecentinstanceintheeventsoftheyear1515.ForwhenFrancisI.ofFranceresolvedoninvadingItalyinordertorecovertheprovinceofLombardy,thosehostiletohisattemptlookedmainlytotheSwiss,whoitwashopedwouldstophiminpassingthroughtheirmountains.Butthishopewasdisappointedbytheevent.ForleavingononesidetwoorthreedefileswhichwereguardedbytheSwiss,thekingadvancedbyanotherunknownpass,andwasinItalyanduponhisenemiesbeforetheyknew.Whereupontheyfledterror–strickenintoMilan;whilethewholepopulationofLombardy,findingthemselvesdeceivedintheirexpectationthattheFrenchwouldbedetainedinthemountains,wentovertotheirside.

CHAPTERXXIV

ThatWell-orderedStatesAlwaysProvideRewardsandPunishmentsforTheirCitizens;andNeverSetOffDesertsAgainstMisdeeds

ThevalourofHoratiusinvanquishingtheCuriatiideservedthehighestreward.Butinslayinghissisterhehadbeenguiltyofaheinouscrime.AndsodispleasingtotheRomanswasanoutrageofthisnature,thatalthoughhisservicesweresogreatandsorecent,theybroughthimtotrialforhislife.Toonelookingatitcarelessly,thismightseemaninstanceofpopularingratitude,buthewhoconsidersthemattermoreclosely,andexamineswithsounderjudgmentwhattheordinancesofaStateshouldbe,willratherblametheRomanpeopleforacquittingHoratiusthanforputtinghimonhistrial.Andthisbecausenowell–orderedStateeverstrikesabalancebetweentheservicesofitscitizensandtheirmisdeeds;butappointingrewardsforgoodactionsandpunishmentforbad,whenithasrewardedamanforactingwell,willafterwards,shouldheactill,chastisehim,withoutregardtohisformerdeserts.Whentheseordinancesaredulyobserved,acitywilllivelonginfreedom,butwhentheyareneglected,itmustsooncometoruin.Forwhenacitizenhasrenderedsomesplendidservicetohiscountry,iftothedistinctionwhichhisactioninitselfconfers,wereaddedanover–weeningconfidencethatanycrimehemightthenceforthcommitwouldpassunpunished,hewouldsoonbecomesoarrogantthatnocivilbondscouldrestrainhim.

Still,whilewewouldhavepunishmentterribletowrongdoers,itisessentialthatgoodactionsshouldberewarded,asweseetohavebeenthecaseinRome.Forevenwherearepublicispoor,andhasbutlittletogive,itoughtnottowithholdthatlittle;sinceagift,howeversmall,bestowedasarewardforserviceshowevergreat,willalwaysbeesteemedmosthonourableandpreciousbyhimwhoreceivesit.ThestoryofHoratiusCoclesandthatofMutiusScævolaarewellknown:howtheonewithstoodtheenemyonthebridgewhileitwasbeingcutdown,andtheotherthrusthishandintothefireinpunishmentofthemistakemadewhenhesoughtthelifeofPorsennatheEtruscanking.Toeachofthesetwo,inrequitaloftheirsplendiddeeds,twoploughgatesonlyofthepubliclandweregiven.AnotherfamousstoryisthatofManliusCapitolinus,towhom,forhavingsavedtheCapitolfromthebesiegingGauls,asmallmeasureofmealwasgivenbyeachofthosewhowereshutupwithhimduringthesiege.Whichrecompense,inproportiontothewealthofthecitizensofRomeatthattime,wasthoughtample;sothatafterwards,whenManlius,movedbyjealousyandmalice,soughttoarouseseditioninRome,andtogainoverthepeopletohiscause,theywithoutregardtohispastservicesthrewhimheadlongfromthatCapitolinsavingwhichhehadformerlygainedsogreatarenown.

CHAPTERXXV

ThatHeWhoWouldReformtheInstitutionsofaFreeState,MustRetainatLeasttheSemblanceofOldWays.

Whoevertakesuponhimtoreformthegovernmentofacity,must,ifhismeasuresaretobewellreceivedandcarriedoutwithgeneralapproval,preserveatleastthesemblanceofexistingmethods,soasnottoappeartothepeopletohavemadeanychangeintheoldorderofthings;although,intruth,thenewordinancesdifferaltogetherfromthosewhichtheyreplace.Forwhenthisisattendedto,themassofmankindacceptwhatseemsaswhatis;nay,areoftentouchedmorenearlybyappearancesthanbyrealities.

ThistendencybeingrecognizedbytheRomansattheveryoutsetoftheircivilfreedom,whentheyappointedtwoconsulsinplaceofasingleking,theywouldnotpermittheconsulstohavemorethantwelvelictors,inorderthattheoldnumberoftheking’sattendantsmightnotbeexceeded.Again,therebeingsolemnizedeveryyearinRomeasacrificialritewhichcouldonlybeperformedbythekinginperson,thatthepeoplemightnotbeledbytheabsenceofthekingtoremarkthewantofanyancientobservance,apriestwasappointedfortheduecelebrationofthisrite,towhomwasgiventhenameofRexsacrificulus,andwhowasplacedundertheordersofthechiefpriest.Inthiswaythepeoplewerecontented,andhadnooccasionfromanydefectinthesolemnitiestodesirethereturnoftheirkings.Likeprecautionsshouldbeusedbyallwhowouldputanendtotheoldgovernmentofacityandsubstitutenewandfreeinstitutions.Forsincenoveltydisturbsmen’sminds,weshouldseekinthechangeswemaketopreserveasfaraspossiblewhatisancient,sothatifthenewmagistratesdifferfromtheoldinnumber,inauthority,orinthedurationoftheiroffice,theyshallatleastretaintheoldnames.

This,Isay,shouldbeseentobyhimwhowouldestablishaconstitutionalgovernment,whetherintheformofacommonwealthorofakingdom.Buthewhowouldcreateanabsolutegovernmentofthekindwhichpoliticalwriterstermatyranny,mustreneweverything,asshallbeexplainedinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXXVI

ANewPrinceinaCityorProvinceofWhichHeHasTakenPossession,OughttoMakeEverythingNew.

WhosoeverbecomesprinceofacityorState,moreespeciallyifhispositionbesoinsecurethathecannotresorttoconstitutionalgovernmenteitherintheformofarepublicoramonarchy,willfindthatthebestwaytopreservehisprincedomistorenewthewholeinstitutionsofthatState;thatistosay,tocreatenewmagistracieswithnewnames,confernewpowers,andemploynewmen,andlikeDavidwhenhebecameking,exaltthehumbleanddepressthegreat,“fillingthehungrywithgoodthings,andsendingtherichemptyaway.”Moreover,hemustpulldownexistingtownsandrebuildthem,removingtheirinhabitantsfromoneplacetoanother;and,inshort,leavenothinginthecountryashefoundit;sothatthereshallbeneitherrank,norcondition,norhonour,norwealthwhichitspossessorcanrefertoanybuttohim.AndhemusttakeexamplefromPhilipofMacedon,thefatherofAlexander,whobymeanssuchasthese,frombeingapettyprincebecamemonarchofallGreece;andofwhomitwaswrittenthatheshiftedmenfromprovincetoprovinceasashepherdmoveshisflocksfromonepasturetoanother.

Theseindeedaremostcruelexpedients,contrarynotmerelytoeveryChristian,buttoeverycivilizedruleofconduct,andsuchaseverymanshouldshun,choosingrathertoleadaprivatelifethantobeakingontermssohurtfultomankind.Buthewhowillnotkeeptothefairpathofvirtue,musttomaintainhimselfenterthispathofevil.Men,however,notknowinghowtobewhollygoodorwhollybad,chooseforthemselvescertainmiddleways,whichofallothersarethemostpernicious,asshallbeshownbyaninstanceinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXXVII

ThatMenSeldomKnowHowtobeWhollyGoodorWhollyBad

Whenintheyear1505,PopeJuliusII.wenttoBolognatoexpelfromthatcitythefamilyoftheBentivogli,whohadbeenprincesthereforoverahundredyears,itwasalsoinhismind,asapartofthegeneraldesignhehadplannedagainstallthoselordswhohadusurpedChurchlands,toremoveGiovanpagoloBaglioni,tyrantofPerugia.AndcomingtoPerugiawiththisintentionandresolve,ofwhichallmenknew,hewouldnotwaittoenterthetownwithaforcesufficientforhisprotection,butentereditunattendedbytroops,althoughGiovanpagolowastherewithagreatcompanyofsoldierswhomhehadassembledforhisdefence.Andthus,urgedonbythatimpetuositywhichstampedallhisactions,accompaniedonlybyhisbody–guard,hecommittedhimselfintothehandsofhisenemy,whomheforthwithcarriedawaywithhim,leavingagovernorbehindtoholdthetownfortheChurch.AllprudentmenwhowerewiththePoperemarkedonhistemerity,andonthepusillanimityofGiovanpagolo;norcouldtheyconjecturewhythelatterhadnot,tohiseternalglory,availedhimselfofthisopportunityforcrushinghisenemy,andatthesametimeenrichinghimselfwithplunder,thePopebeingattendedbythewholeCollegeofCardinalswithalltheirluxuriousequipage.Foritcouldnotbesupposedthathewaswithheldbyanypromptingsofgoodnessorscruplesofconscience;becauseinthebreastofaprofligatelivinginincestwithhissister,andwhotoobtaintheprincedomhadputhisnephewsandkinsmentodeath,novirtuousimpulsecouldprevail.Sothattheonlyinferencetobedrawnwas,thatmenknownothowtobesplendidlywickedorwhollygood,andshrinkinconsequencefromsuchcrimesasarestampedwithaninherentgreatnessordiscloseanobilityofnature.ForwhichreasonGiovanpagolo,whothoughtnothingofincurringtheguiltofincest,orofmurderinghiskinsmen,couldnot,ormoretrulydurstnot,availhimselfofafairoccasiontodoadeedwhichallwouldhaveadmired;whichwouldhavewonforhimadeathlessfameasthefirsttoteachtheprelateshowlittlethosewholiveandreignastheydoaretobeesteemed;andwhichwouldhavedisplayedagreatnessfartranscendinganyinfamyordangerthatcouldattachtoit.

CHAPTERXXVIII

WhenceItCameThattheRomansWereLessUngratefultoTheirCitizensThanWeretheAthenians

Inthehistoriesofallrepublicswemeetwithinstancesofsomesortofingratitudetotheirgreatcitizens,butfewerinthehistoryofRomethanofAthens,orindeedofanyotherrepublic.Searchingforthecauseofthis,Iampersuadedthat,sofarasregardsRomeandAthens,itwasduetotheRomanshavinghadlessoccasionthantheAthenianstolookupontheirfellow–citizenswithsuspicionFor,fromtheexpulsionofherkingsdowntothetimesofSyllaandMarius,thelibertyofRomewasneversubvertedbyanyoneofhercitizens;sothatthereneverwasinthatcitygravecausefordistrustinganyman,andinconsequencemakinghimthevictimofinconsiderateinjustice.ThereversewasnotoriouslythecasewithAthens;forthatcity,having,atatimewhenshewasmostflourishing,beendeprivedofherfreedombyPisistratusunderafalseshowofgood–will,remembering,aftersheregainedherliberty,herformerbondageandallthewrongsshehadendured,becametherelentlesschastiser,notofoffencesonlyonthepartofhercitizens,butevenoftheshadowofanoffence.Hencethebanishmentanddeathofsomanyexcellentmen,andhencethelawofostracism,andallthoseotherviolentmeasureswhichfromtimetotimeduringthehistoryofthatcityweredirectedagainstherforemostcitizens.Forthisismosttruewhichisassertedbythewritersoncivilgovernment,thatapeoplewhichhasrecovereditsfreedom,bitesmorefiercelythanonewhichhasalwayspreservedit.

Andanywhoshallweighwellwhathasbeensaid,willnotcondemnAthensinthismatter,norcommendRome,butreferalltothenecessityarisingoutofthedifferentconditionsprevailinginthetwoStates.ForcarefulreflectionwillshowthathadRomebeendeprivedofherfreedomasAthenswas,shewouldnothavebeenawhitmoretendertohercitizens.Thiswemayreasonablyinferfromremarkingwhat,aftertheexpulsionofthekings,befellCollatinusandPubliusValerius;theformerofwhom,thoughhehadtakenpartintheliberationofRome,wassentintoexilefornootherreasonthanthatheborethenameofTarquin;whilethesolegroundofsuspicionagainstthelatter,andwhatalmostledtohisbanishment,washishavingbuiltahouseupontheCælianhill.SeeinghowharshandsuspiciousRomewasinthesetwoinstances,wemaysurmisethatshewouldhaveshownthesameingratitudeasAthens,hadshe,likeAthens,beenwrongedbyhercitizensatanearlystageofhergrowth,andbeforeshehadattainedtothefulnessofherstrength.

ThatImaynothavetoreturntothisquestionofingratitude,IshallsayallthatremainstobesaidaboutitinmynextChapter.

CHAPTERXXIX

WhetheraPeopleoraPrinceistheMoreUngrateful.

Inconnectionwithwhathasbeensaidabove,itseemspropertoconsiderwhethermorenotableinstancesofingratitudearesuppliedbyprincesorpeoples.And,togototherootofthematter,Iaffirmthatthisviceofingratitudehasitssourceeitherinavariceorinsuspicion.Foraprinceorpeoplewhentheyhavesentforthacaptainonsomeimportantenterprise,bysucceedinginwhichheearnsagreatname,areboundinreturntorewardhim;andifmovedbyavariceandcovetousnesstheyfailtodoso,orif,insteadofrewarding,theywronganddisgracehim,theycommitanerrorwhichisnotonlywithoutexcuse,butbringswithitundyinginfamy.And,infact,wefindmanyprinceswhohavesinnedinthisway,forthecausegivenbyCorneliusTacituswhenhesays,that“menarereadiertopaybackinjuriesthanbenefits,sincetorequiteabenefitisfelttobeaburthen,toreturnaninjuryagain.”[3]

When,however,rewardiswithheld,or,tospeakmorecorrectly,whereoffenceisgiven,notfromavaricebutfromsuspicion,theprinceorpeoplemaydeservesomeexcuse;andwereadofmanyinstancesofingratitudeproceedingfromthiscause.Forthecaptainwhobyhisvalourhaswonnewdominionsforhisprince,sincewhileovercominghisenemies,heatthesametimecovershimselfwithgloryandenricheshissoldiers,mustneedsacquiresuchcreditwithhisownfollowers,andwiththeenemy,andalsowiththesubjectsofhisprince,ascannotbewhollyagreeabletothemasterwhosenthimforth.Andsincemenarebynatureambitiousaswellasjealous,andnonelovestosetalimittohisfortunes,thesuspicionwhichatoncelaysholdoftheprincewhenheseeshiscaptainvictorious,issuretobeinflamedbysomearrogantactorwordofthecaptainhimself.Sothattheprincewillbeunabletothinkofanythingbuthowtosecurehimself;andtothisendwillcontrivehowhemayputhiscaptaintodeath,oratanyratedeprivehimofthecredithehasgainedwiththearmyandamongthepeople;doingallhecantoshowthatthevictorywasnotwonbyhisvalour,butbygoodfortune,orbythecowardiceoftheenemy,orbytheskillandprudenceofthosecommanderswhowerewithhimatthisortheotherbattle.

AfterVespasian,whowastheninJudæa,hadbeenproclaimedemperorbyhisarmy,AntoniusPrimus,whocommandedanotherarmyinIllyria,adoptedhiscause,andmarchingintoItalyagainstVitelliuswhohadbeenproclaimedemperorinRome,courageouslydefeatedtwoarmiesunderthatprince,andoccupiedRome;sothatMutianus,whowassentthitherbyVespasian,foundeverythingdonetohishand,andalldifficultiessurmountedbythevalourofAntonius.ButalltherewardwhichAntoniushadforhispains,was,thatMutianusforthwithdeprivedhimofhiscommandofthearmy,andbydegreesdiminishedhisauthorityinRometillnonewaslefthim.ThereuponAntoniuswenttojoinVespasian,whowasstillinAsia;bywhomhewassocoldlyreceivedandsolittleconsidered,thatindespairheputhimselftodeath.Andofcaseslikethis,historyisfull.EverymanlivingatthepresenthourknowswithwhatzealandcourageGonsalvoofCordova,whileconductingthewarinNaplesagainsttheFrench,conqueredandsubdued

thatkingdomforhismasterFerdinandofAragon;andhowhisserviceswererequitedbyFerdinandcomingfromAragontoNaples,andfirstofalldeprivinghimofthecommandofthearmy,afterwardsofthefortresses,andfinallycarryinghimbackwithhimtoSpain,wheresoonafterhediedindisgrace.

Thisjealousy,then,issonaturaltoprinces,thattheycannotguardthemselvesagainstit,norshowgratitudetothosewhoservingundertheirstandardhavegainedgreatvictoriesandmadegreatconquestsontheirbehalf.Andifitbeimpossibleforprincestofreetheirmindsfromsuchsuspicions,thereisnothingstrangeorsurprisingthatapeopleshouldbeunabletodoso.Forasacitylivingunderfreeinstitutionshastwoendsalwaysbeforeit,namelytoacquirelibertyandtopreserveit,itmustofnecessitybeledbyitsexcessivepassionforlibertytomakemistakesinthepursuitofboththeseobjects.Ofthemistakesitcommitsintheefforttoacquireliberty,Ishallspeak,hereafter,intheproperplace.Ofmistakescommittedintheendeavourtopreservelibertyaretobenoted,theinjuringthosecitizenswhooughttoberewarded,andthesuspectingthosewhoshouldbetrusted.Now,althoughinaStatewhichhasgrowncorrupttheseerrorsoccasiongreatevils,andcommonlyleadtoatyranny,ashappenedinRomewhenCæsartookbyforcewhatingratitudehaddeniedhim,theyareneverthelessthecauseofmuchgoodintherepublicwhichhasnotbeencorrupted,sincetheyprolongthedurationofitsfreeinstitutions,andmakemen,throughfearofpunishment,betterandlessambitious.Ofallpeoplespossessedofgreatpower,theRomans,forthereasonsIhavegiven,haveundoubtedlybeentheleastungrateful,sincewehavenootherinstanceoftheiringratitudetocite,savethatofScipio.ForbothCoriolanusandCamilluswerebanishedonaccountofthewrongswhichtheyinflictedonthecommons;andthoughtheformerwasnotforgivenbecauseheconstantlyretainedillwillagainstthepeople,thelatterwasnotonlyrecalled,butfortherestofhislifehonouredasaprince.ButtheingratitudeshowntowardsScipioarosefromthesuspicionwherewiththecitizenscametoregardhim,whichtheyhadnotfeltinthecaseoftheothers,andwhichwasoccasionedbythegreatnessoftheenemywhomhehadoverthrown,thefamehehadwonbyprevailinginsodangerousandprotractedawar,thesuddennessofhisvictories,and,finally,thefavourwhichhisyouth,togetherwithhisprudenceandhisothermemorablequalitieshadgainedforhim.Thesequalitieswere,intruth,soremarkablethattheverymagistrates,nottospeakofothers,stoodinaweofhisauthority,acircumstancedispleasingtoprudentcitizens,asbeforeunheardofinRome.Inshort,hiswholebearingandcharacterweresomuchoutofthecommon,thateventheelderCato,socelebratedforhisausterevirtue,wasthefirsttodeclareagainsthim,sayingthatnocitycouldbedeemedfreewhichcontainedacitizenwhowasfearedbythemagistrates.Andsince,inthisinstance,theRomansfollowedtheopinionofCato,theymeritthatexcusewhich,asIhavesaidalready,shouldbeextendedtotheprinceorpeoplewhoareungratefulthroughsuspicion.

Inconclusionitistobesaidthatwhilethisviceofingratitudehasitsorigineitherinavariceorinsuspicion,commonwealthsarerarelyledintoitbyavarice,andfarseldomerthanprincesbysuspicion,having,asshallpresentlybeshown,farlessreasonthanprincesforsuspecting.

[3]Procliviusestinjuriæquambeneficiovicemexsolvere,quiagratiaoneri,ultioinquastu

habetur.Tacit.Hist.iv.2.

CHAPTERXXX

HowPrincesandCommonwealthsMayAvoidtheViceofIngratitude;andHowaCaptainorCitizenMayEscapeBeingUndonebyIt.

Thathemaynotbetormentedbysuspicion,norshowungrateful,aprinceshouldgohimselfonhiswarsastheRomanemperorsdidatfirst,astheTurkdoesnow,and,inshort,asallvaliantprinceshavedoneanddo.Forwhenitistheprincehimselfwhoconquers,thegloryandthegainareallhisown;butwhenheisabsent,sincethegloryisanother’s,itwillseemtotheprincethatheprofitsnothingbythegain,unlessthatglorybequenchedwhichheknewnothowtowinforhimself;andwhenhethusbecomesungratefulandunjust,doubtlesshislossisgreaterthanhisgain.Totheprince,therefore,who,eitherthroughindolenceorfromwantofforesight,sendsforthacaptaintoconducthiswarswhilehehimselfremainsinactiveathome,Ihavenoadvicetoofferwhichhedoesnotalreadyknow.ButIwouldcounselthecaptainwhomhesends,sinceIamsurethathecanneverescapetheattacksofingratitude,tofollowoneorotheroftwocourses,andeitherquithiscommandatonceafteravictory,andplacehimselfinthehandsofhisprince,whilecarefullyabstainingfromeveryvaingloriousorambitiousact,sothattheprince,beingrelievedfromallsuspicion,maybedisposedtoreward,oratanyratenottoinjurehim;orelse,shouldhethinkitinexpedientforhimtoactinthisway,totakeboldlythecontrarycourse,andfearlesslytofollowoutallsuchmeasuresashethinkswillsecureforhimself,andnotforhisprince,whateverhehasgained;conciliatingthegood–willofhissoldiersandfellow–citizens,formingnewfriendshipswithneighbouringpotentates,placinghisownadherentsinfortifiedtowns,corruptingthechiefofficersofhisarmyandgettingridofthosewhomhefailstocorrupt,andbyallsimilarmeansendeavouringtopunishhismasterfortheingratitudewhichhelooksforathishands.Thesearetheonlytwocoursesopen;butsince,asIsaidbefore,menknownothowtobewhollygoodorwhollybad,itwillneverhappenthatafteravictoryacaptainwillquithisarmyandconducthimselfmodestly,noryetthathewillventuretousethosehardymethodswhichhaveinthemsomestrainofgreatness;andso,remainingundecided,hewillbecrushedwhilehestillwaversanddoubts.

Acommonwealthdesiringtoavoidtheviceofingratitudeis,ascomparedwithaprince,atthisdisadvantage,thatwhileaprincecangohimselfonhisexpeditions,thecommonwealthmustsendsomeoneofitscitizens.Asaremedy,IwouldrecommendthatcoursebeingadoptedwhichwasfollowedbytheRomanrepublicinordertobelessungratefulthanothers,havingitsorigininthenatureoftheRomangovernment.Forthewholecity,noblesandcommonsalike,takingpartinherwars,therewerealwaysfoundinRomeateverystageofherhistory,somanyvaliantandsuccessfulsoldiers,thatbyreasonoftheirnumber,andfromoneactingasacheckuponanother,thenationhadnevergroundtobejealousofanyonemanamongthem;whilethey,ontheirpart,liveduprightly,andwerecarefultobetraynosignofambition,norgivethepeopletheleastcausetodistrustthemasambitious;sothatheobtainedmostgloryfromhisdictatorshipwhowasfirsttolayitdown.Whichconduct,asitexcitednosuspicion,couldoccasionnoingratitude.

Wesee,then,thatthecommonwealthwhichwouldhavenocausetobeungrateful,mustactasRomedid;andthatthecitizenwhowouldescapeingratitude,mustobservethoseprecautionswhichwereobservedbyRomancitizens.

CHAPTERXXXI

ThattheRomanCaptainsWereNeverPunishedWithExtremeSeverityforMisconduct;andWhereLossResultedtotheRepublicMerelyThrough

TheirIgnoranceorWantofJudgment,WereNotPunishedatAll

TheRomanswerenotonly,ashasbeensaidabove,lessungratefulthanotherrepublics,butwerealsomorelenientandmoreconsideratethanothersinpunishingthecaptainsoftheirarmies.Foriftheseerredofsetpurpose,theychastisedthemwithgentleness;whileiftheyerredthroughignorance,sofarfrompunishing,theyevenhonouredandrewardedthem.Andthisconductwaswellconsidered.Forastheyjudgeditoftheutmostmoment,thatthoseincommandoftheirarmiesshould,inalltheyhadtodo,havetheirmindsundisturbedandfreefromexternalanxieties,theywouldnotaddfurtherdifficultyanddangertoataskinitselfbothdangerousanddifficult,lestnoneshouldeverbefoundtoactwithvalour.ForsupposingthemtobesendingforthanarmyagainstPhilipofMacedoninGreeceoragainstHannibalinItaly,oragainstanyotherenemyatwhosehandstheyhadalreadysustainedreverses,thecaptainincommandofthatexpeditionwouldbeweightedwithallthegraveandimportantcareswhichattendsuchenterprises.Butiftoallthesecares,hadbeenaddedtheexampleofRomangeneralscrucifiedorotherwiseputtodeathforhavinglostbattles,itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforacommandersurroundedbysomanycausesforanxietytohaveactedwithvigouranddecision.Forwhichreason,andbecausetheythoughtthattosuchpersonsthemereignominyofdefeatwasinitselfpunishmentenough,theywouldnotdisheartentheirgeneralsbyinflictingonthemanyheavierpenalty.

Oferrorscommittednotthroughignorance,thefollowingisaninstance.SergiusandVirginiuswereengagedinthesiegeofVeii,eachbeingincommandofadivisionofthearmy,andwhileSergiuswassettoguardagainsttheapproachoftheEtruscans,itfelltoVirginiustowatchthetown.ButSergiusbeingattackedbytheFaliscansandothertribes,choserathertobedefeatedandroutedthanaskaidfromVirginius,who,onhispart,awaitingthehumiliationofhisrival,waswillingtoseehiscountrydishonouredandanarmydestroyed,soonerthangounaskedtohisrelief.Thiswasnotablemisconduct,andlikely,unlessbothoffenderswerepunished,tobringdiscreditontheRomanname.Butwhereasanotherrepublicwouldhavepunishedthesemenwithdeath,theRomanswerecontenttoinflictonlyamoneyfine:notbecausetheoffencedidnotinitselfdeserveseverehandling,butbecausetheywereunwilling,forthereasonsalreadygiven,todepartinthisinstancefromtheirancientpractice.

OferrorscommittedthroughignorancewehavenobetterexamplethaninthecaseofVarro,throughwhoserashnesstheRomansweredefeatedbyHannibalatCannæ,wheretherepublicwell–nighlostitsliberty.Butbecausehehadactedthroughignoranceandwithnoevildesign,theynotonlyrefrainedfrompunishinghim,buteventreatedhimwithdistinction;thewholesenategoingforthtomeethimonhisreturntoRome,andastheycouldnotthankhimforhavingfought,thankinghimforhavingcomeback,andfornothavingdespairedofthefortuneshiscountry.

Again,whenPapiriusCursorwouldhavehadFabiusputtodeath,because,contrarytohisorders,hehadfoughtwiththeSamnites,amongthereasonspleadedbythefatherofFabiusagainstthepersistencyofthedictator,heurgedthatneverontheoccasionofthedefeatofanyoftheircaptainshadtheRomansdonewhatPapiriusdesiredthemtodoontheoccasionofavictory.

CHAPTERXXXII

ThataPrinceorCommonwealthShouldNotDelayConferringBenefitsUntilTheyAreThemselvesinDifficulties.

TheRomansfounditfortheiradvantagetobegeneroustothecommonsataseasonofdanger,whenPorsennacametoattackRomeandrestoretheTarquins.Forthesenate,apprehendingthatthepeoplemightchooserathertotakebacktheirkingsthantosupportawar,securedtheiradherencebyrelievingthemofthedutyonsaltandofalltheirotherburthens;sayingthat“thepoordidenoughforthecommonwelfareinrearingtheiroffspring.”Inreturnforwhichindulgencethecommonswerecontenttoundergowar,siege,andfamine.Letnoonehowever,relyingonthisexample,delayconciliatingthepeopletilldangerhasactuallycome;or,ifhedo,lethimnothopetohavethesamegoodfortuneastheRomans.Forthemassofthepeoplewillconsiderthattheyhavetothanknothim,buthisenemies,andthatthereisgroundtofearthatwhenthedangerhaspassedaway,hewilltakebackwhathegaveundercompulsion,and,therefore,thattohimtheylieundernoobligation.AndthereasonwhythecoursefollowedbytheRomanssucceeded,wasthattheStatewasstillnewandunsettled.Besideswhich,thepeopleknewthatlawshadalreadybeenpassedintheirfavour,as,forinstance,thelawallowinganappealtothetribunes,andcouldthereforepersuadethemselvesthatthebenefitsgrantedthemproceededfromthegood–willentertainedtowardsthembythesenate,andwerenotduemerelytotheapproachofanenemy.Moreover,thememoryoftheirkings,bywhomtheyhadinmanywaysbeenwrongedandill–treated,wasstillfreshintheirminds.Butsincelikeconditionsseldomrecur,itcanonlyrarelyhappenthatlikeremediesareuseful.Wherefore,all,whetherprincesorrepublics,whoholdthereinsofgovernment,oughttothinkbeforehandoftheadversetimeswhichmayawaitthem,andofwhathelptheymaythenstandinneed;andoughtsotolivewiththeirpeopleastheywouldthinkrightweretheysufferingunderanycalamity.And,whosoever,whetherprinceorrepublic,butprincemoreespecially,behavesotherwise,andbelievesthataftertheeventandwhendangerisuponhimhewillbeabletowinmenoverbybenefits,deceiveshimself,andwillnotmerelyfailtomaintainhisplace,butwillevenprecipitatehisdownfall.

CHAPTERXXXIII

WhenaMischiefHasGrownUpin,orAgainstaState,ItisSafertoTemporizeWithThantoMeetItWithViolence

AsRomegrewinfame,power,anddominion,herneighbours,whoatfirsthadtakennoheedtotheinjurywhichthisnewrepublicmightdothem,begantoolatetoseetheirmistake,anddesiringtoremedywhatshouldhavebeenremediedbefore,combinedagainsthertothenumberoffortynations.WhereupontheRomans,resortingtoamethodusualwiththeminseasonsofperil,appointedadictator;thatis,gavepowertoonemantodecidewithoutadvice,andcarryouthisresolveswithoutappeal.Whichexpedient,asitthenenabledthemtoovercomethedangersbywhichtheywerethreatened,soalwaysafterwardsprovedmostserviceable,when,atanytimeduringthegrowthoftheirpower,difficultiesarosetoembarrasstheirrepublic.

InconnectionwiththisleagueagainstRomewehavefirsttonote,thatwhenamischiefwhichspringsupeitherinoragainstarepublic,andwhetheroccasionedbyinternalorexternalcauses,hasgrowntosuchproportionsthatitbeginstofillthewholecommunitywithalarm,itisafarsafercoursetotemporizewithitthantoattempttoquellitbyviolence.Forcommonlythosewhomakethisattemptonlyaddfueltotheflame,andhastentheimpendingruin.Suchdisordersariseinarepublicmoreoftenfrominternalcausesthanexternal,eitherthroughsomecitizenbeingsufferedtoacquireundueinfluence,orfromthecorruptionofsomeinstitutionofthatrepublic,whichhadoncebeenthelifeandsinewofitsfreedom;andfromthiscorruptionbeingallowedtogainsuchheadthattheattempttocheckitismoredangerousthantoletitbe.Anditisallthehardertorecognizethesedisordersintheirbeginning,becauseitseemsnaturaltomentolookwithfavouronthebeginningsofthings.Favourofthissort,morethanbyanythingelse,isattractedbythoseactionswhichseemtohaveinthemaqualityofgreatness,orwhichareperformedbytheyoung.Forwheninarepublicsomeyoungmanisseentocomeforwardendowedwithrareexcellence,theeyesofallthecitizensareatonceturneduponhim,andall,withoutdistinction,concurtodohimhonour;sothatifhehaveonesparkofambition,theadvantageswhichhehasfromnature,togetherwiththosehetakesfromthisfavourabledispositionofmen’sminds,raisehimtosuchapitchofpower,thatwhenthecitizensatlastseetheirmistakeitisalmostimpossibleforthemtocorrectit;andwhentheydowhattheycantoopposehisinfluencetheonlyresultistoextendit.OfthisImightcitenumerousexamples,butshallcontentmyselfwithonerelatingtoourowncity.

Cosimode’Medici,towhomthehouseoftheMediciinFlorenceowestheoriginofitsfortunes,acquiredsogreatanamefromthefavourwherewithhisownprudenceandtheblindnessofothersinvestedhim,thatcomingtobeheldinawebythegovernment,hisfellow–citizensdeemeditdangeroustooffendhim,butstillmoredangeroustolethimalone.NicolòdaUzzano,hiscotemporary,whowasaccountedwellversedinallcivilaffairs,butwhohadmadeafirstmistakeinnotdiscerningthedangerswhichmightgrowfromtherisinginfluenceofCosimo,wouldneverwhilehelived,permitasecondmistaketobemadeinattemptingtocrushhim;judgingthatsuchanattemptwouldbetheruinof

theState,asintruthitprovedafterhisdeath.Forsomewhosurvivedhim,disregardinghiscounsels,combinedagainstCosimoandbanishedhimfromFlorence.AndsoitcameaboutthatthepartisansofCosimo,angryatthewrongdonehim,soonafterwardsrecalledhimandmadehimprinceoftherepublic,adignityheneverwouldhavereachedbutforthisopenopposition.TheverysamethinghappenedinRomeinthecaseofCæsar.Forhisserviceshavinggainedhimthegood–willofPompeyandothercitizens,theirfavourwaspresentlyturnedtofear,asCicerotestifieswherehesaysthat“itwaslatethatPompeybegantofearCæsar.”Thisfearledmentothinkofremedies,andtheremediestowhichtheyresortedacceleratedthedestructionoftherepublic.

Isay,then,thatsinceitisdifficulttorecognizethesedisordersintheirbeginning,becauseofthefalseimpressionswhichthingsproduceatthefirst,itisawisercoursewhentheybecomeknown,totemporizewiththemthantoopposethem;forwhenyoutemporize,eithertheydieoutofthemselves,oratanyratetheinjurytheydoisdeferred.Andtheprincewhowouldsuppresssuchdisordersoropposehimselftotheirforceandonset,mustalwaysbeonhisguard,lesthehelpwherehewouldhinder,retardwhenhewouldadvance,anddrowntheplanthethinkstowater.Hemustthereforestudywellthesymptomsofthedisease;and,ifhebelievehimselfequaltothecure,grapplewithitfearlessly;ifnot,hemustletitbe,andnotattempttotreatitinanyway.For,otherwise,itwillfarewithhimasitfaredwiththoseneighboursofRome,forwhomitwouldhavebeensafer,afterthatcityhadgrowntobesogreat,tohavesoughttosootheandrestrainherbypeacefularts,thantoprovokeherbyopenwartocontrivenewmeansofattackandnewmethodsofdefence.ForthisleaguehadnoothereffectthantomaketheRomansmoreunitedandresolutethanbefore,andtobethinkthemselvesofnewexpedientswherebytheirpowerwasstillmorerapidlyadvanced;amongwhichwasthecreationofadictator;forthisinnovationnotonlyenabledthemtosurmountthedangerswhichthenthreatenedthem,butwasafterwardsthemeansofescapinginfinitecalamitiesintowhich,withoutit,therepublicmusthavefallen.

CHAPTERXXXIV

ThattheAuthorityoftheDictatorDidGoodandNotHarmtotheRomanRepublic:AndThatItisNotThosePowersWhichAreGivenbytheFreeSuffragesofthePeople,butThoseWhichAmbitiousCitizensUsurpfor

Themselves,ThatArePernicioustoaState.

ThosecitizenswhofirstdevisedadictatorshipforRomehavebeenblamedbycertainwriters,asthoughthishadbeenthecauseofthetyrannyafterwardsestablishedthere.FortheseauthorsallegethatthefirsttyrantofRomegoverneditwiththetitleofDictator,andthat,butfortheexistenceoftheoffice,Cæsarcouldneverhavecloakedhisusurpationunderaconstitutionalname.Hewhofirsttookupthisopinionhadnotwellconsideredthematter,andhisconclusionhasbeenacceptedwithoutgoodground.ForitwasnotthenamenorofficeofDictatorwhichbroughtRometoservitude,buttheinfluencewhichcertainofhercitizenswereabletoassumefromtheprolongationoftheirtermofpower;sothatevenhadthenameofDictatorbeenwantinginRome,someotherhadbeenfoundtoservetheirends,sincepowermayreadilygivetitles,butnottitlespower.Wefind,accordingly,thatwhilethedictatorshipwasconferredinconformitywithpublicordinances,andnotthroughpersonalinfluence,itwasconstantlybeneficialtothecity.Foritisthemagistraciescreatedandthepowersusurpedinunconstitutionalwaysthathurtarepublic,notthosewhichconformtoordinaryrule;sothatinRome,throughthewholeperiodofherhistory,weneverfindadictatorwhoactedotherwisethanwellfortherepublic.Forwhichthereweretheplainestreasons.Inthefirstplace,toenableacitizentoworkharmandtoacquireundueauthority,manycircumstancesmustbepresentwhichnevercanbepresentinaStatewhichisnotcorrupted.Forsuchacitizenmustbeexceedinglyrich,andmusthavemanyretainersandpartisans,whomhecannothavewherethelawsarestrictlyobserved,andwho,ifhehadthem,wouldoccasionsomuchalarm,thatthefreesuffrageofthepeoplewouldseldombeinhisfavour.Inthesecondplace,thedictatorwasnotcreatedforlife,butforafixedterm,andonlytomeettheemergencyforwhichhewasappointed.Powerwasindeedgivenhimtodeterminebyhimselfwhatmeasurestheexigencydemanded;todowhathehadtodowithoutconsultation;andtopunishwithoutappeal.ButhehadnoauthoritytodoanythingtotheprejudiceoftheState,asitwouldhavebeentodeprivethesenateorthepeopleoftheirprivileges,tosubverttheancientinstitutionsofthecity,orintroducenew.Sothattakingintoaccountthebrieftimeforwhichhisofficelasted,itslimitedauthority,andthecircumstancethattheRomanpeoplewerestilluncorrupted,itwasimpossibleforhimtooverstepthejustlimitsofhispowersoastoinjurethecity;andinfactwefindthathewasalwaysusefultoit.

And,intruth,amongtheinstitutionsofRome,thisofthedictatorshipdeservesourspecialadmiration,andtobelinkedwiththechiefcausesofhergreatness;forwithoutsomesuchsafeguardacitycanhardlypassunharmedthroughextraordinarydangers.Becauseastheordinaryinstitutionsofacommonwealthworkbutslowly,nocouncilandnomagistratehavingauthoritytoactineverythingalone,butinmostmattersonestandinginneedofthe

other,andtimebeingrequiredtoreconciletheirdifferences,theremedieswhichtheyprovidearemostdangerouswhentheyhavetobeappliedincaseswhichdonotbrookdelay.Forwhichreason,everyrepublicoughttohavesomeresourceofthisnatureprovidedbyitsconstitution;aswefindthattheRepublicofVenice,oneofthebestofthosenowexisting,hasincasesofurgentdangerreservedauthoritytoafewofhercitizens,ifagreedamongthemselves,todeterminewithoutfurtherconsultationwhatcourseistobefollowed.Whenarepublicisnotprovidedwithsomesafeguardsuchasthis,eitheritmustberuinedbyobservingconstitutionalforms,orelse,tosaveit,thesemustbebrokenthrough.Butinarepublicnothingshouldbelefttobeeffectedbyirregularmethods,because,althoughforthetimetheirregularitymaybeuseful,theexamplewillneverthelessbepernicious,asgivingrisetoapracticeofviolatingthelawsforgoodends,undercolourofwhichtheymayafterwardsbeviolatedforendswhicharenotgood.Forwhichreason,thatcanneverbecomeaperfectrepublicwhereineverycontingencyhasnotbeenforeseenandprovidedforbythelaws,andthemethodofdealingwithitdefined.Tosumup,therefore,Isaythatthoserepublicswhichcannotinsuddenemergenciesresorteithertoadictatorortosomesimilarauthority,will,whenthedangerisserious,alwaysbeundone.

Wemaynote,moreover,howprudentlytheRomans,inintroducingthisnewoffice,contrivedtheconditionsunderwhichitwastobeexercised.Forperceivingthattheappointmentofadictatorinvolvedsomethingofhumiliationfortheconsuls,who,frombeingtheheadsoftheState,werereducedtorenderobediencelikeeveryoneelse,andanticipatingthatthismightgiveoffence,theydeterminedthatthepowertoappointshouldrestwiththeconsuls,thinkingthatwhentheoccasioncamewhenRomeshouldhaveneedofthisregalauthority,theywouldhavetheconsulsactingwillinglyandfeelingthelessaggrievedfromtheappointmentbeingintheirownhands.Forthosewoundsorotherinjurieswhichamaninflictsuponhimselfbychoice,andofhisownfreewill,painhimfarlessthanthoseinflictedbyanother.Nevertheless,inthelaterdaysoftherepublictheRomanswerewonttoentrustthispowertoaconsulinsteadoftoadictator,usingtheformula,VideatCONSULnequidrespublicadetrimenticapiat.

Buttoreturntothematterinhand,Isaybriefly,thatwhentheneighboursofRomesoughttocrushher,theyledhertotakemeasuresnotmerelyforherreadierdefence,butsuchasenabledhertoattackthemwithastrongerforce,withbetterskill,andwithanundividedcommand.

CHAPTERXXXV

WhytheCreationoftheDecemvirateinRome,AlthoughBroughtAboutbytheFreeandOpenSuffrageoftheCitizens,WasHurtfultotheLibertiesof

ThatRepublic

ThefactofthosetencitizenswhowerechosenbytheRomanpeopletomakelawsforRome,intimebecominghertyrantsanddeprivingherofherfreedom,mayseemcontrarytowhatIhavesaidabove,namelythatitistheauthoritywhichisviolentlyusurped,andnotthatconferredbythefreesuffragesofthepeoplewhichisinjurioustoarepublic.Here,however,wehavetotakeintoaccountboththemodeinwhich,andthetermforwhichauthorityisgiven.Whereauthorityisunrestrictedandisconferredforalongterm,meaningbythatforayearormore,itisalwaysattendedwithdanger,anditsresultswillbegoodorbadaccordingasthemenaregoodorbadtowhomitiscommitted.NowwhenwecomparetheauthorityoftheTenwiththatpossessedbythedictator,weseethatthepowerplacedinthehandsoftheformerwasoutofallproportiongreaterthanthatentrustedtothelatter.Forwhenadictatorwasappointedtherestillremainedthetribunes,theconsuls,andthesenate,alloftheminvestedwithauthorityofwhichthedictatorcouldnotdeprivethem.Forevenifhecouldhavetakenhisconsulshipfromoneman,orhisstatusasasenatorfromanother,hecouldnotabolishthesenatorialranknorpassnewlaws.Sothatthesenate,theconsuls,andthetribunescontinuingtoexistwithundiminishedauthoritywereacheckuponhimandkepthimintherightroad.ButonthecreationoftheTen,theoppositeofallthistookplace.Forontheirappointment,consulsandtribunesweresweptaway,andexpresspowersweregiventothenewmagistratestomakelawsanddowhateverelsetheythoughtfit,withtheentireauthorityofthewholeRomanpeople.Sothatfindingthemselvesalonewithoutconsulsortribunestocontrolthem,andwithnoappealagainstthemtothepeople,andthustherebeingnonetokeepawatchuponthem,andfurtherbeingstimulatedbytheambitionofAppius,inthesecondyearoftheirofficetheybegantowaxinsolent.

Letitbenoted,therefore,thatwhenitissaidthatauthoritygivenbythepublicvoteisneverhurtfultoanycommonwealth,itisassumedthatthepeoplewillneverbeledtoconferthatauthoritywithoutduelimitations,orforotherthanareasonableterm.Shouldthey,howevereitherfrombeingdeceivedorotherwiseblinded,beinducedtobestowauthorityimprudently,astheRomansbestoweditontheTen,itwillalwaysfarewiththemaswiththeRomans.Andthismayreadilybeunderstoodonreflectingwhatcausesoperatedtokeepthedictatorgood,whattomaketheTenbad,andbyobservinghowthoserepublicswhichhavebeenaccountedwellgoverned,haveactedwhenconferringauthorityforanextendedperiod,astheSpartansontheirkingsandtheVenetiansontheirdoges;foritwillbeseenthatinboththeseinstancestheauthoritywascontrolledbycheckswhichmadeitimpossibleforittobeabused.Butwhereanuncontrolledauthorityisgiven,nosecurityisaffordedbythecircumstancethatthebodyofthepeopleisnotcorrupted;forinthebriefestpossibletimeabsoluteauthoritywillmakeapeoplecorrupt,andobtainforitselffriendsandpartisans.Norwillitbeanyhindrancetohiminwhomsuchauthorityisvested,thatheispoorandwithoutconnections,forwealthandeveryotheradvantagewill

quicklyfollow,asshallbeshownmorefullywhenwediscusstheappointmentoftheTen.

CHAPTERXXXVI

ThatCitizensWhoHaveHeldtheHigherOfficesofaCommonwealthShouldNotDisdaintheLower

UndertheconsulsM.FabiusandCn.Manlius,theRomanshadamemorablevictoryinabattlefoughtwiththeVeientinesandtheEtruscans,inwhichQ.Fabius,brotheroftheconsul,whohadhimselfbeenconsultheyearbefore,wasslain.ThiseventmayleadustoremarkhowwellthemethodsfollowedbythecityofRomeweresuitedtoincreaseherpower,andhowgreatamistakeismadebyotherrepublicsindepartingfromthem.For,eagerastheRomanswereinthepursuitofglory,theyneveresteemeditadishonourtoobeyonewhombeforetheyhadcommanded,ortofindthemselvesservingintheranksofanarmywhichoncetheyhadled.Thisusage,however,isopposedtotheideas,therules,andthepracticewhichprevailatthepresentday,as,forinstance,inVenice,wherethenotionstillobtainsthatacitizenwhohasfilledagreatofficeshouldbeashamedtoacceptaless;andwheretheStateitselfpermitshimtodeclineit.Thiscourse,assumingittolendlustretoindividualcitizens,isplainlytothedisadvantageofthecommunity,whichhasreasontohopemorefrom,andtotrustmoreto,thecitizenwhodescendsfromahighofficetofillalower,thanhimwhorisesfromalowofficetofillahighone;forinthelatternoconfidencecanreasonablybeplaced,unlesshebeseentohaveothersabouthimofsuchcreditandworththatitmaybehopedtheirwisecounselsandinfluencewillcorrecthisinexperience.ButhadtheusagewhichprevailsinVeniceandinothermoderncommonwealthsandkingdoms,prevailedinRomewherebyhewhohadoncebeenconsulwasneverafterwardstogowiththearmyexceptasconsul,numberlessresultsmusthavefolloweddetrimentaltothefreeinstitutionsofthatcity;aswellfromthemistakeswhichtheinexperienceofnewmenwouldhaveoccasioned,asbecausefromtheirambitionhavingafreercourse,andfromtheirhavingnoneneartheminwhosepresencetheymightfeartodoamiss,theywouldhavegrownlessscrupulous;andinthiswaythepublicservicemusthavesufferedgraveharm.

CHAPTERXXXVII

OftheMischiefBredinRomebytheAgrarianLaw:AndHowItisaGreatSourceofDisorderinaCommonwealthtoPassaLawOpposedtoAncient

UsageandWithStringentRetrospectiveEffect.

Ithasbeensaidbyancientwritersthattobepinchedbyadversityorpamperedbyprosperityisthecommonlotofmen,andthatinwhicheverwaytheyareactedupontheresultisthesame.Forwhennolongerurgedtowarononeanotherbynecessity,theyareurgedbyambition,whichhassuchdominionintheirheartsthatitneverleavesthemtowhatsoeverheightstheyclimb.Fornaturehassoordereditthatwhiletheydesireeverything,itisimpossibleforthemtohaveeverything,andthustheirdesiresbeingalwaysinexcessoftheircapacitytogratifythem,theyremainconstantlydissatisfiedanddiscontented.Andhencethevicissitudesinhumanaffairs.Forsomeseekingtoenlargetheirpossessions,andsometokeepwhattheyhavegot,warsandenmitiesensue,fromwhichresulttheruinofonecountryandthegrowthofanother.

IamledtothesereflectionsfromobservingthatthecommonsofRomewerenotcontenttosecurethemselvesagainstthenoblesbythecreationoftribunes,ameasuretowhichtheyweredrivenbynecessity,butaftereffectingthis,forthwithentereduponanambitiouscontestwiththenobles,seekingtosharewiththemwhatallmenmostesteem,namely,theirhonoursandtheirwealth.HencewasbredthatdisorderfromwhichsprangthefeudsrelatingtotheAgrarianLaws,andwhichledintheendtothedownfalloftheRomanrepublic.Andalthoughitshouldbetheobjectofeverywell–governedcommonwealthtomaketheStaterichandkeepindividualcitizenspooritmustbeallowedthatinthematterofthislawthecityofRomewastoblame;whetherforhavingpasseditatfirstinsuchashapeastorequireittobecontinuallyrecast;orforhavingpostponeditsolongthatitsretrospectiveeffectwastheoccasionoftumult;orelse,because,althoughrightlyframedatfirst,ithadcomeinitsoperationtobeperverted.Butinwhateverwayithappened,soitwas,thatthislawwasneverspokenofinRomewithoutthewholecitybeingconvulsed.

Thelawitselfembracedtwoprincipalprovisions.Byoneitwasenactedthatnocitizenshouldpossessmorethanafixednumberofacresofland;bytheotherthatalllandstakenfromtheenemyshouldbedistributedamongthewholepeople.Atwofoldblowwasthusaimedatthenobles;sinceallwhopossessedmorelandthanthelawallowed,asmostofthenoblesdid,felltobedeprivedofit;whilebydividingthelandsoftheenemyamongthewholepeople,theroadtowealthwasclosed.Thesetwogroundsofoffencebeinggiventoapowerfulclass,towhomitappearedthatbyresistingthelawtheydidaservicetotheState,thewholecity,asIhavesaid,wasthrownintoanuproaronthemerementionofitsname.Thenoblesindeedsoughttotemporize,andtoprevailbypatienceandaddress;sometimescallingoutthearmy,sometimesopposinganothertribunetotheonewhowaspromotingthelaw,andsometimescomingtoacompromisebysendingacolonyintothelandswhichweretobedivided;aswasdoneinthecaseoftheterritoryofAntium,whither,onadisputeconcerningthelawhavingarisen,settlersweresentfromRome,andthelandmadeovertothem.InspeakingofwhichcolonyTitusLiviusmakesthenotable

remark,thathardlyanyoneinRomecouldbegottotakepartinit,somuchreadierwerethecommonstoindulgeincovetousschemesathome,thantorealizethembyleavingit.

TheillhumourengenderedbythiscontestcontinuedtoprevailuntiltheRomansbegantocarrytheirarmsintotheremoterpartsofItalyandtocountriesbeyonditsshores;afterwhichitseemedforatimetoslumber—andthis,becausethelandsheldbytheenemiesofRome,outofsightofhercitizensandtooremotetobeconvenientlycultivated,cametobelessdesired.WhereupontheRomansgrewlesseagertopunishtheirenemiesbydividingtheirlands,andwerecontent,whentheydeprivedanycityofitsterritory,tosendcoloniststooccupyit.Forcausessuchasthese,themeasureremainedinabeyancedowntothetimeoftheGracchi;butbeingbythemrevived,finallyoverthrewthelibertyofRome.Forasitfoundthepowerofitsadversariesdoubled,suchaflameofhatredwaskindledbetweencommonsandsenate,that,regardlessofallcivilrestraints,theyresortedtoarmsandbloodshed.Andasthepublicmagistrateswerepowerlesstoprovidearemedy,eachofthetwofactionshavingnolongeranyhopesfromthem,resolvedtodowhatitcouldforitself,andtosetupachiefforitsownprotection.Onreachingthisstageoftumultanddisorder,thecommonslenttheirinfluencetoMarius,makinghimfourtimesconsul;whoseauthority,lastingthuslong,andwithverybriefintervals,becamesofirmlyrootedthathewasabletomakehimselfconsulotherthreetimes.Againstthisscourge,thenobles,lackingotherdefence,setthemselvestofavourSylla,andplacinghimattheheadoftheirfaction,enteredonthecivilwars;wherein,aftermuchbloodhadbeenspilt,andaftermanychangesoffortune,theygotthebetteroftheiradversaries.Butafterwards,inthetimeofCæsarandPompey,thedistemperbrokeoutafresh;forCæsarheadingtheMarianparty,andPompey,thatofSylla,andwarensuing,thevictoryremainedwithCæsar,whowasthefirsttyrantinRome;afterwhosetimethatcitywasneveragainfree.Such,therefore,wasthebeginningandsuchtheendoftheAgrarianLaw.

ButsinceithaselsewherebeensaidthatthestrugglebetweenthecommonsandsenateofRomepreservedherliberties,asgivingrisetolawsfavourabletofreedom,itmightseemthattheconsequencesoftheAgrarianLawareopposedtothatview.Iamnot,however,ledtoaltermyopiniononthisaccount;forImaintainthattheambitionofthegreatissoperniciousthatunlesscontrolledandcounteractedinavarietyofways,itwillalwaysreduceacitytospeedyruin.SothatifthecontroversyovertheAgrarianLawstookthreehundredyearstobringRometoslavery,shewouldinalllikelihoodhavebeenbroughttoslaveryinafarshortertime,hadnotthecommons,bymeansofthislaw,andbyotherdemands,constantlyrestrainedtheambitionofthenobles.

Wemayalsolearnfromthiscontesthowmuchmoremenvaluewealththanhonours;forinthematterofhonours,theRomannoblesalwaysgavewaytothecommonswithoutanyextraordinaryresistance;butwhenitcametobeaquestionofproperty,sostubbornweretheyinitsdefence,thatthecommonstoeffecttheirendshadtoresorttothoseirregularmethodswhichhavebeendescribedabove.OfwhichirregularitiestheprimemoversweretheGracchi,whosemotivesaremoretobecommendedthantheirmeasures;sincetopassalawwithstringentretrospectiveeffect,inordertoremoveanabuseoflongstandinginarepublic,isanunwisestep,andonewhich,asIhavealreadyshownatlength,canhavenootherresultthantoacceleratethemischieftowhichtheabuseleads;whereas,ifyoutemporize,eithertheabusedevelopsmoreslowly,orelse,incourseoftime,andbeforeitcomestoahead,diesoutofitself.

CHAPTERXXXVIII

ThatWeakRepublicsAreIrresoluteandUndecided;andThattheCourseTheyMayTakeDependsMoreonNecessityThanChoice.

AterriblepestilencebreakingoutinRomeseemedtotheEquiansandVolscianstoofferafitopportunityforcrushingher.Thetwonations,therefore,assemblingagreatarmy,attackedtheLatinsandHerniciansandlaidwastetheircountry.WhereupontheLatinsandHernicianswereforcedtomaketheircaseknowntotheRomans,andtoasktobedefendedbythem.TheRomans,whoweresorelyafflictedbythepestilence,answeredthattheymustlooktotheirowndefence,andwiththeirownforces,sinceRomewasinnopositiontosuccourthem.

HerewerecognizetheprudenceandmagnanimityoftheRomansenate,andhowatalltimes,andinallchangesoffortune,theyassumedtheresponsibilityofdeterminingthecoursetheircountryshouldtake;andwerenotashamed,whennecessary,todecideonacoursecontrarytothatwhichwasusualwiththem,orwhichtheyhaddecidedtofollowonsomeotheroccasion.Isaythisbecauseonotheroccasionsthissamesenatehadforbiddenthesenationstodefendthemselves;andalessprudentassemblymighthavethoughtitloweredtheircredittowithdrawthatprohibition.ButtheRomansenatealwaystookasoundviewofthings,andalwaysacceptedtheleasthurtfulcourseasthebest.Sothat,althoughitwasdistastefultothemnottobeabletodefendtheirsubjects,andequallydistasteful—bothforthereasonsgiven,andforotherswhichmaybeunderstood—thattheirsubjectsshouldtakeuparmsintheirabsence,neverthelessknowingthatthesemusthaverecoursetoarmsinanycase,sincetheenemywasuponthem,theytookanhonourablecourseindecidingthatwhathadtobedoneshouldbedonewiththeirleave,lestmendriventodisobeybynecessityshouldcomeafterwardstodisobeyfromchoice.Andalthoughthismayseemthecoursewhicheveryrepublicoughtreasonablytofollow,neverthelessweakandbadly–advisedrepublicscannotmakeuptheirmindstofollowit,notknowinghowtodothemselveshonourinlikeextremities.

AfterDukeValentinohadtakenFaenzaandforcedBolognatoyieldtohisterms,desiringtoreturntoRomethroughTuscany,hesentoneofhispeopletoFlorencetoaskleaveforhimselfandhisarmytopass.AcouncilwasheldinFlorencetoconsiderhowthisrequestshouldbedealtwith,butnoonewasfavourabletotheleaveaskedforbeinggranted.WhereintheRomanmethodwasnotfollowed.ForastheDukehadaverystrongforcewithhim,whiletheFlorentinesweresobareoftroopsthattheycouldnothavepreventedhispassage,itwouldhavebeenfarmorefortheircreditthatheshouldseemtopasswiththeirconsent,thanthatheshouldpassinspiteofthem;because,whilediscredithadtobeincurredeitherway,theywouldhaveincurredlessbyaccedingtohisdemand.

ButofallcoursestheworstforaweakStateistobeirresolute;forthenwhateveritdoeswillseemtobedoneundercompulsion,sothatifbychanceitshoulddoanythingwell,thiswillbesetdowntonecessityandnottoprudence.OfthisIshallcitetwootherinstanceshappeninginourowntimes,andinourowncountry.Intheyear1500,KingLouisofFrance,afterrecoveringMilan,beingdesiroustorestorePisatotheFlorentines,

soastoobtainpaymentfromthemofthefiftythousandducatswhichtheyhadpromisedhimontherestitutionbeingcompleted,senttroopstoPisaunderM.Beaumont,inwhom,thoughaFrenchman,theFlorentinesputmuchtrust.BeaumontaccordinglytookuphispositionwithhisforcesbetweenCascinaandPisa,tobeinreadinesstoattackthetown.Afterhehadbeenthereforsomedaysmakingarrangementsfortheassault,envoyscametohimfromPisaofferingtosurrendertheircitytotheFrenchifapromiseweregivenintheking’sname,nottohanditovertotheFlorentinesuntilfourmonthshadrun.ThisconditionwasabsolutelyrejectedbytheFlorentines,andthesiegebeingproceededwith,theywereforcedtoretirewithdisgrace.NowtheproposalofthePisanswasrejectedbytheFlorentinesfornootherreasonthanthattheydistrustedthegoodfaithoftheKing,intowhosehandstheirweaknessobligedthemtocommitthemselves,anddidnotreflecthowmuchmoreitwasfortheirinterestthat,byobtainingentranceintoPisa,heshouldhaveitinhispowertorestorethetowntothem,or,failingtorestoreit,shouldatoncedisclosehisdesigns,thanthatremainingoutsideheshouldputthemoffwithpromisesforwhichtheyhadtopay.ItwouldthereforehavebeenafarbettercoursefortheFlorentinestohaveagreedtoBeaumonttakingpossessiononwhateverterms.

Thiswasseenafterwardsbyexperienceintheyear1502,when,ontherevoltofArezzo,M.ImbaltwassentbytheKingofFrancewithFrenchtroopstoassisttheFlorentines.ForwhenhegotnearArezzo,andbegantonegotiatewiththeAretines,who,likethePisans,werewillingtosurrendertheirtownonterms,theacceptanceofthesetermswasstronglydisapprovedinFlorence;whichImbaltlearning,andthinkingthattheFlorentineswereactingwithlittlesense,hetooktheentiresettlementofconditionsintohisownhands,and,withoutconsultingtheFlorentinecommissioners,concludedanarrangementtohisownsatisfaction,inexecutionofwhichheenteredArezzowithhisarmy.AndhelettheFlorentinesknowthathethoughtthemfoolsandignorantofthewaysoftheworld;sinceiftheydesiredtohaveArezzo,theycouldsignifytheirwishestotheKing,whowouldbemuchbetterabletogiveitthemwhenhehadhissoldiersinside,thanwhenhehadthemoutsidethetown.Nevertheless,inFlorencetheyneverceasedtoblameandabuseM.Imbalt,untilatlasttheycametoseethatifBeaumonthadactedinthesameway,theywouldhavegotpossessionOfPisaaswellasofArezzo.

Applyingwhathasbeensaidtothematterinhand,wefindthatirresoluterepublics,unlessuponcompulsion,neverfollowwisecourses;forwhereverthereisroomfordoubt,theirweaknesswillnotsufferthemtocometoanyresolve;sothatunlesstheirdoubtsbeovercomebysomesuperiorforcewhichimpelsthemforward,theyremainalwaysinsuspense.

CHAPTERXXXIX

ThatOftentheSameAccidentsAreSeentoBefallDifferentNations.

Anyonecomparingthepresentwiththepastwillsoonperceivethatinallcitiesandinallnationsthereprevailthesamedesiresandpassionsasalwayshaveprevailed;forwhichreasonitshouldbeaneasymatterforhimwhocarefullyexaminespastevents,toforeseethosewhichareabouttohappeninanyrepublic,andtoapplysuchremediesastheancientshaveusedinlikecases;orfindingnonewhichhavebeenusedbythem,tostrikeoutnewones,suchastheymighthaveusedinsimilarcircumstances.Buttheselessonsbeingneglectedornotunderstoodbyreaders,or,ifunderstoodbythem,beingunknowntorulers,itfollowsthatthesamedisordersarecommontoalltimes.

Intheyear1494theRepublicofFlorence,havinglostaportionofitsterritories,includingPisaandothertowns,wasforcedtomakewaragainstthosewhohadtakenpossessionofthem,whobeingpowerful,itfollowedthatgreatsumswerespentonthesewarstolittlepurpose.Thislargeexpenditurehadtobemetbyheavytaxeswhichgaveoccasiontonumberlesscomplaintsonthepartofthepeople;andinasmuchasthewarwasconductedbyacounciloftencitizens,whowerestyled“theTenoftheWar,”themultitudebegantoregardthesewithdispleasure,asthoughtheywerethecauseofthewarandoftheconsequentexpenditure;andatlastpersuadedthemselvesthatiftheygotridofthismagistracytherewouldbeanendtothewar.Whereforewhenthemagistracyof“theTen”shouldhavebeenrenewed,thepeopledidnotrenewit,but,sufferingittolapse,entrustedtheiraffairstothe“Signory.”Thiscoursewasmostpernicious,sincenotonlydiditfailtoputanendtothewar,asthepeopleexpecteditwould,butbysettingasidemenwhohadconducteditwithprudence,ledtosuchmishapsthatnotPisaonly,butArezzoalso,andmanyothertownsbesideswerelosttoFlorence.Whereupon,thepeoplerecognizingtheirmistake,andthattheevilwasinthediseaseandnotinthephysician,reinstatedthemagistracyoftheTen.

SimilardissatisfactiongrewupinRomeagainsttheconsularauthority.Forthepeopleseeingonewarfollowanother,andthattheywereneverallowedtorest,whentheyshouldhaveascribedthistotheambitionofneighbouringnationswhodesiredtheiroverthrow,ascribedittotheambitionofthenobles,who,astheybelieved,beingunabletowreaktheirhatredagainstthemwithinthecity,wheretheywereprotectedbythepowerofthetribunes,soughttoleadthemoutsidethecity,wheretheywereundertheauthorityoftheconsuls,thattheymightcrushthemwheretheywerewithouthelp.Inwhichbelieftheythoughtitnecessaryeithertogetridoftheconsulsaltogether,orsotorestricttheirpowersastoleavethemnoauthorityoverthepeople,eitherinthecityoroutofit.

ThefirstwhoattemptedtopassalawtothiseffectwasthetribuneTerentillus,whoproposedthatacommitteeoffiveshouldbenamedtoconsiderandregulatethepoweroftheconsuls.Thisrousedtheangerofthenobles,towhomitseemedthatthegreatnessoftheirauthoritywasabouttosetforever,andthatnopartwouldbeleftthemintheadministrationoftherepublic.Such,however,wastheobstinacyofthetribunes,thattheysucceededinabolishingtheconsulartitle,norweresatisfieduntil,afterotherchanges,it

wasresolvedthat,inroomofconsuls,tribunesshouldbeappointedwithconsularpowers;somuchgreaterwastheirhatredofthenamethanofthething.Foralongtimemattersremainedonthisfooting;tilleventually,thecommons,discoveringtheirmistake,resumedtheappointmentofconsulsinthesamewayastheFlorentinesrevertedto“theTenoftheWar.”

CHAPTERXL

OftheCreationoftheDecemvirateinRome,andWhatThereinistobeNoted.WhereinAmongOtherMattersisShownHowtheSameCausesMay

LeadtotheSafetyortotheRuinofaCommonwealth.

ItbeingmydesiretotreatfullyofthosedisorderswhicharoseinRomeonthecreationofthedecemvirate,Ithinkitnotamissfirstofalltorelatewhattookplaceatthetimeofthatcreation,andthentodiscussthosecircumstancesattendingitwhichseemmosttodeservenotice.Thesearenumerous,andshouldbewellconsidered,bothbythosewhowouldmaintainthelibertiesofacommonwealthandbythosewhowouldsubvertthem.Forinthecourseofourinquiryitwillbeseenthatmanymistakesprejudicialtofreedomweremadebythesenateandpeople,andthatmanywerelikewisemadebyAppius,thechiefdecemvir,prejudicialtothattyrannywhichitwashisaimtoestablishinRome.

AftermuchcontroversyandwranglingbetweenthecommonsandthenoblesastotheframingofnewlawsbywhichthefreedomofRomemightbebettersecured,SpuriusPosthumiusandtwoothercitizenswere,bygeneralconsent,despatchedtoAthenstoprocurecopiesofthelawswhichSolonhaddrawnupfortheAthenians,totheendthatthesemightserveasagroundworkforthelawsofRome.Ontheirreturn,thenextstepwastodeputecertainpersonstoexaminetheselawsandtodraftthenewcode.Forwhichpurposeacommissionconsistingoftenmembers,amongwhomwasAppiusClaudius,acraftyandambitiouscitizen,wasappointedforayear;andthatthecommissionersinframingtheirlawsmightactwithoutfearorfavour,alltheothermagistracies,andinparticulartheconsulateandtribuneship,weresuspended,andtheappealtothepeoplediscontinued;sothatthedecemvirscametobeabsoluteinRome.VerysoonthewholeauthorityofthecommissionerscametobecentredinAppius,owingtothefavourinwhichhewasheldbythecommons.Foralthoughbeforehehadbeenregardedasthecruelpersecutorofthepeople,henowshowedhimselfsoconciliatoryinhisbearingthatmenwonderedatthesuddenchangeinhischaracteranddisposition.

Thissetofcommissioners,then,behaveddiscreetly,beingattendedbynomorethantwelvelictors,walkinginfrontofthatdecemvirwhomtherestputforwardastheirchief;andthoughvestedwithabsoluteauthority,yetwhenaRomancitizenhadtobetriedformurder,theycitedhimbeforethepeopleandcausedhimtobejudgedbythem.Theirlawstheywroteupontentables,butbeforesigningthemtheyexposedthempublicly,thateveryonemightreadandconsiderthem,andifanydefectwerediscoveredinthem,itmightbecorrectedbeforetheywerefinallypassed.AtthisjunctureAppiuscausedittobenotifiedthroughoutthecitythatweretwoothertablesaddedtotheseten,thelawswouldbecomplete;hopingthatunderthisbeliefthepeoplewouldconsenttocontinuethedecemvirateforanotheryear.Thisconsentthepeoplewillinglygave,partlytopreventtheconsulsbeingreinstated,andpartlybecausetheythoughttheycouldholdtheirgroundwithouttheaidofthetribunes,who,ashasalreadybeensaid,werethejudgesincriminalcases.

Onitbeingresolvedtoreappointthedecemvirate,allthenoblessettocanvassforthe

office,Appiusamongtheforemost;andsuchcordialitydidhedisplaytowardsthecommonswhileseekingtheirvotes,thattheothercandidates,“unabletopersuadethemselvesthatsomuchaffabilityonthepartofsoproudamanwaswhollydisinterested,”begantosuspecthim;butfearingtoopposehimopenly,soughttocircumventhim,byputtinghimforward,thoughtheyoungestofthemall,todeclaretothepeoplethenamesoftheproposeddecemvirs;thinkingthathewouldnotventuretonamehimself,thatbeinganunusualcourseinRome,andhelddiscreditable.“Butwhattheymeantasahindrance,heturnedtoaccount,”byproposing,tothesurpriseanddispleasureofthewholenobility,hisownnamefirst,andthennominatingnineothersonwhosesupporthethoughthecoulddepend.

Thenewappointments,whichweretolastforayear,havingbeenmade,Appiussoonletbothcommonsandnoblesknowthemistaketheyhadcommitted,forthrowingoffthemask,heallowedhisinnatearrogancetoappear,andspeedilyinfectedhiscolleagueswiththesamespirit;who,tooverawethepeopleandthesenate,insteadoftwelvelictors,appointedonehundredandtwenty.Foratimetheirmeasuresweredirectedagainsthighandlowalike;butpresentlytheybegantointriguewiththesenate,andtoattackthecommons;andifanyofthelatter,onbeingharshlyusedbyonedecemvir,venturedtoappealtoanother,hewasworsehandledontheappealthaninthefirstinstance.Thecommons,ondiscoveringtheirerror,beganintheirdespairtoturntheireyestowardsthenobles,“andtolookforabreezeoffreedomfromthatveryquarterwhencefearingslaverytheyhadbroughttherepublictoitspresentstraits.”Tothenoblesthesufferingsofthecommonswerenotdispleasing,fromthehope“thatdisgustedwiththeexistingstateofaffairs,theytoomightcometodesiretherestorationoftheconsuls.”

Whentheyearforwhichthedecemvirswereappointedatlastcametoanend,thetwoadditionaltablesofthelawwereready,buthadnotyetbeenpublished.Thiswasmadeapretextbythemforprolongingtheirmagistracy,whichtheytookmeasurestoretainbyforce,gatheringroundthemforthispurposearetinueofyoungnoblemen,whomtheyenrichedwiththegoodsofthosecitizenswhomtheyhadcondemned.“Corruptedbywhichgifts,theseyouthscametopreferselfishlicencetopublicfreedom.”

IthappenedthatatthistimetheSabinesandVolsciansbegantostirupawaragainstRome,anditwasduringthealarmtherebyoccasionedthatthedecemvirswerefirstmadeawarehowweakwastheirposition.Forwithoutthesenatetheycouldtakenowarlikemeasures,whilebyassemblingthesenatetheyseemedtoputanendtotheirownauthority.Nevertheless,beingdriventoitbynecessity,theytookthislattercourse.Whenthesenatemet,manyofthesenators,butparticularlyValeriusandHoratius,inveighedagainsttheinsolenceofthedecemvirs,whosepowerwouldforthwithhavebeencutshort,hadnotthesenatethroughjealousyofthecommonsdeclinedtoexercisetheirauthority.Fortheythoughtthatwerethedecemvirstolaydownofficeoftheirownfreewill,tribunesmightnotbereappointed.Whereforetheydecidedforwar,andsentforththearmiesundercommandofcertainofthedecemvirs.ButAppiusremainingbehindtogovernthecity,itsofelloutthathebecameenamouredofVirginia,andthatwhenhesoughttolayviolenthandsuponher,Virginius,herfather,tosaveherfromdishonour,slewher.ThereuponfollowedtumultsinRome,andmutinyamongthesoldiers,who,makingcommoncausewiththerestoftheplebeians,betookthemselvestotheSacredHill,andthereremaineduntilthedecemvirslaiddowntheiroffice;whentribunesand

consulsbeingoncemoreappointed,Romewasrestoredtoherancientfreedom.

Intheseeventswenote,firstofall,thattheperniciousstepofcreatingthistyrannyinRomewasduetothesamecauseswhichcommonlygiverisetotyranniesincities;namely,theexcessiveloveofthepeopleforliberty,andthepassionateeagernessofthenoblestogovern.Forwhentheycannotagreetopasssomemeasurefavourabletofreedom,onefactionortheothersetsitselftosupportsomeoneman,andatyrannyatoncespringsup.BothpartiesinRomeconsentedtothecreationofthedecemvirs,andtotheirexercisingunrestrictedpowers,fromthedesirewhichtheonehadtoputanendtotheconsularname,andtheothertoabolishtheauthorityofthetribunes.When,ontheappointmentofthedecemvirate,itseemedtothecommonsthatAppiushadbecomefavourabletotheircause,andwasreadytoattackthenobles,theyinclinedtosupporthim.Butwhenapeopleisledtocommitthiserroroflendingitssupporttosomeoneman,inorderthathemayattackthosewhomitholdsinhatred,ifheonlybeprudenthewillinevitablybecomethetyrantofthatcity.Forhewillwaituntil,withthesupportofthepeople,hecandealafatalblowtothenobles,andwillneversethimselftooppressthepeopleuntilthenobleshavebeenrootedout.Butwhenthattimecomes,thepeople,althoughtheyrecognizetheirservitude,willhavenonetowhomtheycanturnforhelp.

Hadthismethod,whichhasbeenfollowedbyallwhohavesuccessfullyestablishedtyranniesinrepublics,beenfollowedbyAppius,hispowerwouldhavebeenmorestableandlasting;whereas,takingthedirectlyoppositecourse,hecouldnothaveactedmoreunwiselythanhedid.Forinhiseagernesstograspthetyranny,hemadehimselfobnoxioustothosewhowereinfactconferringit,andwhocouldhavemaintainedhiminit;andhedestroyedthosewhowerehisfriends,whilehesoughtfriendshipfromthosefromwhomhecouldnothaveit.Foralthoughitbethedesireofthenoblestotyrannize,thatsectionofthemwhichfindsitselfoutsidethetyrannyisalwayshostiletothetyrant,whocanneversucceedingainingovertheentirebodyofthenoblesbyreasonoftheirgreedandambition;fornotyrantcaneverhavehonoursorwealthenoughtosatisfythemall.

Inabandoningthepeople,therefore,andsidingwiththenobles,Appiuscommittedamanifestmistake,aswellforthereasonsabovegiven,asbecausetoholdathingbyforce,hewhousesforcemustneedsbestrongerthanheagainstwhomitisused.Whenceithappensthatthosetyrantswhohavethemassofthepeoplefortheirfriendsandthenoblesfortheirenemies,aremoresecurethanthosewhohavethepeoplefortheirenemiesandthenoblesfortheirfriends;becauseintheformercasetheirauthorityhasthestrongersupport.ForwithsuchsupportarulercanmaintainhimselfbytheinternalstrengthofhisState,asdidNabis,tyrantofSparta,whenattackedbytheRomansandbythewholeofGreece;formakingsureworkwiththenobles,whowerefewinnumber,andhavingthepeopleonhisside,hewasablewiththeirassistancetodefendhimself;whichhecouldnothavedonehadtheybeenagainsthim.Butinthecaseofacity,whereinthetyranthasfewfriends,itsinternalstrengthwillnotavailhimforitsdefence,andhewillhavetoseekaidfromwithoutinoneofthreeshapes.Foreitherhemusthireforeignguardstodefendhisperson;orhemustarmthepeasantry,sothattheymayplaythepartwhichoughttobeplayedbythecitizens;orhemustleaguewithpowerfulneighboursforhisdefence.Hewhofollowsthesemethodsandobservesthemwell,maycontrivetosavehimself,thoughhehasthepeopleforhisenemy.ButAppiuscouldnotfollowtheplanofgainingoverthe

peasantry,sinceinRometheyandthepeoplewereone.Andwhathemighthavedoneheknewnothowtodo,andsowasruinedattheveryoutset.

Increatingthedecemvirate,therefore,boththesenateandthepeoplemadegravemistakes.Foralthough,asalreadyexplained,whenspeakingofthedictatorship,itisthosemagistrateswhomakethemselves,andnotthosemadebythevotesofthepeople,thatarehurtfultofreedom;neverthelessthepeople,increatingmagistratesoughttotakesuchprecautionsaswillmakeitdifficultforthesetobecomebad.ButtheRomanswhentheyoughttohavesetacheckonthedecemvirsinordertokeepthemgood,dispensedwithit,makingthemthesolemagistratesofRome,andsettingasideallothers;andthisfromtheexcessivedesireofthesenatetogetridofthetribunes,andofthecommonstogetridoftheconsuls;bywhichobjectsbothweresoblindedastofallintoallthedisorderswhichensued.For,asKingFerrandowaswonttosay,menoftenbehavelikecertainofthesmallerbirds,whicharesointentonthepreytowhichnatureincitesthem,thattheydiscernnottheeaglehoveringoverheadfortheirdestruction.

InthisDiscoursethenthemistakesmadebytheRomanpeopleintheireffortstopreservetheirfreedomandthemistakesmadebyAppiusinhisendeavourtoobtainthetyranny,have,asIproposedattheoutset,beenplainlyshown.

CHAPTERXLI

ThatItisUnwisetoPassataBoundFromLeniencytoSeverity,ortoaHaughtyBearingFromaHumble.

AmongthecraftydevicesusedbyAppiustoaidhiminmaintaininghisauthority,this,ofsuddenlypassingfromonecharactertotheotherextreme,wasofnosmallprejudicetohim.Forhisfraudinpretendingtothecommonstobewelldisposedtowardsthem,washappilycontrived;aswerealsothemeanshetooktobringaboutthereappointmentofthedecemvirate.Mostskilful,too,washisaudacityinnominatinghimselfcontrarytotheexpectationofthenobles,andinproposingcolleaguesonwhomhecoulddependtocarryouthisends.But,asIhavesaidalready,itwasnothappilycontrivedthat,afterdoingallthis,heshouldsuddenlyturnround,andfrombeingthefriend,revealhimselftheenemyofthepeople;haughtyinsteadofhumane;cruelinsteadofkindly;andmakethischangesorapidlyastoleavehimselfnoshadowofexcuse,butcompelalltorecognizethedoublenessofhisnature.Forhewhohasonceseemedgood,shouldheafterwardschoose,forhisownends,tobecomebad,oughttochangebyslowdegrees,andasopportunityserves;sothatbeforehisalterednaturestriphimofoldfavour,hemayhavegainedforhimselfanequalshareofnew,andthushisinfluencesuffernodiminution.Forotherwise,beingatonceunmaskedandfriendless,heisundone:

CHAPTERXLII

HowEasilyMenBecomeCorrupted.

Inthismatterofthedecemviratewemaylikewisenotetheeasewherewithmenbecomecorrupted,andhowcompletely,althoughborngoodandwellbroughtup,theychangetheirnature.ForweseehowfavourablydisposedtheyouthswhomAppiusgatheredroundhimbecametowardshistyranny,inreturnforthetriflingbenefitswhichtheydrewfromit;andhowQuintusFabius,oneoftheseconddecemvirateandamostworthyman,blindedbyalittleambition,andmisledbytheevilcounselsofAppius,abandoninghisfairfame,betookhimselftomostunworthycourses,andgrewlikehismaster.

Carefulconsiderationofthisshouldmakethosewhoframelawsforcommonwealthsandkingdomsmorealivetothenecessityofplacingrestraintsonmen’sevilappetites,anddeprivingthemofallhopeofdoingwrongwithimpunity.

CHAPTERXLIII

ThatMenFightinginTheirOwnCauseMakeGoodandResoluteSoldiers.

Fromwhathasbeentoucheduponabove,wearealsoledtoremarkhowwideisthedifferencebetweenanarmywhich,havingnogroundfordiscontent,fightsinitsowncause,andonewhich,beingdiscontented,fightstosatisfytheambitionofothers.ForwhereastheRomanswerealwaysvictoriousundertheconsuls,underthedecemvirstheywerealwaysdefeated.Thishelpsustounderstandwhyitisthatmercenarytroopsareworthless;namely,thattheyhavenoincitementtokeepthemtruetoyoubeyondthepittancewhichyoupaythem,whichneitherisnorcanbeasufficientmotiveforsuchfidelityanddevotionaswouldmakethemwillingtodieinyourbehalf.Butinthosearmiesinwhichthereexistsnotsuchanattachmenttowardshimforwhomtheyfightasmakesthemdevotedtohiscause,thereneverwillbevalourenoughtowithstandanenemyifonlyhebealittlebrave.Andsincesuchattachmentanddevotioncannotbelookedforfromanysaveyourownsubjects,youmust,ifyouwouldpreserveyourdominions,ormaintainyourcommonwealthorkingdom,armthenativesofyourcountry;asweseetohavebeendonebyallthosewhohaveachievedgreatthingsinwar.

UnderthedecemvirstheancientvalouroftheRomansoldiershadinnodegreeabated;yet,becausetheywerenolongeranimatedbythesamegoodwill,theydidnotexertthemselvesastheywerewont.Butsosoonasthedecemviratecametoanend,andthesoldiersbeganoncemoretofightasfreemen,theoldspiritwasreawakened,and,asaconsequence,theirenterprises,accordingtoformerusage,werebroughttoasuccessfulclose.

CHAPTERXLIV

ThattheMultitudeisHelplessWithoutaHead:AndThatWeShouldNotWiththeSameBreathThreatenandAskLeave.

WhenVirginiadiedbyherfather’shand,thecommonsofRomewithdrewunderarmstotheSacredHill.Whereuponthesenatesentmessengerstodemandbywhatsanctiontheyhaddesertedtheircommandersandassembledthereinarms.Andinsuchreverencewastheauthorityofthesenateheld,thatthecommons,lackingleaders,durstmakenoreply.“Not,”saysTitusLivius,“thattheywereatalosswhattoanswer,butbecausetheyhadnonetoanswerforthem;”wordswhichclearlyshowhowhelplessathingisthemultitudewhenwithoutahead.

ThisdefectwasperceivedbyVirginius,atwhoseinstancetwentymilitarytribuneswereappointedbythecommonstobetheirspokesmenwiththesenate,andtonegotiateterms;who,havingaskedthatValeriusandHoratiusmightbesenttothem,towhomtheirwisheswouldbemadeknown,thesedeclinedtogountilthedecemvirshadlaiddowntheiroffice.Whenthiswasdone,andValeriusandHoratiuscametothehillwherethecommonswereassembled,thelatterdemandedthattribunesofthepeopleshouldbeappointed;thatinfuturethereshouldbeanappealtothepeoplefromthemagistratesofwhateverdegree;andthatallthedecemvirsshouldbegivenuptothemtobeburnedalive.ValeriusandHoratiusapprovedthefirsttwodemands,butrejectedthelastasinhuman;tellingthecommonsthat“theywererushingintothatverycrueltywhichtheythemselveshadcondemnedinothers;”andcounsellingthemtosaynothingaboutthedecemvirs,buttobesatisfiedtoregaintheirownpowerandauthority;sincethusthewaywouldbeopentothemforobtainingeveryredress.

Hereweseeplainlyhowfoolishandunwiseitistoaskathingandwiththesamebreathtosay,“IdesirethisthatImayinflictaninjury.”Forweshouldneverdeclareourintentionbeforehand,butwatchforeveryopportunitytocarryitout.Sothatitisenoughtoaskanotherforhisweapons,withoutadding,“WiththeseIpurposetodestroyyou;”forwhenonceyouhavesecuredhisweapons,youcanusethemafterwardsasyouplease.

CHAPTERXLV

ThatItisofEvilExample,EspeciallyintheMakerofaLaw,NottoObservetheLawWhenMade:AndThatDailytoRenewActsofInjusticeinaCityis

MostHurtfultotheGovernor.

Termshavingbeenadjusted,andtheoldorderofthingsrestoredinRome,VirginiuscitedAppiustodefendhimselfbeforethepeople;andonhisappearingattendedbymanyofthenobles,orderedhimtobeledtoprison.WhereuponAppiusbegantocryoutandappealtothepeople.ButVirginiustoldhimthathewasunworthytobeallowedthatappealwhichhehadhimselfdoneawaywith,ortohavethatpeoplewhomhehadwrongedforhisprotectors.Appiusrejoined,thatthepeopleshouldnotsetatnoughtthatrightofappealwhichtheythemselveshadinsistedonwithsomuchzeal.Nevertheless,hewasdraggedtoprison,andbeforethedayoftrialslewhimself.Now,thoughthewickedlifeofAppiusmeritedeverypunishment,stillitwasimpolitictoviolatethelaws,moreparticularlyalawwhichhadonlyjustbeenpassed;fornothing,Ithink,isofworseexampleinarepublic,thantomakealawandnottokeepit;andmostofall,whenhewhobreaksishethatmadeit.

Aftertheyear1494,thecityofFlorencereformeditsgovernmentwiththehelpoftheFriarGirolamoSavonarola,whosewritingsdeclarehislearning,hiswisdom,andtheexcellenceofhisheart.Amongotherordinancesforthesafetyofthecitizens,hecausedalawtobepassed,allowinganappealtothepeoplefromthesentencespronouncedby“theEight”andbythe“Signory”intrialsforStateoffences;alawhehadlongcontendedfor,andcarriedatlastwithgreatdifficulty.Itsohappenedthataveryshorttimeafteritwaspassed,fivecitizenswerecondemnedtodeathbythe“Signory”forStateoffences,andthatwhentheysoughttoappealtothepeopletheywerenotpermittedtodoso,andthelawwasviolated.This,morethananyothermischance,helpedtolessenthecreditoftheFriar;sinceifhislawofappealwassalutary,heshouldhavecausedittobeobserved;ifuseless,heoughtnottohavepromotedit.Andhisinconsistencywasthemoreremarked,becauseinallthesermonswhichhepreachedafterthelawwasbroken,henevereitherblamedorexcusedthepersonwhohadbrokenit,asthoughunwillingtocondemn,whileunabletojustifywhatsuitedhispurposes.This,asbetrayingtheambitiousandpartialturnofhismind,tookfromhisreputationandexposedhimtomuchobloquy.

Anotherthingwhichgreatlyhurtsagovernmentistokeepalivebitterfeelingsinmen’smindsbyoftenrenewedattacksonindividuals,aswasdoneinRomeafterthedecemviratewasputanendto.Foreachofthedecemvirs,andothercitizensbesides,wereatdifferenttimesaccusedandcondemned,sothatthegreatestalarmwasspreadthroughthewholebodyofthenobles,whocametobelievethattheseprosecutionswouldneverceaseuntiltheirentireorderwasexterminated.AndthismusthaveledtogravemischiefhadnotMarcusDuiliusthetribuneprovidedagainstit,byanedictwhichforbadeeveryone,fortheperiodofayear,citingoraccusinganyRomancitizen,anordinancewhichhadtheeffectofreassuringthewholenobility.Hereweseehowhurtfulitisforaprinceorcommonwealthtokeepthemindsoftheirsubjectsinconstantalarmandsuspenseby

continuallyrenewedpunishmentsandviolence.And,intruth,nocoursecanbemorepernicious.Formenwhoareinfearfortheirsafetywillseizeoneveryopportunityforsecuringthemselvesagainstthedangerswhichsurroundthem,andwillgrowatoncemoredaring,andlessscrupulousinresortingtonewcourses.Forthesereasonsweshouldeitheraltogetheravoidinflictinginjury,orshouldinflicteveryinjuryatastroke,andthenseektoreassuremen’smindsandsufferthemtosettledownandrest.

CHAPTERXLVI

ThatMenClimbFromOneStepofAmbitiontoAnother,SeekingatFirsttoEscapeInjuryandThentoInjureOthers.

AsthecommonsofRomeonrecoveringtheirfreedomwererestoredtotheirformerposition—nay,toonestillstrongersincemanynewlawshadbeenpassedwhichconfirmedandextendedtheirauthority,—itmightreasonablyhavebeenhopedthatRomewouldforatimeremainatrest.Theevent,however,showedthecontrary,forfromdaytodaytherearoseinthatcitynewtumultsandfreshdissensions.AndsincethecauseswhichbroughtthisabouthavebeenmostjudiciouslysetforthbyTitusLivius,itseemstomemuchtothepurposetocitehisownwordswhenhesays,that“whenevereitherthecommonsorthenobleswerehumble,theothersgrewhaughty;sothatifthecommonskeptwithinduebounds,theyoungnoblesbegantoinflictinjuriesuponthem,againstwhichthetribunes,whowerethemselvesmadetheobjectsofoutrage,werelittleabletogiveredress;whilethenoblesontheirpart,althoughtheycouldnotclosetheireyestotheillbehaviouroftheiryoungmen,wereyetwellpleasedthatifexcessesweretobecommitted,theyshouldbecommittedbytheirownfaction,andnotbythecommons.Thusthedesiretosecureitsownlibertypromptedeachfactiontomakeitselfstrongenoughtooppresstheother.Forthisisthecommoncourseofthings,thatinseekingtoescapecauseforfear,mencometogiveotherscausetobeafraidbyinflictingonthemthosewrongsfromwhichtheystrivetorelievethemselves;asthoughthechoicelaybetweeninjuringandbeinginjured.”

Herein,amongotherthings,weperceiveinwhatwayscommonwealthsareoverthrown,andhowmenclimbfromoneambitiontoanother;andrecognizethetruthofthosewordswhichSallustputsinthemouthofCæsar,that“allillactionshavetheirorigininfairbeginnings.”[4]For,asIhavesaidalready,theambitiouscitizeninacommonwealthseeksattheoutsettosecurehimselfagainstinjury,notonlyatthehandsofprivatepersons,butalsoofthemagistrates;toeffectwhichheendeavourstogainhimselffriends.Theseheobtainsbymeanshonourableinappearance,eitherbysupplyingthemwithmoneyorprotectingthemagainstthepowerful.Andbecausesuchconductseemspraiseworthy,everyoneisreadilydeceivedbyit,andconsequentlynoremedyisapplied.Pursuingthesemethodswithouthindrance,thismanpresentlycomestobesopowerfulthatprivatecitizensbegintofearhim,andthemagistratestotreathimwithrespect.Butwhenhehasadvancedthusfarontheroadtopowerwithoutencounteringopposition,hehasreachedapointatwhichitismostdangeroustocopewithhim;itbeingdangerous,asIhavebeforeexplained,tocontendwithadisorderwhichhasalreadymadeprogressinacity.Nevertheless,whenhehasbroughtthingstothispass,youmusteitherendeavourtocrushhim,attheriskofimmediateruin,orelse,unlessdeathorsomelikeaccidentinterpose,youincurinevitableslaverybylettinghimalone.Forwhen,asIhavesaid,ithascometothisthatthecitizensandeventhemagistratesfeartooffendhimandhisfriends,littlefurthereffortwillafterwardsbeneededtoenablehimtoproscribeandruinwhomhepleases.

Arepublicought,therefore,toprovidebyitsordinancesthatnoneofitscitizensshall,undercolourofdoinggood,haveitintheirpowertodoevil,butshallbesufferedtoacquiresuchinfluenceonlyasmayaidandnotinjurefreedom.Howthismaybedone,shallpresentlybeexplained.

[4]Quodomniamalaexemplaexbonisinitiisortasunt.(Sall.Cat.51.)

CHAPTERXLVII

ThatThoughMenDeceiveThemselvesinGeneralities,inParticularsTheyJudgeTruly.

ThecommonsofRomehaving,asIhavesaid,growndisgustedwiththeconsularname,anddesiringeitherthatmenofplebeianbirthshouldbeadmittedtotheofficeoritsauthorityberestricted,thenobles,topreventitsdegradationineitherofthesetwoways,proposedamiddlecourse,wherebyfourtribunes,whomighteitherbeplebeiansornobles,weretobecreatedwithconsularauthority.Thiscompromisesatisfiedthecommons,whothoughttheywouldthusgetridoftheconsulship,andsecurethehighestofficesoftheStatefortheirownorder.Buthereacircumstancehappenedworthnoting.Whenthefourtribunescametobechosen,thepeople,whohaditintheirpowertochooseallfromthecommons,choseallfromthenobles.WithrespecttowhichelectionTitusLiviusobserves,that“theresultshowedthatthepeoplewhendeclaringtheirhonestjudgmentaftercontroversywasover,weregovernedbyadifferentspiritfromthatwhichhadinspiredthemwhilecontendingfortheirlibertiesandforashareinpublichonours.”ThereasonforthisIbelievetobe,thatmendeceivethemselvesmorereadilyingeneralsthaninparticulars.TothecommonsofRomeitseemed,intheabstract,thattheyhadeveryrighttobeadmittedtotheconsulship,sincetheirpartyinthecitywasthemorenumerous,sincetheyborethegreatershareofdangerintheirwars,andsinceitwastheywhobytheirvalourkeptRomefreeandmadeherpowerful.Andbecauseitappearedtothem,asIhavesaid,thattheirdesirewasareasonableone,theywereresolvedtosatisfyitatallhazards.Butwhentheyhadtoformaparticularjudgmentonthemenoftheirownparty,theyrecognizedtheirdefects,anddecidedthatindividuallynooneofthemwasdeservingofwhat,collectively,theyseemedentitledto;andbeingashamedofthem,turnedtobestowtheirhonoursonthosewhodeservedthem.OfwhichdecisionTitusLivius,speakingwithdueadmiration,says,“Whereshallwenowfindinanyoneman,thatmodesty,moderation,andmagnanimitywhichwerethencommontotheentirepeople?”

AsconfirmingwhatIhavesaid,Ishallciteanothernoteworthyincident,whichoccurredinCapuaaftertheroutoftheRomansbyHannibalatCannæ.ForallItalybeingconvulsedbythatdefeat,Capuatoowasthreatenedwithciviltumult,throughthehatredwhichprevailedbetweenherpeopleandsenate.ButPacuviusCalavius,whoatthistimefilledtheofficeofchiefmagistrate,perceivingthedanger,tookuponhimselftoreconcilethecontendingfactions.WiththisobjectheassembledtheSenateandpointedouttothemthehatredinwhichtheywereheldbythepeople,andtherisktheyranofbeingputtodeathbythem,andofthecity,nowthattheRomanswereindistress,beinggivenuptoHannibal.Butheaddedthat,weretheytoconsenttoleavethematterwithhim,hethoughthecouldcontrivetoreconcilethem;inthemeanwhile,however,hemustshutthemupinthepalace,that,byputtingitinthepowerofthepeopletopunishthem,hemightsecuretheirsafety.

Thesenateconsentingtothisproposal,heshutthemupinthepalace,andsummoningthepeopletoapublicmeeting,toldthemthetimehadatlastcomeforthemtotrampleonthe

insolenceofthenobles,andrequitethewrongssufferedattheirhands;forhehadthemallsafeunderboltandbar;but,ashesupposedtheydidnotwishthecitytoremainwithoutrulers,itwasfit,beforeputtingtheoldsenatorstodeath,theyshouldappointothersintheirroom.Whereforehehadthrownthenamesofalltheoldsenatorsintoabag,andwouldnowproceedtodrawthemoutonebyone,andastheyweredrawnwouldcausethemtobeputtodeath,sosoonasasuccessorwasfoundforeach.Whenthefirstnamehedrewwasdeclared,therearoseagreatuproaramongthepeople,allcryingoutagainstthecruelty,pride,andarroganceofthatsenatorwhosenameitwas.ButonPacuviusdesiringthemtoproposeasubstitute,themeetingwasquieted,andafterabriefpauseoneofthecommonswasnominated.Nosooner,however,washisnamementionedthanonebegantowhistle,anothertolaugh,somejeeringathiminonewayandsomeinanother.Andthesamethinghappeningineverycase,eachandallofthosenominatedwerejudgedunworthyofsenatorialrank.WhereuponPacuvius,profitingbytheopportunity,said,“Sinceyouareagreedthatthecitywouldbebadlyoffwithoutasenate,butarenotagreedwhomtoappointintheroomoftheoldsenators,itwill,perhaps,bewellforyoutobereconciledtothem;forthefearintowhichtheyhavebeenthrownmusthavesosubduedthem,thatyouaresuretofindinthemthataffabilitywhichhithertoyouhavelookedforinvain.”Thisproposalbeingagreedto,areconciliationfollowedbetweenthetwoorders;thecommonshavingseentheirerrorsosoonastheywereobligedtocometoparticulars.

Apeoplethereforeisapttoerrinjudgingofthingsandtheiraccidentsintheabstract,butonbecomingacquaintedwithparticulars,speedilydiscoversitsmistakes.Intheyear1494,whenhergreatestcitizenswerebanishedfromFlorence,andnoregulargovernmentanylongerexistedthere,butaspiritoflicenceprevailed,andmatterswentcontinuallyfrombadtoworse,manyFlorentinesperceivingthedecayoftheircity,anddiscerningnoothercauseforit,blamedtheambitionofthisortheotherpowerfulcitizen,who,theythought,wasfomentingthesedisorderswithaviewtoestablishagovernmenttohisownliking,andtorobthemoftheirliberties.Thosewhothoughtthus,wouldhangaboutthearcadesandpublicsquares,maligningmanycitizens,andgivingittobeunderstoodthatifevertheyfoundthemselvesintheSignory,theywouldexposethedesignsofthesecitizensandhavethempunished.Fromtimetotimeithappenedthatoneoranotherofthosewhousedthislanguagerosetobeofthechiefmagistracy,andsosoonasheobtainedthisadvancement,andsawthingsnearer,becameawarewhencethedisordersIhavespokenofreallycame,thedangersattendingthem,andthedifficultyindealingwiththem;andrecognizingthattheywerethegrowthofthetimes,andnotoccasionedbyparticularmen,suddenlyalteredhisviewsandconduct;anearerknowledgeoffactsfreeinghimfromthefalseimpressionshehadbeenledintoonageneralviewofaffairs.Butthosewhohadheardhimspeakasaprivatecitizen,whentheysawhimremaininactiveafterhewasmadeamagistrate,believedthatthisarosenotfromhishavingobtainedanybetterknowledgeofthings,butfromhishavingbeencajoledorcorruptedbythegreat.Andthishappeningwithmanymenandoften,itcametobeaproverbamongthepeople,that“menhadonemindinthemarket–place,anotherinthepalace.”

Reflectingonwhathasbeensaid,weseehowquicklymen’seyesmaybeopened,ifknowingthattheydeceivethemselvesingeneralities,wecanfindawaytomakethempasstoparticulars;asPacuviusdidinthecaseoftheCapuans,andthesenateinthecaseofRome.NordoIbelievethatanyprudentmanneedshrinkfromthejudgmentofthe

peopleinquestionsrelatingtoparticulars,as,forinstance,inthedistributionofhonoursanddignities.Forinsuchmattersonly,thepeopleareeithernevermistaken,oratanyratefarseldomerthanasmallnumberofpersonswouldbe,werethedistributionentrustedtothem.

Itseemstome,however,notoutofplacetonoticeinthefollowingChapter,amethodemployedbytheRomansenatetoenlightenthepeopleinmakingthisdistribution.

CHAPTERXLVIII

HeWhoWouldNotHaveanOfficeBestowedonSomeWorthlessorWickedPerson,ShouldContriveThatItbeSolicitedbyOneWhoisUtterly

WorthlessandWicked,orElsebyOneWhoisintheHighestDegreeNobleandGood.

Wheneverthesenatesawalikelihoodofthetribuneswithconsularpowersbeingchosenexclusivelyfromthecommons,ittookoneorotheroftwoways,—eitherbycausingtheofficetobesolicitedbythemostdistinguishedamongthecitizens;orelse,toconfessthetruth,bybribingsomebaseandignoblefellowtofastenhimselfontothoseotherplebeiansofbetterqualitywhowereseekingtheoffice,andbecomeacandidateconjointlywiththem.Thelatterdevicemadethepeopleashamedtogive,theformerashamedtorefuse.

ThisconfirmswhatIsaidinmylastChapter,astothepeopledeceivingthemselvesingeneralitiesbutnotinparticulars.

CHAPTERXLIX

ThatifCitiesWhich,LikeRome,HadTheirBeginninginFreedom,HaveHadDifficultyinFramingSuchLawsasWouldPreserveTheirFreedom,CitiesWhichattheFirstHaveBeeninSubjectionWillFindThisAlmost

Impossible.

Howharditisinfoundingacommonwealthtoprovideitwithallthelawsneededtomaintainitsfreedom,iswellseenfromthehistoryoftheRomanRepublic.ForalthoughordinancesweregivenitfirstbyRomulus,thenbyNuma,afterwardsbyTullusHostiliusandServius,andlastlybytheTencreatedfortheexpresspurpose,nevertheless,intheactualgovernmentofRomenewneedswerecontinuallydeveloped,tomeetwhich,newordinanceshadconstantlytobedevised;asinthecreationofthecensors,whowereoneofthechiefmeansbywhichRomewaskeptfreeduringthewholeperiodofherconstitutionalgovernment.ForasthecensorsbecamethearbitersofmoralsinRome,itwasverymuchowingtothemthattheprogressoftheRomanstowardscorruptionwasretarded.Andthough,atthefirstcreationoftheoffice,amistakewasdoubtlessmadeinfixingitstermatfiveyears,thiswascorrectednotlongafterbythewisdomofthedictatorMamercus,whopassedalawreducingittoeighteenmonths;achangewhichthecensorstheninofficetookinsuchillpart,thattheydeprivedMamercusofhisrankasasenator.ThisstepwasmuchblamedbothbythecommonsandtheFathers;still,asourHistorydoesnotrecordthatMamercusobtainedanyredress,wemustinfereitherthattheHistorianhasomittedsomething,orthatonthisheadthelawsofRomeweredefective;sinceitisneverwellthatthelawsofacommonwealthshouldsufferacitizentoincurirremediablewrongbecausehepromotesameasurefavourabletofreedom.

Butreturningtothematterunderconsideration,wehave,inconnectionwiththecreationofthisnewoffice,tonote,thatifthosecitieswhich,aswasthecasewithRome,havehadtheirbeginninginfreedom,andhavebythemselvesmaintainedthatfreedom,haveexperiencedgreatdifficultyinframinggoodlawsforthepreservationoftheirliberties,itislittletobewonderedatthatcitieswhichatthefirstweredependent,shouldfinditnotdifficultmerelybutimpossiblesotoshapetheirordinancesastoenablethemtolivefreeandundisturbed.ThisdifficultyweseetohaveariseninthecaseofFlorence,which,beingsubjectatfirsttothepowerofRomeandsubsequentlytothatofotherrulers,remainedlonginservitude,takingnothoughtforherself;andevenafterwards,whenshecouldbreathemorefreelyandbegantoframeherownlaws,these,sincetheywereblendedwithancientordinanceswhichwerebad,couldnotthemselvesbegood;andthusforthetwohundredyearsofwhichwehavetrustworthyrecord,ourcityhasgoneonpatchingherinstitutions,withouteverpossessingagovernmentinrespectofwhichshecouldtrulybetermedacommonwealth.

ThedifficultieswhichhavebeenfeltinFlorencearethesameashavebeenfeltinallcitieswhichhavehadalikeorigin;andalthough,repeatedly,bythefreeandpublicvotesofhercitizens,ampleauthorityhasbeengiventoafewoftheirnumbertoreformherconstitution,noalterationofgeneralutilityhaseverbeenintroduced,butonlysuchas

forwardedtheinterestsofthepartytowhichthosecommissionedtomakechangesbelonged.This,insteadoforder,hasoccasionedthegreatestdisorderinourcity.

Buttocometoparticulars,Isay,thatamongothermatterswhichhavetobeconsideredbythefounderofacommonwealth,isthequestionintowhosehandsshouldbecommittedthepoweroflifeanddeathoveritscitizens’ThiswaswellseentoinRome,where,asarule,therewasarightofappealtothepeople,butwhere,onanyurgentcasearisinginwhichitmighthavebeendangeroustodelaytheexecutionofajudicialsentence,recoursecouldbehadtoadictatorwithpowerstoexecutejusticeatonce;aremedy,however,neverresortedtosaveincasesofextremity.ButFlorence,andothercitieshavingalikeorigin,committedthispowerintothehandsofaforeigner,whomtheystyledCaptain,andashewasopentobecorruptedbypowerfulcitizensthiswasaperniciouscourse.Alteringthisarrangementafterwardsinconsequenceofchangesintheirgovernment,theyappointedeightcitizenstodischargetheofficeofCaptain.Butthis,forareasonalreadymentioned,namelythatafewwillalwaysbegovernedbythewillofafewandthesethemostpowerful,wasachangefrombadtoworse.

ThecityofVenicehasguardedherselfagainstalikedanger.ForinVenicetencitizensareappointedwithpowertopunishanymanwithoutappeal;andbecause,althoughpossessingtherequisiteauthority,thisnumbermightnotbesufficienttoinsurethepunishmentofthepowerful,inadditiontotheircouncilofTen,theyhavealsoconstitutedacouncilofForty,andhavefurtherprovidedthatthecouncilofthe“Pregai,”whichistheirsupremecouncil,shallhaveauthoritytochastisepowerfuloffenders.Sothat,unlessanaccuserbewanting,atribunalisneverwantinginVenicetokeeppowerfulcitizensincheck.

ButwhenweseehowinRome,withordinancesofherownimposing,andwithsomanyandsowiselegislators,freshoccasionarosefromdaytodayforframingnewlawsfavourabletofreedom,itisnottobewonderedatthat,inothercitieslesshappyintheirbeginnings,difficultiesshouldhavesprungupwhichnoordinancescouldremedy.

CHAPTERL

ThatNeitherAnyCouncilNorAnyMagistrateShouldHavePowertoBringtheGovernmentofaCitytoaStay.

T.Q.CINCINNATUSandCn.JuliusMentobeingconsulsofRome,andbeingatvariancewithoneanother,broughtthewholebusinessofthecitytoastay;whichthesenateperceiving,weremovedtocreateadictatortodowhat,byreasonoftheirdifferences,theconsulswouldnot.Butthoughopposedtooneanotherineverythingelse,theconsulswereofonemindinresistingtheappointmentofadictator;sothatthesenatehadnoremedyleftthembuttoseekthehelpofthetribunes,who,supportedbytheirauthority,forcedtheconsulstoyield.

Herewehavetonote,first,theusefulnessofthetribunes’authorityincheckingtheambitiousdesigns,notonlyofthenoblesagainstthecommons,butalsoofonesectionofthenoblesagainstanother;andnext,thatinnocityoughtthingsevertobesoorderedthatitrestswithafewtodecideonmatters,which,iftheordinarybusinessoftheStateistoproceedatall,mustbecarriedout.Wherefore,ifyougrantauthoritytoacounciltodistributehonoursandoffices,ortoamagistratetoadministeranybranchofpublicbusiness,youmusteitherimposeanobligationthatthedutyconfidedshallbeperformed,orordainthat,onfailuretoperform,anothermayandshalldowhathastobedone.Otherwisesuchanarrangementwillbefounddefectiveanddangerous;aswouldhavebeenthecaseinRome,haditnotbeenpossibletoopposetheauthorityofthetribunestotheobstinacyoftheconsuls.

IntheVenetianRepublic,thegreatcouncildistributeshonoursandoffices.Butmorethanonceithashappenedthatthecouncil,whetherfromill–humourorfrombeingbadlyadvised,hasdeclinedtoappointsuccessorseithertothemagistratesofthecityortothoseadministeringthegovernmentabroad.Thisgaverisetothegreatestconfusionanddisorder;for,onasudden,boththecityitselfandthesubjectprovincesfoundthemselvesdeprivedoftheirlawfulgovernors;norcouldanyredressbehaduntilthemajorityofthecouncilwerepacifiedorundeceived.Andthisdisordermusthavebroughtthecitytoabadend,hadnotprovisionbeenmadeagainstitsrecurrencebycertainofthewisercitizens,who,findingafitopportunity,passedalawthatnomagistracy,whetherwithinorwithoutthecity,shouldeverbedeemedtohavebeenvacateduntilitwasfilledupbytheappointmentofasuccessor.InthiswaythecouncilwasdeprivedofitsfacilitiesforstoppingpublicbusinesstothedangeroftheState.

CHAPTERLI

WhataPrinceorRepublicDoesofNecessity,ShouldSeemtobeDonebyChoice

Inalltheiractions,eveninthosewhicharemattersofnecessityratherthanchoice,prudentmenwillendeavoursotoconductthemselvesastoconciliategood–will.ThisspeciesofprudencewaswellexercisedbytheRomansenatewhentheyresolvedtograntpayfromthepublicpursetosoldiersonactiveservice,who,before,hadservedattheirowncharges.Forperceivingthatundertheoldsystemtheycouldmaintainnowarofanyduration,and,consequently,couldnotundertakeasiegeorleadanarmytoanydistancefromhome,andfindingitnecessarytobeabletodoboth,theydecidedongrantingthepayIhavespokenof.Butthis,whichtheycouldnothelpdoing,theydidinsuchawayastoearnthethanksofthepeople,bywhomtheconcessionwassowellreceivedthatallRomewasintoxicatedwithdelight.Foritseemedtothemaboonbeyondanytheycouldhaveventuredtohopefor,orhavedreamedofdemanding.Andalthoughthetribunessoughttomakelightofthebenefit,byshowingthepeoplethattheirburthenswouldbeincreasedratherthandiminishedbyit,sincetaxeswouldhavetobeimposedoutofwhichthesoldier’sstipendmightbepaid,theycouldnotpersuadethemtoregardthemeasureotherwisethanwithgratitude;whichwasfurtherincreasedbythemannerinwhichthesenatedistributedthetaxes,imposingonthenoblesalltheheavierandgreater,andthosewhichhadtobepaidfirst.

CHAPTERLII

ThattoChecktheArroganceofaCitizenWhoisGrowingTooPowerfulinaState,ThereisNoSaferMethod,orLessOpentoObjection,ThantoForestallHiminThoseWaysWherebyHeSeekstoAdvanceHimself

Ithasbeenseenintheprecedingchapterhowmuchcreditthenoblesgainedwiththecommonsbyashowofgood–willtowardsthem,notonlyinprovidingfortheirmilitarypay,butalsoinadjustingtaxation.Hadthesenateconstantlyadheredtomethodslikethese,theywouldhaveputanendtoalldisturbancesinRome,andhavedeprivedthetribunesofthecredittheyhadwiththepeople,andoftheinfluencethencearising.Forintruth,inacommonwealth,andespeciallyinonewhichhasbecomecorrupted,thereisnobetter,oreasier,orlessobjectionablewayofopposingtheambitionofanycitizen,thantoanticipatehiminthosepathsbywhichheisseentobeadvancingtotheendshehasinview.Thisplan,haditbeenfollowedbytheenemiesofCosimode’Medici,wouldhaveprovedafarmoreusefulcourseforthemthantobanishhimfromFlorence;sinceifthosecitizenswhoopposedhimhadadoptedhismethodsforgainingoverthepeople,theywouldhavesucceeded,withoutviolenceortumult,intakinghismosteffectiveweaponfromhishands.

TheinfluenceacquiredinFlorencebyPieroSoderiniwasentirelyduetohisskillinsecuringtheaffectionsofthepeople,sinceinthiswayheobtainedamongthemanameforlovingthelibertiesofthecommonwealth.Andtruly,forthosecitizenswhoenviedhisgreatnessitwouldhavebeenbotheasierandmorehonourable,andatthesametimefarlessdangerousandhurtfultotheState,toforestallhiminthosemeasuresbywhichhewasgrowingpowerful,thantoopposehiminsuchamannerthathisoverthrowmustbringwithittheruinoftheentirerepublic.Forhadthey,astheymighteasilyhavedone,deprivedhimoftheweaponswhichmadehimformidable,theycouldthenhavewithstoodhiminallthecouncils,andinallpublicdeliberations,withouteitherbeingsuspectedorfeared.Andshouldanyrejointhat,ifthecitizenswhohatedPieroSoderinicommittedanerrorinnotbeingbeforehandwithhiminthosewayswherebyhecametohaveinfluencewiththepeople,Pierohimselferredinlikemanner,innotanticipatinghisenemiesinthosemethodswherebytheygrewformidabletohim;IanswerthatPieroistobeexcused,bothbecauseitwouldhavebeendifficultforhimtohavesoacted,andbecauseforhimsuchacoursewouldnothavebeenhonourable.ForthepathswhereinhisdangerlaywerethosewhichfavouredtheMedici,anditwasbythesethathisenemiesattackedhim,andintheendoverthrewhim.ButthesepathsPierocouldnotpursuewithoutdishonour,sincehecouldnot,ifhewastopreservehisfairfame,havejoinedindestroyingthatlibertywhichhehadbeenputforwardtodefend.Moreover,sincefavourstotheMediceanpartycouldnothavebeenrenderedsecretlyandonceforall,theywouldhavebeenmostdangerousforPiero,who,hadheshownhimselffriendlytotheMedici,musthavebecomesuspectedandhatedbythepeople;inwhichcasehisenemieswouldhavehadstillbetteropportunitiesthanbeforeforhisdestruction.

Menoughtthereforetolooktotherisksanddangersofanycoursewhichliesbeforethem,

norengageinitwhenitisplainthatthedangersoutweightheadvantages,eventhoughtheybeadvisedbyothersthatitisthemostexpedientwaytotake.Shouldtheyactotherwise,itwillfarewiththemaswithTullius,who,inseekingtodiminishthepowerofMarcusAntonius,addedtoit.ForAntonius,whohadbeendeclaredanenemybythesenate,havinggottogetherastrongforce,mostlymadeupofveteranswhohadsharedthefortunesofCæsar,TulliuscounselledthesenatetoinvestOctavianuswithfullauthority,andtosendhimagainstAntoniuswiththeconsulsandthearmy;affirming,thatsosoonasthoseveteranswhohadservedwithCæsarsawthefaceofhimwhowasCæsar’snephewandhadassumedhisname,theywouldrallytohissideanddesertAntonius,whomighteasilybecrushedwhenthusleftbareofsupport.

Butthereverseofallthishappened.ForAntoniuspersuadedOctavianustotakepartwithhim,andtothrowoverTulliusandthesenate.Andthisbroughtabouttheruinofthesenate,aresultwhichmighteasilyhavebeenforeseen.Forrememberingtheinfluenceofthatgreatcaptain,who,afteroverthrowingallopponents,hadseizedonsovereignpowerinRome,thesenateshouldhaveturnedadeafeartothepersuasionsofTullius,noreverhavebelieveditpossiblethatfromCæsar’sheir,orfromsoldierswhohadfollowedCæsar,theycouldlookforanythingthatconsistedwiththenameofFreedom.

CHAPTERLIII

ThatthePeople,DeceivedbyaFalseShowofAdvantage,OftenDesireWhatWouldbeTheirRuin;andThatLargeHopesandBravePromises

EasilyMoveThem

WhenVeiifell,thecommonsofRometookupthenotionthatitwouldbetotheadvantageoftheircitywerehalftheirnumbertogoanddwellthere.FortheyarguedthatasVeiilayinafertilecountryandwasawell–builtcity,amoietyoftheRomanpeoplemightinthiswaybeenriched;while,byreasonofitsvicinitytoRome,themanagementofcivilaffairswouldinnodegreebeaffected.Tothesenate,however,andthewiseramongthecitizens,theschemeappearedsorashandmischievousthattheypubliclydeclaredtheywoulddiesoonerthanconsenttoit.Thecontroversycontinuing,thecommonsgrewsoinflamedagainstthesenatethatviolenceandbloodshedmusthaveensued;hadnotthesenatefortheirprotectionputforwardcertainoldandesteemedcitizens,respectforwhomrestrainedthepopulaceandputastoptotheirviolence.

Twopointsareheretobenoted.First,thatapeopledeceivedbyafalseshowofadvantagewilloftenlabourforitsowndestruction;and,unlessconvincedbysomeonewhomittrusts,thatthecourseonwhichitisbentispernicious,andthatsomeotheristobepreferred,willbringinfinitedangerandinjuryupontheState.Andshoulditsohappen,assometimesisthecase,thatfromhavingbeendeceivedbefore,eitherbymenorbyevents,thereisnoneinwhomthepeopletrust,theirruinisinevitable.AstowhichDante,inhistreatise“DeMonarchia,”observesthatthepeoplewilloftenraisethecry,“Flourishourdeathandperishourlife.”[5]Fromwhichdistrustitarisesthatofteninrepublicstherightcourseisnotfollowed;aswhenVenice,ashasbeenrelated,onbeingattackedbymanyenemies,couldnot,untilherruinwascomplete,resolvetomakefriendswithanyoneofthembyrestoringthoseterritoriesshehadtakenfromthem,onaccountofwhichwarhadbeendeclaredandaleagueofprincesformedagainsther.

Inconsideringwhatcoursesitiseasy,andwhatitisdifficulttopersuadeapeopletofollow,thisdistinctionmaybedrawn:Eitherwhatyouwouldpersuadethemto,presentsonthefaceofitasemblanceofgainorloss,oritseemsaspiritedcourseorabaseone.Whenanyproposalsubmittedtothepeopleholdsoutpromiseofadvantage,orseemstothemaspiritedcoursetotake,thoughlossliehidbehind,nay,thoughtheruinoftheircountrybeinvolvedinit,theywillalwaysbeeasilyledtoadoptit;whereasitwillalwaysbedifficulttopersuadetheadoptionofsuchcoursesasweartheappearanceofdisgraceorloss,eventhoughsafetyandadvantagebeboundupwiththem.ThetruthofwhatIsayisconfirmedbynumberlessexamplesbothRomanandforeign,modernandancient.HencegrewtheillopinionentertainedinRomeofFabiusMaximus,whocouldneverpersuadethepeoplethatitbehovedthemtoproceedwarilyintheirconflictwithHannibal,andwithstandhisonsetwithoutfighting.Forthisthepeoplethoughtabasecourse,notdiscerningtheadvantageresultingfromit,whichFabiuscouldbynoargumentmakeplaintothem.Andsoblindedaremeninfavourofwhatseemsaspiritedcourse,thatalthoughtheRomanshadalreadycommittedtheblunderofpermittingVarro,masteroftheknights

toFabius,tojoinbattlecontrarytothelatter’sdesire,wherebythearmymusthavebeendestroyedhadnotFabiusbyhisprudencesavedit,thislessonwasnotenough;forafterwardstheyappointedthisVarrotobeconsul,fornootherreasonthanthathegaveout,inthestreetsandmarket–places,thathewouldmakeanendofHannibalassoonasleavewasgivenhimtodoso.WhencecamethebattleanddefeatofCannæ,andwell–nighthedestructionofRome.

AnotherexampletakenfromRomanhistorymaybecitedtothesameeffect.AfterHannibalhadmaintainedhimselfforeightortenyearsinItaly,duringwhichtimethewholecountryhadbeendelugedwithRomanblood,acertainMarcusCenteniusPenula,amanofmeanorigin,butwhohadheldsomepostinthearmy,cameforwardandproposedtothesenatethatwereleavegivenhimtoraiseaforceofvolunteersinanypartofItalyhepleased,hewouldspeedilydeliverHannibalintotheirhands,aliveordead.Tothesenatethisman’sofferseemedarashone;butreflectingthatweretheytorefuseit,andwerethepeopleafterwardstohearthatithadbeenmade,tumults,illwill,andresentmentagainstthemwouldresult,theygrantedthepermissionasked;choosingrathertoriskthelivesofallwhomightfollowPenula,thantoexcitefreshdiscontentonthepartofthepeople,towhomtheyknewthatsuchaproposalwouldbewelcome,andthatitwouldbeveryhardtodissuadethemfromit.Andsothisadventurer,marchingforthwithanundisciplinedanddisorderlyrabbletomeetHannibal,was,withallhisfollowers,defeatedandslainintheveryfirstencounter.

InGreece,likewise,andinthecityofAthens,thatmostgraveandprudentstatesman,Nicias,couldnotconvincethepeoplethattheproposaltogoandattackSicilywasdisadvantageous;andtheexpeditionbeingresolvedon,contrarytohisadviceandtothewishesofthewiseramongthecitizens,resultedintheoverthrowoftheAthenianpower.Scipio,onbeingappointedconsul,askedthattheprovinceofAfricamightbeawardedtohim,promisingthathewouldutterlyeffaceCarthage;andwhenthesenate,ontheadviceofFabius,refusedhisrequest,hethreatenedtosubmitthemattertothepeopleasverywellknowingthattothepeoplesuchproposalsarealwaysacceptable.

Imightciteotherinstancestothesameeffectfromthehistoryofourowncity,aswhenMesserErcoleBentivoglioandAntonioGiacomini,beinginjointcommandoftheFlorentinearmies,afterdefeatingBartolommeod’AlvianoatSanVincenzo,proceededtoinvestPisa.ForthisenterprisewasresolvedonbythepeopleinconsequenceofthebravepromisesofMesserErcole;andthoughmanywisecitizensdisapprovedofit,theycoulddonothingtopreventit,beingcarriedawaybythepopularwill,whichtookitsriseintheassurancesoftheircaptain.

Isay,then,thatthereisnoreadierwaytobringabouttheruinofarepublic,whenthepowerisinthehandsofthepeople,thantosuggestdaringcoursesfortheiradoption.Forwhereverthepeoplehaveavoice,suchproposalswillalwaysbewellreceived,norwillthosepersonswhoareopposedtothembeabletoapplyanyremedy.AndasthisoccasionstheruinofStates,itlikewise,andevenmorefrequently,occasionstheprivateruinofthosetowhomtheexecutionoftheseproposalsiscommitted;becausethepeopleanticipatingvictory,donotwhentherecomesdefeatascribeittotheshortmeansorillfortuneofthecommander,buttohiscowardiceandincapacity;andcommonlyeitherputhimtodeath,orimprisonorbanishhim;aswasdoneinthecaseofnumberlessCarthaginiangenerals

andofmanyAthenian,nosuccessestheymightpreviouslyhaveobtainedavailingthemanything;forallpastservicesarecancelledbyapresentloss.AndsoithappenedwithourAntonioGiacomini,whonotsucceedingasthepeoplehadexpected,andashehadpromised,intakingPisa,fellintosuchdiscreditwiththepeople,thatnotwithstandinghiscountlesspastservices,hislifewassparedratherbythecompassionofthoseinauthoritythanthroughanymovementofthecitizensinhisbehalf.

[5]“Vivalasuamorteemuoialasuavita.”Thequotationdoesnotseemtobefromthe“DeMonarchia.”

CHAPTERLIV

OftheBoundlessAuthorityWhichaGreatManMayUsetoRestrainanExcitedMultitude

ThenextnoteworthypointinthepassagereferredtointheforegoingChapteris,thatnothingtendssomuchtorestrainanexcitedmultitudeasthereverencefeltforsomegraveperson,clothedwithauthority,whostandsforwardtoopposethem.FornotwithoutreasonhasVirgilsaid—

“Ifthen,bychance,somereverendchiefappear,Knownforhisdeedsandforhisvirtuesdear,Silenttheywaithiswordsandbendalisteningear.”[6]

Hethereforewhocommandsanarmyorgovernsacitywhereintumultshallhavebrokenout,oughttoassumethenoblestandbravestbearinghecan,andclothehimselfwithalltheensignsofhisstation,thathemaymakehimselfmorerevered.ItisnotmanyyearssinceFlorencewasdividedintotwofactions,theFrateschiandArrabbiati,astheywerenamed,andthesecomingtoopenviolence,theFrateschi,amongwhomwasPagoloAntonioSoderini,acitizenofgreatreputationinthesedays,wereworsted.InthecourseofthesedisturbancesthepeoplecomingwitharmsintheirhandstoplunderthehouseofSoderini,hisbrotherMesserFrancesco,thenbishopofVolterraandnowcardinal,whohappenedtobedwellingthere,sosoonasheheardtheuproarandsawthecrowd,puttingonhisbestapparelandoverithisepiscopalrobes,wentforthtomeetthearmedmultitude,andbyhiswordsandmienbroughtthemtoastay;andformanydayshisbehaviourwascommendedbythewholecity.Theinferencefromallwhichis,thatthereisnosurerormorenecessaryrestraintontheviolenceofanunrulymultitude,thanthepresenceofsomeonewhosecharacterandbearingcommandrespect.

Buttoreturnoncemoretothepassageweareconsidering,weseehowstubbornlythepeopleclungtothisschemeoftransplantingthemselvestoVeii,thinkingitfortheiradvantage,andnotdiscerningthemischiefreallyinvolvedinit;sothatinadditiontothemanydissensionswhichitoccasioned,actualviolencemusthavefollowed,hadnotthesenatewiththeaidofcertaingraveandreverendcitizensrepressedthepopularfury.

[6]TumpietategravemacmeritissifortevirumquemConspexere,silent,arrectisqueauribusadstant.Virg.Aen.,I.154.

CHAPTERLV

ThatGovernmentisEasilyCarriedoninaCityWhereintheBodyofthePeopleisNotCorrupted:AndThataPrincedomisImpossibleWhere

EqualityPrevails,andaRepublicWhereItDoesNot

Thoughwhatwehavetofearorhopefromcitiesthathavegrowncorruptedhasalreadybeendiscussed,stillIthinkitnotoutofplacetonoticearesolutionpassedbythesenatetouchingthevowwhichCamillusmadetoApolloofatenthofthespoiltakenfromtheVeientines.Forthisspoilhavingfallenintothehandsofthepeople,thesenate,beingunablebyothermeanstogetanyaccountofit,passedanedictthateverymanshouldpubliclyofferonetenthpartofwhathehadtaken.Andalthoughthisedictwasnotcarriedout,fromthesenatehavingafterwardsfollowedadifferentcourse,whereby,tothecontentofthepeople,theclaimofApollowasotherwisesatisfied,weneverthelessseefromtheirhavingentertainedsuchaproposal,howcompletelythesenatetrustedtothehonestyofthepeople,whentheyassumedthatnoonewouldwithholdanypartofwhattheedictcommandedhimtogive;ontheotherhand,weseethatitneveroccurredtothepeoplethattheymightevadethelawbygivinglessthanwasdue,theironlythoughtbeingtofreethemselvesfromthelawbyopenlymanifestingtheirdispleasure.Thisexample,togetherwithmanyothersalreadynoticed,showshowmuchvirtueandhowprofoundafeelingofreligionprevailedamongtheRomanpeople,andhowmuchgoodwastobeexpectedfromthem.And,intruth,inthecountrywherevirtuelikethisdoesnotexist,nogoodcanbelookedfor,asweshouldlookforitinvaininprovinceswhichatthepresentdayareseentobecorrupted;asItalyisbeyondallothers,though,insomedegree,FranceandSpainaresimilarlytainted.Inwhichlasttwocountries,ifweseenotsomanydisordersspringupasweseedailyspringingupinItaly,thisisnotsomuchduetothesuperiorvirtueoftheirinhabitants(who,tosaytruth,fallfarshortofourcountrymen),astotheirbeinggovernedbyakingwhokeepsthemunited,notmerelybyhispersonalqualities,butalsobythelawsandordinancesoftherealmwhicharestillmaintainedwithvigour.InGermany,however,wedoseesignalexcellenceandadevoutreligiousspiritprevailamongthepeople,givingrisetothemanyfreeStateswhichtheremaintainthemselves,withsuchstrictobservanceoftheirlawsthatnone,eitherwithinorwithouttheirwalls,dareencroachonthem.

Thatamongthislast–namedpeopleagreatshareoftheancientexcellencedoesintruthstillflourish,IshallshowbyanexamplesimilartothatwhichIhaveaboverelatedofthesenateandpeopleofRome.ItiscustomarywiththeGermanFreeStateswhentheyhavetoexpendanylargesumofmoneyonthepublicaccount,fortheirmagistratesorcouncilshavingauthoritygiventheminthatbehalf,toimposearateofoneortwointhehundredoneveryman’sestate;whichratebeingfixed,everyman,inconformitywiththelawsofthecity,presentshimselfbeforethecollectorsoftheimpost,andhavingfirstmadeoathtopaytheamountjustlydue,throwsintoachestprovidedforthepurposewhatheconscientiouslybelievesitfairforhimtopay,ofwhichpaymentnoneiswitnesssavehimself.Fromthisfactitmaybegatheredwhathonestyandreligionstillprevailamongthispeople.Forwemustassumethateachpayshisjustshare,sinceotherwisetheimpost

wouldnotyieldthesumwhich,withreferencetoformerimposts,itwasestimatedtoyield;wherebythefraudwouldbedetected,andthereuponsomeothermethodforraisingmoneyhavetoberesortedto.

Atthepresenttimethisvirtueisthemoretobeadmired,becauseitseemstohavesurvivedinthisprovinceonly.Thatithassurvivedtheremaybeascribedtotwocircumstances:first,thatthenativeshavelittlecommunicationwiththeirneighbours,neithervisitingthemintheircountriesnorbeingvisitedbythem;beingcontenttousesuchcommodities,andsubsistonsuchfood,andtoweargarmentsofsuchmaterialsastheirownlandsupplies;sothatalloccasionforintercourse,andeverycauseofcorruptionisremoved.Forlivingafterthisfashion,theyhavenotlearnedthemannersoftheFrench,theItalians,ortheSpaniards,whichthreenationstogetherarethecorruptionoftheworld.Thesecondcauseis,thattheserepublicsinwhichafreeandpuregovernmentismaintainedwillnotsufferanyoftheircitizenseithertobe,ortoliveasgentlemen;butonthecontrary,whilepreservingastrictequalityamongthemselves,arebitterlyhostiletoallthosegentlemenandlordswhodwellintheirneighbourhood;sothatifbychanceanyofthesefallintotheirhands,theyputthemtodeath,asthechiefpromotersofcorruptionandtheoriginofalldisorders.

ButtomakeplainwhatImeanwhenIspeakofgentlemen,Isaythatthosearesotobestyledwholiveinopulenceandidlenessontherevenuesoftheirestates,withoutconcerningthemselveswiththecultivationoftheseestates,orincurringanyotherfatiguefortheirsupport.Suchpersonsareverymischievousineveryrepublicorcountry.Butevenmoremischievousaretheywho,besidestheestatesIhavespokenof,arelordsofstrongholdsandcastles,andhavevassalsandretainerswhorenderthemobedience.OfthesetwoclassesofmenthekingdomofNaples,thecountryroundRome,Romagna,andLombardyarefull;andhenceithappensthatintheseprovincesnocommonwealthorfreeformofgovernmenthaseverexisted;becausemenofthissortaretheswornfoestoallfreeinstitutions.

Andsincetoplantacommonwealthinprovinceswhichareinthisconditionwereimpossible,ifthesearetobereformedatall,itcanonlybebysomeonemanwhoisabletheretoestablishakingdom;thereasonbeingthatwhenthebodyofthepeopleisgrownsocorruptedthatthelawsarepowerlesstocontrolit,theremustinadditiontothelawsbeintroducedastrongerforce,towit,theregal,whichbyitsabsoluteandunrestrictedauthoritymaycurbtheexcessiveambitionandcorruptionofthegreat.ThisopinionmaybesupportedbytheexampleofTuscany,inwhichwithinanarrowcompassofterritorytherehavelongexistedthethreerepublicsofFlorence,Lucca,andSiena,whiletheothercitiesofthatprovince,althoughtoacertainextentdependent,stillshowbytheirspiritandbytheirinstitutionsthattheypreserve,oratanyratedesiretopreserve,theirfreedom:andthisbecausethereareinTuscanynolordspossessedofstrongholds,andfewornogentlemen,butsocompleteanequalityprevails,thataprudentstatesman,wellacquaintedwiththehistoryofthefreeStatesofantiquity,mighteasilyintroducefreeinstitutions.Such,however,hasbeentheunhappinessofthisourcountry,that,uptothepresenthour,ithasneverproducedanymanwiththepowerandknowledgewhichwouldhaveenabledhimtoactinthisway.

Fromwhathasbeensaid,itfollows,thathewhowouldfoundacommonwealthina

countrywhereintherearemanygentlemen,cannotdosounlesshefirstgetsridofthem;andthathewhowouldfoundamonarchyorprincedominacountrywhereingreatequalityprevails,willneversucceed,unlessheraiseabovethelevelofthatequalitymanypersonsofarestlessandambitioustemperament,whomhemustmakegentlemennotinnamemerelybutinreality,byconferringonthemcastlesandlands,supplyingthemwithriches,andprovidingthemwithretainers;thatwiththesegentlemenaroundhim,andwiththeirhelp,hemaymaintainhispower,whiletheythroughhimmaygratifytheirambition;allothersbeingconstrainedtoendureayoke,whichforceandforcealoneimposesonthem.Forwheninthiswaytherecomestobeaproportionbetweenhimwhousesforceandhimagainstwhomitisused,eachstandsfixedinhisownstation.

Buttofoundacommonwealthinacountrysuitedforakingdom,orakingdominacountrysuitedtobeacommonwealth,requiressorareacombinationofintelligenceandpower,thatthoughmanyengageintheattempt,fewarefoundtosucceed.Forthegreatnessoftheundertakingquicklydauntsthem,andsoobstructstheiradvancetheybreakdownattheveryoutset.ThecaseoftheVenetianRepublic,whereinnonesavegentlemenarepermittedtoholdanypublicoffice,does,doubtless,seemopposedtothisopinionofminethatwheretherearegentlemenitisimpossibletofoundacommonwealth.ButitmaybeansweredthatthecaseofVeniceisnotintruthaninstancetothecontrary;sincethegentlemenofVenicearegentlemenratherinnamethaninreality,inasmuchastheydrawnogreatrevenuesfromlands,theirwealthconsistingchieflyinmerchandiseandchattels,andnotoneofthempossessingacastleorenjoyinganyfeudalauthority.ForinVenicethisnameofgentlemanisatitleofhonouranddignity,anddoesnotdependonanyofthosecircumstancesinrespectofwhichthenameisgiveninotherStates.ButasinotherStatesthedifferentranksandclassesaredividedunderdifferentnames,soinVenicewehavethedivisionintogentlemen(gentiluomini)andplebeians(popolani),itbeingunderstoodthattheformerhold,orhavetherighttoholdallsituationsofhonour,fromwhichthelatterareentirelyexcluded.AndinVenicethisoccasionsnodisturbance,forreasonswhichIhavealreadyexplained.

Letacommonwealth,then,beconstitutedinthecountrywhereagreatequalityisfoundorhasbeenmade;and,conversely,letaprincedombeconstitutedwheregreatinequalityprevails.Otherwisewhatisconstitutedwillbediscordantinitself,andwithoutstability.

CHAPTERLVI

ThatWhenGreatCalamitiesAreAbouttoBefallaCityorCountry,SignsAreSeentoPresage,andSeersAriseWhoForetellThem

WhenceithappensIknownot,butitisseenfromexamplesbothancientandrecent,thatnogravecalamityhaseverbefallenanycityorcountrywhichhasnotbeenforetoldbyvision,byaugury,byportent,orbysomeotherHeaven–sentsign.Andnottotraveltoofarafieldforevidenceofthis,everyoneknowsthatlongbeforetheinvasionofItalybyCharlesVIII.ofFrance,hiscomingwasforetoldbythefriarGirolamoSavonarola;andhow,throughoutthewholeofTuscany,therumourranthatoverArezzohorsemenhadbeenseenfightingintheair.AndwhoistherewhohasnotheardthatbeforethedeathoftheelderLorenzode’Medici,thehighestpinnacleofthecathedralwasrentbyathunderbolt,tothegreatinjuryofthebuilding?Orwho,again,butknowsthatshortlybeforePieroSoderini,whomthepeopleofFlorencehadmadegonfalonierforlife,wasdeprivedofhisofficeandbanished,thepalaceitselfwasstruckbylightning?

Otherinstancesmightbecited,which,nottobetedious,Ishallomit,andmentiononlyacircumstancewhichTitusLiviustellsusprecededtheinvasionoftheGauls.ForherelateshowacertainplebeiannamedMarcusCeditiusreportedtothesenatethatashepassedbynightalongtheViaNova,heheardavoicelouderthanmortal,biddinghimwarnthemagistratesthattheGaulswereontheirwaytoRome.

Thecausesofsuchmanifestationsought,Ithink,tobeinquiredintoandexplainedbysomeonewhohasaknowledge,whichIhavenot,ofcausesnaturalandsupernatural.Itmay,however,be,ascertainwisemensay,thattheairisfilledwithintelligentbeings,towhomitisgiventoforecastfutureevents;who,takingpityuponmen,warnthembeforehandbythesesignstoprepareforwhatawaitsthem.Bethisasitmay,certainitisthatsuchwarningsaregiven,andthatalwaysafterthemnewandstrangedisastersbefallnations.

CHAPTERLVII

ThatthePeopleAreStrongCollectively,butIndividuallyWeak

AftertheruinbroughtontheircountrybytheinvasionoftheGauls,manyoftheRomanswenttodwellinVeii,inoppositiontotheedictsandcommandsofthesenate,who,tocorrectthismischief,publiclyordainedthatwithinatimefixed,andunderpenaltiesstated,allshouldreturntoliveinRome.Thepersonsagainstwhomtheseproclamationsweredirectedatfirstderidedthem;but,whenthetimecameforthemtobeobeyed,allobeyedthem.AndTitusLiviusobservesthat,“althoughboldenoughcollectively,eachseparately,fearingtobepunished,madehissubmission.”Andindeedthetemperofthemultitudeinsuchcases,cannotbebetterdescribedthaninthispassage.Foroftenapeoplewillbeopen–mouthedincondemningthedecreesoftheirprince,butafterwards,whentheyhavetolookpunishmentintheface,puttingnotrustinoneanother,theyhastentocomply.Wherefore,ifyoubeinapositiontokeepthepeoplewell–disposedtowardsyouwhentheyalreadyareso,ortopreventtheminjuringyouincasetheybeill–disposed,itisclearlyoflittlemomentwhetherthefeelingswithwhichtheyprofesstoregardyou,befavourableorno.Thisappliestoallunfriendlinessonthepartofapeople,whencesoeveritproceed,exceptingonlytheresentmentfeltbythemonbeingdeprivedeitherofliberty,orofaprincewhomtheyloveandwhostillsurvives.Forthehostiletemperproducedbythesetwocausesismoretobefearedthananybeside,anddemandsmeasuresofextremeseveritytocorrectit.Theotheruntowardhumoursofthemultitude,shouldtherebenopowerfulchieftofosterthem,areeasilydealtwith;because,whileontheonehandthereisnothingmoreterriblethananuncontrolledandheadlessmob,ontheother,thereisnothingfeebler.Forthoughitbefurnishedwitharmsitiseasilysubdued,ifyouhavesomeplaceofstrengthwhereintoshelterfromitsfirstonset.Forwhenitsfirstfuryhassomewhatabated,andeachmanseesthathehastoreturntohisownhouse,allbegintoloseheartandtotakethoughthowtoinsuretheirpersonalsafety,whetherbyflightorbysubmission.Forwhichreasonamultitudestirredinthisway,ifitwouldavoiddangerssuchasIspeakof,mustatonceappointaheadfromamongitsownnumbers,whomaycontrolit,keepitunited,andprovideforitsdefence;asdidthecommonsofRomewhen,afterthedeathofVirginia,theyquittedthecity,andfortheirprotectioncreatedtwentytribunesfromamongthemselves.Unlessthisbedone,whatTitusLiviushasobservedinthepassagecited,willalwaysprovetrue,namely,thatamultitudeisstrongwhileitholdstogether,butsosoonaseachofthosewhocomposeitbeginstothinkofhisownprivatedanger,itbecomesweakandcontemptible.

CHAPTERLVIII

ThataPeopleisWiserandMoreConstantThanaPrince

That“nothingismorefickleandinconstantthanthemultitude”isaffirmednotbyTitusLiviusonly,butbyallotherhistorians,inwhosechroniclesofhumanactionsweoftenfindthemultitudecondemningsomecitizentodeath,andafterwardslamentinghimandgrievinggreatlyforhisloss,astheRomansgrievedandlamentedforManliusCapitolinus,whomtheyhadthemselvescondemnedtodie.Inrelatingwhichcircumstanceourauthorobserves“Inashorttimethepeople,havingnolongercausetofearhim,begantodeplorehisdeath”Andelsewhere,whenspeakingofwhattookplaceinSyracuseafterthemurderofHieronymus,grandsonofHiero,hesays,“Itisthenatureofthemultitudetobeanabjectslave,oradomineeringmaster”

Itmaybethatinattemptingtodefendacause,which,asIhavesaid,allwritersareagreedtocondemn,ItakeuponmeatasksohardanddifficultthatIshalleitherhavetorelinquishitwithshameorpursueitwithopprobrium.Bethatasitmay,Ineitherdo,norevershalljudgeitafault,tosupportopinionbyarguments,whereitisnotsoughttoimposethembyviolenceorauthorityImaintain,then,thatthisinfirmitywithwhichhistorianstaxthemultitude,maywithequalreasonbechargedagainsteveryindividualman,butmostofallagainstprinces,sinceallwhoarenotcontrolledbythelaws,willcommittheverysamefaultsasarecommittedbyanuncontrolledmultitude.Proofwhereofwereeasy,sinceofallthemanyprincesexisting,orwhohaveexisted,fewindeedareorhavebeeneitherwiseorgood.

Ispeakofsuchprincesashavehaditintheirpowertobreakthereinsbywhichtheyarecontrolled,amongwhomIdonotreckonthosekingswhoreignedinEgyptinthemostremoteantiquitywhenthatcountrywasgovernedinconformitywithitslaws;nordoIincludethosekingswhoreignedinSparta,northosewhoinourowntimesreigninFrance,whichkingdom,morethananyotherwhereofwehaveknowledgeatthepresentday,isunderthegovernmentofitslaws.Forkingswholive,asthesedo,subjecttoconstitutionalrestraint,arenottobecountedwhenwehavetoconsidereachman’spropernature,andtoseewhetherheresemblesthemultitude.Fortodrawacomparisonwithsuchprincesasthese,wemusttakethecaseofamultitudecontrolledastheyare,andregulatedbythelaws,whenweshallfindittopossessthesamevirtueswhichweseeinthem,andneitherconductingitselfasanabjectslavenorasadomineeringmaster.

SuchwasthepeopleofRome,who,whilethecommonwealthcontinueduncorrupted,nevereitherservedabjectlynordomineeredhaughtily;but,onthecontrary,bymeansoftheirmagistratesandtheirordinances,maintainedtheirplace,andwhenforcedtoputforththeirstrengthagainstsomepowerfulcitizen,asinthecaseofManlius,thedecemvirs,andotherswhosoughttooppressthem,didso;butwhenitwasnecessaryforthepublicwelfaretoyieldobediencetothedictatororconsuls,obeyed.AndiftheRomanpeoplemournedthelossofthedeadManlius,itisnowonder;fortheymournedhisvirtues,whichhadbeenofsuchasortthattheirmemorystirredtheregretofall,andwouldhavehadpowertoproducethesamefeelingseveninaprince;allwritersbeingagreedthat

excellenceispraisedandadmiredevenbyitsenemies.ButifManliuswhenhewassogreatlymourned,couldhaverisenoncemorefromthedead,theRomanpeoplewouldhavepronouncedthesamesentenceagainsthimwhichtheypronouncedwhentheyledhimforthfromtheprison–house,andstraightwaycondemnedhimtodie.Andinlikemannerweseethatprinces,accountedwise,haveputmentodeath,andafterwardsgreatlylamentedthem,asAlexandermournedforClitusandothersofhisfriends,andHerodforMariamne.

Butwhatourhistoriansaysofthemultitude,hesaysnotofamultitudewhichlikethepeopleofRomeiscontrolledbythelaws,butofanuncontrolledmultitudeliketheSyracusans,whowereguiltyofallthesecrimeswhichinfuriatedandungovernedmencommit,andwhichwereequallycommittedbyAlexanderandHerodinthecasesmentioned.Whereforethenatureofamultitudeisnomoretobeblamedthanthenatureofprinces,sincebothequallyerrwhentheycandosowithoutregardtoconsequences.Ofwhichmanyinstances,besidesthosealreadygiven,mightbecitedfromthehistoryoftheRomanemperors,andofotherprincesandtyrants,inwhoseliveswefindsuchinconstancyandfickleness,aswemightlookinvainforinapeople.

Imaintain,therefore,contrarytothecommonopinionwhichaversthatapeoplewhentheyhavethemanagementofaffairsarechangeable,fickle,andungrateful,thatthesefaultsexistnotinthemotherwisethanastheyexistinindividualprinces;sothatwereanytoaccusebothprincesandpeoples,thechargemightbetrue,butthattomakeexceptioninfavourofprincesisamistake;forapeopleincommand,ifitbedulyrestrained,willhavethesameprudenceandthesamegratitudeasaprincehas,orevenmore,howeverwisehemaybereckoned;andaprinceontheotherhand,iffreedfromthecontrolofthelaws,willbemoreungrateful,fickle,andshort–sightedthanapeople.Andfurther,Isaythatanydifferenceintheirmethodsofactingresultsnotfromanydifferenceintheirnature,thatbeingthesameinboth,or,iftherebeadvantageoneitherside,theadvantagerestingwiththepeople,butfromtheirhavingmoreorlessrespectforthelawsunderwhicheachlives.AndwhosoeverattentivelyconsidersthehistoryoftheRomanpeople,mayseethatforfourhundredyearstheyneverrelaxedintheirhatredoftheregalname,andwereconstantlydevotedtothegloryandwelfareoftheircountry,andwillfindnumberlessproofsgivenbythemoftheirconsistencyinbothparticulars.AndshouldanyallegeagainstmetheingratitudetheyshowedtoScipio,Ireplybywhathasalreadybeensaidatlengthonthathead,whereIprovedthatpeoplesarelessungratefulthanprinces.Butasforprudenceandstabilityofpurpose,Iaffirmthatapeopleismoreprudent,morestable,andofbetterjudgmentthanaprince.NorisitwithoutreasonthatthevoiceofthepeoplehasbeenlikenedtothevoiceofGod;forweseethatwide–spreadbeliefsfulfilthemselves,andbringaboutmarvellousresults,soastohavetheappearanceofpresagingbysomeoccultqualityeitherwealorwoe.Again,astothejusticeoftheiropinionsonpublicaffairs,seldomfindthatafterhearingtwospeakersofequalabilityurgingtheminoppositedirections,theydonotadoptthesounderview,orareunabletodecideonthetruthofwhattheyhear.Andif,asIhavesaid,apeopleerrsinadoptingcourseswhichappeartoitboldandadvantageous,princeswilllikewiseerrwhentheirpassionsaretouched,asisfaroftenerthecasewiththemthanwithapeople.

Wesee,too,thatinthechoiceofmagistratesapeoplewillchoosefarmorehonestlythanaprince;sothatwhileyoushallneverpersuadeapeoplethatitisadvantageoustoconfer

dignitiesontheinfamousandprofligate,aprincemayreadily,andinathousandways,bedrawntodoso.Again,itmaybeseenthatapeople,whenoncetheyhavecometoholdathinginabhorrence,remainformanyagesofthesamemind;whichwedonotfindhappenwithprinces.ForthetruthofbothofwhichassertionstheRomanpeoplearemysufficientwitness,who,inthecourseofsomanyhundredyears,andinsomanyelectionsofconsulsandtribunes,nevermadefourappointmentsofwhichtheyhadreasontorepent;and,asIhavesaid,sodetestedthenameofking,thatnoobligationtheymightbeundertoanycitizenwhoaffectedthatname,couldshieldhimfromtheappointedpenalty.

Further,wefindthatthosecitieswhereinthegovernmentisinthehandsofthepeople,inaveryshortspaceoftime,makemarvellousprogress,farexceedingthatmadebycitieswhichhavebeenalwaysruledbyprinces;asRomegrewaftertheexpulsionofherkings,andAthensaftershefreedherselffromPisistratus;andthiswecanascribetonoothercausethanthattheruleofapeopleisbetterthantheruleofaprince.

NorwouldIhaveitthoughtthatanythingourhistorianmayhaveaffirmedinthepassagecited,orelsewhere,controvertsthesemyopinions.Forifallthegloriesandallthedefectsbothofpeoplesandofprincesbecarefullyweighed,itwillappearthatbothforgoodnessandforgloryapeopleistobepreferred.Andifprincessurpasspeoplesintheworkoflegislation,inshapingcivilinstitutions,inmouldingstatutes,andframingnewordinances,sofardothelattersurpasstheformerinmaintainingwhathasoncebeenestablished,astomeritnolesspraisethanthey.

Andtostatethesumofthewholemattershortly,Isaythatpopulargovernmentshaveenduredforlongperiodsinthesamewayasthegovernmentsofprinces,andthatbothhaveneedtoberegulatedbythelaws;becausetheprincewhocandowhathepleasesisamadman,andthepeoplewhichcandoasitpleasesisneverwise.If,then,weassumethecaseofaprincebound,andofapeoplechaineddownbythelaws,greatervirtuewillappearinthepeoplethanintheprince;whileifweassumethecaseofeachofthemfreedfromallcontrol,itwillbeseenthatthepeoplecommitsfewererrorsthantheprince,andlessseriouserrors,andsuchasadmitofreadiercure.Foraturbulentandunrulypeoplemaybespokentobyagoodman,andreadilybroughtbacktogoodways;butnonecanspeaktoawickedprince,noranyremedybefoundagainsthimbutbythesword.Andfromthiswemayinferwhichofthetwosuffersfromtheworsedisease;forifthediseaseofthepeoplemaybehealedbywords,whilethatoftheprincemustbedealtwithbythesword,thereisnonebutwilljudgethateviltobethegreaterwhichdemandsthemoreviolentremedy.

Whenapeopleisabsolutelyuncontrolled,itisnotsomuchthefollieswhichitcommitsortheevilwhichitactuallydoesthatexcitesalarm,asthemischiefwhichmaythenceresult,sinceinsuchdisordersitbecomespossibleforatyranttospringup.Butwithawickedprincethecontraryisthecase;forwedreadpresentill,andplaceourhopesinthefuture,persuadingourselvesthattheevillifeoftheprincemaybringaboutourfreedom.Sothatthereisthisdistinctionbetweenthetwo,thatwiththeonewefearwhatis,withtheotherwhatislikelytobe.Again,thecrueltiesofapeopleareturnedagainsthimwhoitfearswillencroachuponthecommonrights,butthecrueltiesoftheprinceagainstthosewhohefearsmayassertthoserights.

Theprejudicewhichisentertainedagainstthepeoplearisesfromthis,thatanymanmay

speakillofthemopenlyandfearlessly,evenwhenthegovernmentisintheirhands;whereasprincesarealwaysspokenofwithathousandreservesandaconstanteyetoconsequences.

Butsincethesubjectsuggestsit,itseemstomenotoutofplacetoconsiderwhatallianceswecanmosttrust,whetherthosemadewithcommonwealthsorthosemadewithprinces.

CHAPTERLIX

ToWhatLeaguesorAlliancesWeMayMostTrust;WhetherThoseWeMakeWithCommonwealthsorThoseWeMakeWithPrinces

Sinceleaguesandalliancesareeverydayenteredintobyoneprincewithanother,orbyonecommonwealthwithanother,andasconventionsandtreatiesareconcludedinlikemannerbetweenprincesandcommonwealths,itseemstomepropertoinquirewhetherthefaithofacommonwealthorthatofaprinceisthemorestableandthesafertocounton.Allthingsconsidered,Iamdisposedtobelievethatinmostcasestheyarealike,thoughinsometheydiffer.Ofonething,however,Iamconvinced,namely,thatengagementsmadeunderduresswillneverbeobservedeitherbyprinceorbycommonwealth;andthatifmenacedwiththelossoftheirterritories,boththeoneandtheotherwillbreakfaithwithyouandtreatyouwithingratitude.Demetrius,whowasnamedthe“City–taker,”hadconferrednumberlessbenefitsupontheAthenians;butwhen,afterwards,onbeingdefeatedbyhisenemies,hesoughtshelterinAthens,asbeingafriendlycityandunderobligationstohim,itwasrefusedhim;acircumstancewhichgrievedhimfarmorethanthelossofhissoldiersandarmyhaddone.Pompey,inlikemanner,whenroutedbyCæsarinThessaly,fledforrefugetoPtolemyinEgypt,whoformerlyhadbeenrestoredbyhimtohiskingdom;bywhomhewasputtodeath.Inboththeseinstancesthesamecauseswereatwork,althoughtheinhumanityandthewronginflictedwerelessinthecaseofthecommonwealththanoftheprince.Still,whereverthereisfear,thewantoffaithwillbethesame.

Andeveniftherebefoundacommonwealthorprincewho,inordertokeepfaith,willsubmittoberuined,thisisseentoresultfromalikecause.For,astotheprince,itmayeasilyhappenthatheisfriendtoapowerfulsovereign,whom,thoughhebeatthetimewithoutmeanstodefendhim,hemaypresentlyhopetoseerestoredtohisdominions;oritmaybethathavinglinkedhisfortuneswithanother’s,hedespairsoffindingeitherfaithorfriendshipfromtheenemiesofhisally,aswasthecasewiththoseNeapolitanprinceswhoespousedtheinterestsofFrance.Astocommonwealths,aninstancesimilartothatoftheprinceslastnamed,isthatofSaguntuminSpain,whichawaitedruininadheringtothefortunesofRome.AlikecoursewasalsofollowedbyFlorencewhen,intheyear1512,shestoodsteadfastlybythecauseoftheFrench.Andtakingeverythingintoaccount,Ibelievethatincasesofurgency,weshallfindacertaindegreeofstabilitysoonerincommonwealthsthaninprinces.Forthoughcommonwealthsbelike–mindedwithprinces,andinfluencedbythesamepassions,thecircumstancethattheirmovementsmustbeslower,makesitharderforthemtoresolvethanitisforaprince,forwhichreasontheywillbelessreadytobreakfaith.

Andsinceleaguesandalliancesarebrokenforthesakeofcertainadvantages,inthisrespectalso,commonwealthsobservetheirengagementsfarmorefaithfullythanprinces;forabundantexamplesmightbecitedofaveryslightadvantagehavingcausedaprincetobreakfaith,andofaverygreatadvantagehavingfailedtoinduceacommonwealthtodoso.OfthiswehaveaninstanceintheproposalmadetotheAtheniansbyThemistocles,

whenhetoldthematapublicmeetingthathehadcertainadvicetoofferwhichwouldproveofgreatadvantagetotheircity,butthenatureofwhichhecouldnotdisclosetothem,lestitshouldbecomegenerallyknown,whentheopportunityforactinguponitwouldbelost.WhereupontheAtheniansnamedAristidestoreceivehiscommunication,andtoactuponitashethoughtfit.Tohim,accordingly,ThemistoclesshowedhowthenavyofunitedGreece,forthesafetyofwhichtheAtheniansstoodpledged,wassosituatedthattheymighteithergainitoverordestroyit,andthusmakethemselvesabsolutemastersofthewholecountry.AristidesreportingtotheAtheniansthatthecourseproposedbyThemistocleswasextremelyadvantageousbutextremelydishonourable,thepeopleutterlyrefusedtoentertainit.ButPhilipofMacedonwouldnothavesoacted,noranyofthoseotherprinceswhohavesoughtandfoundmoreprofitinbreakingfaiththaninanyotherway.

Astoengagementsbrokenoffonthepretextthattheyhavenotbeenobservedbytheotherside,Isaynothing,sincethatisamatterofeverydayoccurrence,andIamspeakinghereonlyofthoseengagementswhicharebrokenoffonextraordinarygrounds;butinthisrespect,likewise,Ibelievethatcommonwealthsoffendlessthanprinces,andarethereforemoretobetrusted.

CHAPTERLX

ThattheConsulshipandAlltheOtherMagistraciesinRomeWereGivenWithoutRespecttoAge

ItisseeninthecourseoftheRomanhistorythat,aftertheconsulshipwasthrownopentothecommons,therepublicconcededthisdignitytoallitscitizens,withoutdistinctioneitherofageorblood;nay,thatinthismatterrespectforagewasnevermadeagroundforpreferenceamongtheRomans,whoseconstantaimitwastodiscoverexcellencewhetherexistinginoldoryoung.TothiswehavethetestimonyofValeriusCorvinus,himselfmadeconsulinhistwenty–fourthyear,who,inaddressinghissoldiers,saidoftheconsulshipthatitwas“therewardnotofbirthbutofdesert.”

WhetherthecoursethusfollowedbytheRomanswaswelljudgedornot,isaquestiononwhichmuchmightbesaid.Theconcessionastoblood,however,wasmadeundernecessity,andasIhaveobservedonanotheroccasion,thesamenecessitywhichobtainedinRome,willbefoundtoobtainineveryothercitywhichdesirestoachievetheresultswhichRomeachieved.Foryoucannotsubjectmentohardshipsunlessyouholdoutrewards,norcanyouwithoutdangerdeprivethemofthoserewardswhereofyouhaveheldouthopes.Itwasconsequentlynecessarytoextend,betimes,tothecommonsthehopeofobtainingtheconsulship,onwhichhopetheyfedthemselvesforawhile,withoutactuallyrealizingit.Butafterwardsthehopealonewasnotenough,andithadtobesatisfied.Forwhilecitieswhichdonotemploymenofplebeianbirthinanyofthoseundertakingswhereingloryistobegained,aswehaveseenwasthecasewithVenice,maytreatthesemenastheyplease,thoseothercitieswhichdesiretodoasRomedid,cannotmakethisdistinction.Andifthereistobenodistinctioninrespectofblood,nothingcanbepleadedforadistinctioninrespectofage.Onthecontrary,thatdistinctionmustofnecessityceasetobeobserved.Forwhereayoungmanisappointedtoapostwhichrequirestheprudencewhichareissupposedtobring,itmustbe,sincethechoicerestswiththepeople,thatheisthusadvancedinconsiderationofsomenobleactionwhichhehasperformed;butwhenayoungmanisofsuchexcellenceastohavemadeanameforhimselfbysomesignalachievement,itweremuchtothedetrimentofhiscitywereitunableatoncetomakeuseofhim,buthadtowaituntilhehadgrownold,andhadlost,withyouth,thatalacrityandvigourbywhichhiscountrymighthaveprofited;asRomeprofitedbytheservicesofValeriusCorvinus,ofScipio,ofPompey,andofmanyotherswhotriumphedwhileyetveryyoung.

BOOKII

PREFACEMendoalways,butnotalwayswithreason,commendthepastandcondemnthepresent,andaresomuchthepartisansofwhathasbeen,asnotmerelytocryupthosetimeswhichareknowntothemonlyfromtherecordsleftbyhistorians,butalso,whentheygrowold,toextolthedaysinwhichtheyremembertheiryouthtohavebeenspent.Andalthoughthispreferenceoftheirsbeinmostinstancesamistakenone,Icanseethattherearemanycausestoaccountforit;chiefofwhichItaketobethatinrespectofthingslonggonebyweperceivenotthewholetruth,thosecircumstancesthatwoulddetractfromthecreditofthepastbeingforthemostparthiddenfromus,whileallthatgivesitlustreismagnifiedandembellished.Forthegeneralityofwritersrenderthistributetothegoodfortuneofconquerors,thattomaketheirachievementsseemmoresplendid,theynotmerelyexaggeratethegreatthingstheyhavedone,butalsolendsuchacolourtotheactionsoftheirenemies,thatanyonebornafterwards,whetherintheconqueringorintheconqueredcountry,hascausetomarvelatthesemenandthesetimes,andisconstrainedtopraiseandlovethembeyondallothers.

Again,menbeingmovedtohatredeitherbyfearorenvy,thesetwomostpowerfulcausesofdislikearecancelledinrespectofthingswhicharepast,becausewhatispastcanneitherdoushurt,noraffordoccasionforenvy.Thecontrary,however,isthecasewiththethingswesee,andinwhichwetakepart;forinthese,fromourcompleteacquaintancewiththem,nopartofthembeinghiddenfromus,werecognize,alongwithmuchthatisgood,muchthatdispleasesus,andsoareforcedtopronouncethemfarinferiortotheold,althoughintruththeydeservefargreaterpraiseandadmiration.Ispeaknot,here,ofwhatrelatestothearts,whichhavesuchdistinctioninherentinthem,thattimecangiveortakefromthembutlittleoftheglorywhichtheymeritofthemselves.Ispeakofthelivesandmannersofmen,touchingwhichthegroundsforjudgingarenotsoclear.

Irepeat,then,thatitistruethatthishabitofblamingandpraisingobtains,butnotalwaystruethatitiswrongapplied.Forsometimesitwillhappenthatthisjudgmentisjust;because,ashumanaffairsareinconstantmovement,itmustbethattheyeitherriseorfall.Wherefore,wemayseeacityorprovincefurnishedwithfreeinstitutionsbysomegreatandwisefounder,flourishforawhilethroughhismerits,andadvancesteadilyonthepathofimprovement.Anyonebornthereinatthattimewouldbeinthewrongtopraisethepastmorethanthepresent,andhiserrorwouldbeoccasionedbythecausesalreadynoticed.Butanyonebornafterwardsinthatcityorprovincewhenthetimehascomeforittofallawayfromitsformerfelicity,wouldnotbemistakeninpraisingthepast.

WhenIconsiderhowthishappens,Iampersuadedthattheworld,remainingcontinuallythesame,hasinitaconstantquantityofgoodandevil;butthatthisgoodandthisevilshiftaboutfromonecountrytoanother,asweknowthatinancienttimesempireshiftedfromonenationtoanother,accordingasthemannersofthesenationschanged,theworld,asawhole,continuingasbefore,andtheonlydifferencebeingthat,whereasatfirstAssyriawasmadetheseatofitsexcellence,thiswasafterwardsplacedinMedia,theninPersia,untilatlastitwastransferredtoItalyandRome.AndalthoughaftertheRoman

Empire,nonehasfollowedwhichhasendured,orinwhichtheworldhascentreditswholeexcellence,weneverthelessfindthatexcellencediffusedamongmanyvaliantnations,thekingdomoftheFranks,forexample,thatoftheTurks,thatoftheSoldan,andtheStatesofGermanyatthepresentday;andsharedatanearliertimebythatsectoftheSaracenswhoperformedsomanygreatachievementsandgainedsowideadominion,afterdestroyingtheRomanEmpireintheEast.

Inallthesecountries,therefore,afterthedeclineoftheRomanpower,andamongalltheseraces,thereexisted,andinsomepartofthemthereyetexists,thatexcellencewhichaloneistobedesiredandjustlytobepraised.Wherefore,ifanymanbeingborninoneofthesecountriesshouldexaltpasttimesoverpresent,hemightbemistaken;butanywho,livingatthepresentdayinItalyorGreece,hasnotinItalybecomeanultramontaneorinGreeceaTurk,hasreasontocomplainofhisowntimes,andtocommendthoseothers,inwhichthereweremanythingswhichmadethemadmirable;whereas,now,noregardbeinghadtoreligion,tolaws,ortoarms,butallbeingtarnishedwitheverysortofshame,thereisnothingtoredeemtheagefromthelastextremityofwretchedness,ignominy,anddisgrace.Andthevicesofouragearethemoreodiousinthattheyarepractisedbythosewhositonthejudgmentseat,governtheState,anddemandpublicreverence.

But,returningtothematterinhand,itmaybesaid,thatifthejudgmentofmenbeatfaultinpronouncingwhetherthepresentageorthepastisthebetterinrespectofthingswhereof,byreasonoftheirantiquity,theycannothavethesameperfectknowledgewhichtheyhaveoftheirowntimes,itoughtnottobeatfaultinoldmenwhentheycomparethedaysoftheiryouthwiththoseoftheirmaturity,bothofwhichhavebeenalikeseenandknownbythem.Thiswereindeedtrue,ifmenatallperiodsoftheirlivesjudgedofthingsinthesameway,andwereconstantlyinfluencedbythesamedesires;butsincetheyalter,thetimes,althoughtheyalternot,cannotbutseemdifferenttothosewhohaveotherdesires,otherpleasures,andotherwaysofviewingthingsintheiroldagefromthosetheyhadintheiryouth.Forsince,whentheygrowold,menloseinbodilystrengthbutgaininwisdomanddiscernment,itmustneedsbethatthosethingswhichintheiryouthseemedtothemtolerableandgood,shouldintheiroldageappearintolerableandevil.Andwhereastheyshouldascribethistotheirjudgment,theylaytheblameuponthetimes.

But,further,sincethedesiresofmenareinsatiable,NaturepromptingthemtodesireallthingsandFortunepermittingthemtoenjoybutfew,thereresultsaconstantdiscontentintheirminds,andaloathingofwhattheypossess,promptingthemtofindfaultwiththepresent,praisethepast,andlongforthefuture,eventhoughtheybenotmovedtheretobyanyreasonablecause.

Iknownot,therefore,whetherImaynotdeservetobereckonedinthenumberofthosewhothusdeceivethemselves,if,intheseDiscoursesofmine,IrenderexcessivepraisetotheancienttimesoftheRomanswhileIcensureourown.And,indeed,werenottheexcellencewhichthenprevailedandthecorruptionwhichprevailsnowclearerthanthesun,IshouldproceedmoreguardedlyinwhatIhavetosay,fromfearlestinaccusingothersIshouldmyselffallintothisself–deception.Butsincethethingissoplainthateveryoneseesit,IshallbeboldtospeakfreelyallIthink,bothofoldtimesandofnew,inorderthatthemindsoftheyoungwhohappentoreadthesemywritings,maybeledtoshunmodernexamples,andbepreparedtofollowthosesetbyantiquitywheneverchance

affordstheopportunity.ForitisthedutyofeverygoodmantoteachothersthosewholesomelessonswhichthemaliceofTimeorofFortunehasnotpermittedhimtoputinpractice;totheend,thatoutofmanywhohavetheknowledge,someonebetterlovedbyHeavenmaybefoundabletocarrythemout.

Havingspoken,then,intheforegoingBookofthevariousmethodsfollowedbytheRomansinregulatingthedomesticaffairsoftheircity,inthisIshallspeakofwhatwasdonebythemtospreadtheirEmpire.

CHAPTERI

WhethertheEmpireAcquiredbytheRomansWasMoreDuetoValourortoFortune

Manyauthors,andamongothersthatmostgravehistorianPlutarch,havethoughtthatinacquiringtheirempiretheRomansweremorebeholdentotheirgoodfortunethantotheirvalour;andbesidesotherreasonswhichtheygiveforthisopinion,theyaffirmittobeprovedbytheadmissionoftheRomansthemselves,sincetheirhavingerectedmoretemplestoFortunethantoanyotherdeity,showsthatitwastoherthattheyascribedtheirsuccess.Itwouldseem,too,thatTitusLiviuswasofthesamemind,sinceheveryseldomputsaspeechintothemouthofanyRomaninwhichhediscoursesofvalour,whereinhedoesnotalsomakementionofFortune.This,however,isanopinionwithwhichIcaninnowayconcur,andwhich,Itakeit,cannotbemadegood.ForifnocommonwealthhaseverbeenfoundtogrowliketheRoman,itisbecausenonewaseverfoundsowellfittedbyitsinstitutionstomakethatgrowth.Forbythevalourofherarmiesshespreadherempire,whilebyherconductofaffairs,andbyothermethodspeculiartoherselfanddevisedbyherfirstfounder,shewasabletokeepwhatsheacquired,asshallbefullyshowninmanyofthefollowingDiscourses.

ThewriterstowhomIhavereferredassertthatitwasowingtotheirgoodfortuneandnottotheirprudencethattheRomansneverhadtwogreatwarsontheirhandsatonce;as,forinstance,thattheywagednowarswiththeLatinsuntiltheyhadnotmerelyovercometheSamnites,butundertookintheirdefencethewaronwhichtheythenentered;noreverfoughtwiththeEtruscansuntiltheyhadsubjugatedtheLatins,andhadalmostwornouttheSamnitesbyfrequentdefeats;whereas,hadanytwoofthesepowers,whileyetfreshandunexhausted,unitedtogether,itmayeasilybebelievedthattheruinoftheRomanRepublicmusthavefollowed.Buttowhatsoevercauseweascribeit,itneversochancedthattheRomansengagedintwogreatwarsatthesametime.Onthecontrary,italwaysseemedasthoughonthebreakingoutofonewar,anotherwasextinguished;orthatontheterminationofone,anotherbrokeout.Andthiswemayplainlyseefromtheorderinwhichtheirwarssucceededoneanother.

For,omittingthosewagedbythembeforetheircitywastakenbytheGauls,wefindthatduringtheirstrugglewiththeEquiansandtheVolscians,andwhilethesetwonationscontinuedstrong,noothersroseagainstthem.Onthesebeingsubdued,therebrokeoutthewarwiththeSamnites;andalthoughbeforethecloseofthatcontesttheLatinnationshadbeguntorebelagainstRome,nevertheless,whentheirrebellioncametoahead,theSamniteswereinleaguewithRome,andhelpedherwiththeirarmytoquellthepresumptionoftherebels;onwhosedefeatthewarwithSamniumwasrenewed.

WhenthestrengthofSamniumhadbeendrainedbyrepeatedreverses,therefollowedthewarwiththeEtruscans;whichended,theSamniteswereoncemorestirredtoactivitybythecomingofPyrrhusintoItaly.Whenhe,too,hadbeendefeated,andsentbacktoGreece,RomeenteredonherfirstwarwiththeCarthaginians;whichwasnosooneroverthanalltheGallicnationsonbothsidesoftheAlpscombinedagainsttheRomans,by

whom,inthebattlefoughtbetweenPopuloniaandPisa,wherenowstandsthefortressofSanVincenzo,theywereatlastroutedwithtremendousslaughter.

Thiswarended,fortwentyyearstogethertheRomanswereengagedinnocontestofimportance,theironlyadversariesbeingtheLigurians,andtheremnantoftheGallictribeswhooccupiedLombardy;andonthisfootingthingscontinueddowntothesecondCarthaginianwar,whichforsixteenyearskeptthewholeofItalyinablaze.Thistoobeingbroughttoamostglorioustermination,therefollowedtheMacedonianwar,atthecloseofwhichsucceededthewarwithAntiochusandAsia.Thesesubdued,thereremainednotinthewholeworld,kingorpeoplewhoeithersinglyortogethercouldwithstandthepowerofRome.

Butevenbeforethislastvictory,anyoneobservingtheorderofthesewars,andthemethodinwhichtheywereconducted,musthaverecognizednotonlythegoodfortuneoftheRomans,butalsotheirextraordinaryvalourandprudence.Andwereanyonetosearchforthecausesofthisgoodfortune,hewouldhavelittledifficultyinfindingthem,sincenothingismorecertainthanthatwhenapotentatehasattainedsogreatareputationthateveryneighbouringprinceorpeopleisafraidtoengagehimsingle–handed,andstandsinaweofhim,nonewilleverventuretoattackhim,unlessdriventodosobynecessity;sothatitwillalmostrestonhiswilltomakewarashelikesonanyofhisneighbours,whilehestudiouslymaintainspeacewiththerest;who,ontheirpart,whetherthroughfearofhispower,ordeceivedbythemethodshetakestodulltheirvigilance,areeasilykeptquiet.Distantpowers,inthemeantime,whohavenointercoursewitheither,treatthematterastooremotetoconcerntheminanyway;andabidinginthiserroruntiltheconflagrationapproachestheirowndoors,onitsarrivalhavenoresourceforitsextinction,saveintheirownstrength,which,astheirenemyhasbythattimebecomeexceedinglypowerful,nolongersuffices.

IforbeartorelatehowtheSamnitesstoodlookingonwhiletheRomansweresubjugatingtheEquiansandtheVolscians;and,toavoidbeingprolix,shallcontentmyselfwiththesingleinstanceoftheCarthaginians,who,atthetimewhentheRomanswerecontendingwiththeSamnitesandEtruscans,werepossessedofgreatpowerandheldinhighrepute,beingalreadymastersofthewholeofAfricatogetherwithSicilyandSardinia,besidesoccupyingterritoryinvariouspartsofSpain.Andbecausetheirempirewassogreat,andatsuchadistancefromtheRomanfrontier,theywereneverledtothinkofattackingtheRomansoroflendingassistancetotheEtruscansorSamnites.Onthecontrary,theybehavedtowardstheRomansasmenbehavetowardsthosewhomtheyseeprosper,rathertakingtheirpartandcourtingtheirfriendship.NordidtheydiscovertheirmistakeuntiltheRomans,aftersubduingalltheinterveningnations,begantoassailtheirpowerbothinSpainandSicily.WhathappenedinthecaseoftheCarthaginians,happenedalsointhecaseoftheGauls,ofPhilipofMacedon,andofAntiochus,eachofwhom,whileRomewasengagedwithanotherofthem,believedthatotherwouldhavetheadvantage,andthattherewouldbetimeenoughtoprovidefortheirownsafety,whetherbymakingpeaceorwar.Itseemstome,therefore,thatthesamegoodfortunewhich,inthisrespect,attendedtheRomans,mightbesharedbyallprincesactingastheydid,andofavalourequaltotheirs.

Asbearingonthispoint,itmighthavebeenproperformetoshowwhatmethodswere

followedbytheRomansinenteringtheterritoriesofothernations,hadInotalreadyspokenofthisatlengthinmyTreatiseonPrincedoms,whereinthewholesubjectisdiscussed.Hereitisenoughtosaybriefly,thatinanewprovincetheyalwayssoughtforsomefriendwhoshouldbetothemasaladderwherebytoclimb,adoorthroughwhichtopass,oraninstrumentwherewithtokeeptheirhold.ThusweseethemeffecttheirentranceintoSamniumthroughtheCapuans,intoEtruriathroughtheCamertines,intoSicilythroughtheMamertines,intoSpainthroughtheSaguntans,intoAfricathroughMassinissa,intoGreecethroughtheEtolians,intoAsiathroughEumenesandotherprinces,intoGaulthroughtheMassiliansandEduans;and,inlikemanner,neverwithoutsimilarassistanceintheireffortswhethertoacquireprovincesortokeepthem.

ThenationswhocarefullyattendtothisprecautionwillbeseentostandinlessneedofFortune’shelpthanotherswhoneglectit.ButthatallmayclearlyunderstandhowmuchmoretheRomanswereaidedbyvalourthanbyFortuneinacquiringtheirempire,IshallinthefollowingChapterconsiderthecharacterofthosenationswithwhomtheyhadtocontend,andshowhowstubbornthesewereindefendingtheirfreedom.

CHAPTERII

WithWhatNationstheRomansHadtoContend,andHowStubbornTheseWereinDefendingTheirFreedom.

Insubduingthecountriesroundaboutthem,andcertainofthemoredistantprovinces,nothinggavetheRomanssomuchtrouble,asthelovewhichinthosedaysmanynationsboretofreedom,defendingitwithsuchobstinacyascouldnothavebeenovercomesavebyasurpassingvalour.Forweknowbynumberlessinstances,whatperilsthesenationswerereadytofaceintheireffortstomaintainorrecovertheirfreedom,andwhatvengeancetheytookagainstthosewhodeprivedthemofit.Weknow,too,fromhistory,whathurtapeopleorcitysuffersfromservitude.Andthough,atthepresentday,thereisbutoneprovincewhichcanbesaidtocontainwithinitfreecities,wefindthatformerlytheseaboundedeverywhere.ForwelearnthatintheancienttimesofwhichIspeak,fromthemountainswhichdivideTuscanyfromLombardydowntotheextremepointofItaly,theredweltnumerousfreenations,suchastheEtruscans,theRomans,andtheSamnites,besidesmanyothersinotherpartsofthePeninsula.Nordoweeverreadoftherebeinganykingsoverthem,exceptthosewhoreignedinRome,andPorsenna,kingofEtruria.Howthelineofthislast–namedprincecametobeextinguished,historydoesnotinformus;butitisclearthatatthetimewhentheRomanswenttobesiegeVeii,Etruriawasfree,andsogreatlyrejoicedinherfreedom,andsodetestedtheregalname,thatwhentheVeientines,whofortheirdefencehadcreatedakinginVeii,soughtaidfromtheEtruscansagainstRome,these,aftermuchdeliberationresolvedtolendthemnohelpwhiletheycontinuedtoliveunderaking;judgingituselesstodefendacountrygivenovertoservitudebyitsinhabitants.

Itiseasytounderstandwhencethisloveoflibertyarisesamongnations,forweknowbyexperiencethatStateshaveneversignallyincreased,eitherastodominionorwealth,exceptwheretheyhavelivedunderafreegovernment.AndtrulyitisstrangetothinktowhatapitchofgreatnessAthenscameduringthehundredyearsaftershehadfreedherselffromthedespotismofPisistratus;andfarstrangertocontemplatethemarvellousgrowthwhichRomemadeafterfreeingherselffromherkings.Thecause,however,isnotfartoseek,sinceitisthewell–being,notofindividuals,butofthecommunitywhichmakesaStategreat;and,withoutquestion,thisuniversalwell–beingisnowheresecuredsaveinarepublic.Forarepublicwilldowhatsoevermakesforitsinterest;andthoughitsmeasuresprovehurtfultothismanortothat,therearesomanywhomtheybenefit,thattheseareabletocarrythemout,inspiteoftheresistanceofthefewwhomtheyinjure.

Butthecontraryhappensinthecaseofaprince;for,asarule,whathelpshimhurtstheState,andwhathelpstheStatehurtshim;sothatwheneveratyrannyspringsupinacitywhichhaslivedfree,theleastevilwhichcanbefallthatcityistomakenofurtherprogress,noreverincreaseinpowerorwealth;butinmostcases,ifnotinall,itwillbeitsfatetogoback.Orshouldtherechancetoariseinitsomeabletyrantwhoextendshisdominionsbyhisvalourandskillinarms,theadvantagewhichresultsistohimselfonly,andnottotheState;sincehecanbestownohonoursonthoseofthecitizensoverwhom

hetyrannizeswhohaveshownthemselvesgoodandvaliant,lestafterwardsheshouldhavecausetofearthem.Norcanhemakethosecitieswhichheacquires,subjectortributarytothecityoverwhichherules;becausetomakethiscitypowerfulisnotforhisinterest,whichliesinkeepingitsodividedthateachtownandprovincemayseparatelyrecognizehimaloneasitsmaster.Inthiswayheonly,andnothiscountry,isthegainerbyhisconquests.Andifanyonedesiretohavethisviewconfirmedbynumberlessotherproofs,lethimlookintoXenophon’streatiseDeTirannide.

Nowonder,then,thatthenationsofantiquitypursuedtyrantswithsuchrelentlesshatred,andsopassionatelylovedfreedomthatitsverynamewasdeartothem,aswasseenwhenHieronymus,grandsonofHierotheSyracusan,wasputtodeathinSyracuse.Forwhenwordofhisdeathreachedthearmy,whichlayencampednotfaroff,atfirstitwasgreatlymoved,andeagertotakeuparmsagainstthemurderers.ButonhearingthecryoflibertyshoutedinthestreetsofSyracuse,quietedatoncebythename,itlaidasideitsresentmentagainstthosewhohadslainthetyrant,andfelltoconsiderhowafreegovernmentmightbeprovidedforthecity.

Norisittobewonderedatthattheancientnationstookterriblevengeanceonthosewhodeprivedthemoftheirfreedom;ofwhich,thoughtherebemanyinstances,ImeanonlytociteonewhichhappenedinthecityofCorcyraatthetimeofthePeloponnesianwar.ForGreecebeingdividedintotwofactions,oneofwhichsidedwiththeAthenians,theotherwiththeSpartans,itresultedthatmanyofitscitiesweredividedagainstthemselves,someofthecitizensseekingthefriendshipofSpartaandsomeofAthens.IntheaforesaidcityofCorcyra,thenoblesgettingtheupperhand,deprivedthecommonsoftheirfreedom;these,however,recoveringthemselveswiththehelpoftheAthenians,laidholdoftheentirebodyofthenobles,andcastthemintoaprisonlargeenoughtocontainthemall,whencetheybroughtthemforthbyeightortenatatime,pretendingthattheyweretobesenttodifferentplacesintobanishment,whereas,infact,theyputthemtodeathwithmanycircumstancesofcruelty.Thosewhowereleft,learningwhatwasgoingon,resolvedtodotheirutmosttoescapethisignominiousdeath,andarmingthemselveswithwhatweaponstheycouldfind,defendedthedooroftheirprisonagainstallwhosoughttoenter;tillthepeople,hearingthetumultandrushinginhastetotheprison,draggeddowntheroof,andsmotheredtheprisonersintheruins.ManyotherhorribleandatrociouscrueltieslikewiseperpetratedinGreece,showittobetruethatalostfreedomisavengedwithmoreferocitythanathreatenedfreedomisdefended.

WhenIconsiderwhenceithappenedthatthenationsofantiquityweresomuchmorezealousintheirloveoflibertythanthoseofthepresentday,Iamledtobelievethatitarosefromthesamecausewhichmakesthepresentgenerationofmenlessvigorousanddaringthanthoseofancienttimes,namelythedifferenceofthetrainingofthepresentdayfromthatofearlierages;andthis,again,arisesfromthedifferentcharacterofthereligionsthenandnowprevailing.Forourreligion,havingrevealedtousthetruthandthetruepath,teachesustomakelittleaccountofworldlyglory;whereas,theGentiles,greatlyesteemingit,andplacingthereintheirhighestgood,displayedagreaterfiercenessintheiractions.

Thiswemaygatherfrommanyoftheircustoms,beginningwiththeirsacrificialrites,whichwereofmuchmagnificenceascomparedwiththesimplicityofourworship,though

thatbenotwithoutacertaindignityofitsown,refinedratherthansplendid,andfarremovedfromanytinctureofferocityorviolence.Inthereligiousceremoniesoftheancientsneitherpompnorsplendourwerewanting;buttothesewasjoinedtheordinanceofsacrifice,givingoccasiontomuchbloodshedandcruelty.Forinitscelebrationmanybeastswereslaughtered,andthisbeingacruelspectacleimpartedacrueltempertotheworshippers.Moreover,undertheoldreligionsnoneobtaineddivinehonourssavethosewhowereloadedwithworldlyglory,suchascaptainsofarmiesandrulersofcities;whereasourreligionglorifiesmenofahumbleandcontemplative,ratherthanofanactivelife.Accordingly,whilethehighestgoodoftheoldreligionsconsistedinmagnanimity,bodilystrength,andallthoseotherqualitieswhichmakemenbrave,ourreligionplacesitinhumility,lowliness,andcontemptforthethingsofthisworld;orifitevercallsuponustobebrave,itisthatweshouldbebravetosufferratherthantodo.

Thismanneroflife,therefore,seemstohavemadetheworldfeebler,andtohavegivenitoverasapreytowickedmentodealwithastheyplease;sincethemassofmankind,inthehopeofbeingreceivedintoParadise,thinkmorehowtobearinjuriesthanhowtoavengethem.ButshoulditseemthattheworldhasgrowneffeminateandHeavenlaidasideherarms,thisassuredlyresultsfromthebasenessofthosewhohaveinterpretedourreligiontoaccordwithindolenceandeaseratherthanwithvalour.Forwerewetorememberthatreligionpermitstheexaltationanddefenceofourcountry,wewouldseeittobeourdutytoloveandhonourit,andwouldstrivetobeableandreadytodefendit.

Thistraining,therefore,andthesemostfalseinterpretationsarethecauseswhy,intheworldofthepresentday,wefindnolongerthenumerouscommonwealthswhichwerefoundofold;andinconsequence,thatweseenotnowamongthenationsthatloveoffreedomwhichprevailedthen;though,atthesametime,Iampersuadedthatonecauseofthischangehasbeen,thattheRomanEmpirebyitsarmsandpowerputanendtoallthefreeStatesandfreeinstitutionsofantiquity.ForalthoughthepowerofRomefellafterwardsintodecay,theseStatescouldneverrecovertheirstrengthorresumetheirformermodeofgovernment,saveinaveryfewdistrictsoftheEmpire.

But,bethisasitmay,certainitisthatineverycountryoftheworld,eventheleastconsiderable,theRomansfoundaleagueofwell–armedrepublics,mostresoluteinthedefenceoftheirfreedom,whomitiscleartheynevercouldhavesubduedhadtheynotbeenendowedwiththerarestandmostastonishingvalour.Tociteasingleinstance,IshalltakethecaseoftheSamniteswho,strangeasitmaynowseem,wereontheadmissionofTitusLiviushimself,sopowerfulandsosteadfastinarms,astobeabletowithstandtheRomansdowntotheconsulshipofPapiriusCursor,sontothefirstPapirius,aperiodofsixandfortyyears,inspiteofnumerousdefeats,thelossofmanyoftheirtowns,andthegreatslaughterwhichovertookthemeverywherethroughouttheircountry.Andthisisthemoreremarkablewhenweseethatcountry,whichoncecontainedsomanynoblecities,andsupportedsogreatapopulation,nowalmostuninhabited;andreflectthatitformerlyenjoyedagovernmentandpossessedresourcesmakingitsconquestimpossibletolessthanRomanvalour.

Thereisnodifficulty,therefore,indeterminingwhencethatancientgreatnessandthismoderndecayhavearisen,sincetheycanbetracedtothefreelifeformerlyprevailingandtotheservitudewhichprevailsnow.Forallcountriesandprovinceswhichenjoycomplete

freedom,make,asIhavesaid,mostrapidprogress.Because,frommarriagebeinglessrestrictedinthesecountries,andmoresoughtafter,wefindthereagreaterpopulation;everymanbeingdisposedtobegetasmanychildrenashethinkshecanrear,whenhehasnoanxietylesttheyshouldbedeprivedoftheirpatrimony,andknowsnotonlythattheyareborntofreedomandnottoslavery,butthattheymayrisebytheirmerittobethefirstmenoftheircountry.InsuchStates,accordingly,weseewealthmultiply,boththatwhichcomesfromagricultureandthatwhichcomesfrommanufactures.Foralllovetogatherrichesandtoaddtotheirpossessionswhentheirenjoymentofthemisnotlikelytobedisturbed.AndhenceithappensthatthecitizensofsuchStatesviewithoneanotherinwhatevertendstopromotepublicorprivatewell–being;inbothofwhich,consequently,thereisawonderfulgrowth.

Butthecontraryofallthistakesplaceinthosecountrieswhichliveinservitude,andthemoreoppressivetheirservitude,themoretheyfallshortofthegoodwhichalldesire.Andthehardestofallhardservitudesisthatwhereinonecommonwealthissubjectedtoanother.First,becauseitismorelasting,andthereislesshopetoescapefromit;and,second,becauseeverycommonwealthseekstoaddtoitsownstrengthbyweakeningandenfeeblingallbeside.Aprincewhogetsthebetterofyouwillnottreatyouafterthisfashion,unlesshebeabarbarianlikethoseeasterndespotswholaycountrieswasteanddestroythelaboursofcivilization;butifinfluencedbytheordinarypromptingsofhumanity,will,asarule,regardallhissubjectStateswithequalfavour,andsufferthemtopursuetheirusualemployments,andretainalmostalltheirancientinstitutions,sothatiftheyflourishnotasfreeStatesmight,theydonotdwindleasStatesthatareenslaved;bywhichImeanenslavedbyastranger,forofthatotherslaverytowhichtheymaybereducedbyoneoftheirowncitizens,Ihavealreadyspoken.

Whoever,therefore,shallwellconsiderwhathasbeensaidabove,willnotbeastonishedatthepowerpossessedbytheSamniteswhiletheywerestillfree,norattheweaknessintowhichtheyfellwhentheyweresubjugated.OfwhichchangeintheirfortunesLiviusoftenremindsus,andparticularlyinconnectionwiththewarwithHannibal,whereherelatesthattheSamnites,beingill–treatedbyaRomanlegionquarteredatNola,sentlegatestoHannibaltoaskhisaid;whoinlayingtheircasebeforehimtoldhim,thatwiththeirownsoldiersandcaptainstheyhadfoughtsinglehandedagainsttheRomansforahundredyears,andhadmorethanoncewithstoodtwoconsulsandtwoconsulararmies;buthadnowfallensolow,thattheywerescarceabletodefendthemselvesagainstonepoorlegion.

CHAPTERIII

ThatRomeBecameGreatbyDestroyingtheCitiesWhichLayRoundAboutHer,andbyReadilyAdmittingStrangerstotheRightsofCitizenship.

“CrescitintereaRomaAlbæruinis”—MeanwhileRomegrowsontheruinsofAlba.Theywhowouldhavetheircitybecomeagreatempire,mustendeavourbyeverymeanstofillitwithinhabitants;forwithoutanumerouspopulationnocitycaneversucceedingrowingpowerful.Thismaybeeffectedintwoways,bygentlenessorbyforce.Bygentleness,whenyouofferasafeandopenpathtoallstrangerswhomaywishtocomeanddwellinyourcity,soastoencouragethemtocomethereoftheirownaccord;byforce,whenafterdestroyingneighbouringtowns,youtransplanttheirinhabitantstoliveinyours.BothofthesemethodswerepractisedbyRome,andwithsuchsuccess,thatinthetimeofhersixthkingtheredweltwithinherwallseightythousandcitizensfittobeararms.FortheRomanslovedtofollowthemethodsoftheskilfulhusbandman,who,toinsureaplantgrowingbigandyieldingandmaturingitsfruit,cutsoffthefirstshootsitsendsout,thatthestrengthremaininginthestem,itmayindueseasonputforthnewandmorevigorousandmorefruitfulbranches.AndthatthiswasarightandanecessarycourseforRometotakeforestablishingandextendingherempire,isprovedbytheexampleofSpartaandAthens,which,althoughexceedinglywell–armedStates,andregulatedbyexcellentlaws,neverreachedthesamegreatnessastheRomanRepublic;thoughthelatter,toallappearance,wasmoreturbulentanddisorderlythanthey,and,sofaraslawswent,notsoperfectlygoverned.Forthiswecanoffernootherexplanationthanthatalreadygiven.Forbyaugmentingthenumbersofhercitizensinboththewaysnamed,Romewassoonabletoplacetwohundredandeightythousandmenunderarms;whileneitherSpartanorAthenscouldevermustermorethantwentythousand;andthis,notbecausethesituationofthesecountrieswaslessadvantageousthanthatofRome,butsimplyfromthedifferenceinthemethodstheyfollowed.

ForLycurgus,thefounderoftheSpartanRepublic,thinkingnothingsolikelytorelaxhislawsasanadmixtureofnewcitizens,didallhecouldtopreventintercoursewithstrangers;withwhichobject,besidesrefusingthesetherighttomarry,therightofcitizenship,andallsuchothersocialrightsasinducementobecomemembersofacommunity,heordainedthatinthisrepublicofhistheonlymoneycurrentshouldbeofleather,sothatnonemightbetemptedtorepairthithertotradeortocarryonanyart.

UndersuchcircumstancesthenumberoftheinhabitantsofthatStatecouldnevermuchincrease.Forasallouractionsimitatenature,anditisneithernaturalnorpossiblethatapunystemshouldcarryagreatbranch,soasmallrepubliccannotassumecontrolovercitiesorcountriesstrongerthanherself;or,doingso,willresemblethetreewhoseboughsbeinggreaterthanitstrunk,aresupportedwithdifficulty,andsnappedbyeverygustofwind.AsitprovedwithSparta.ForaftershehadspreadherdominionoverallthecitiesofGreece,nosoonerdidThebesrebelthanalltheothersrebelledlikewise,andthetrunkwasleftstrippedofitsboughs.ButthiscouldnothavehappenedwithRome,whosestemwasmightyenoughtobearanybranchwithease.

Itwas,therefore,byaddingtoherpopulation,andby,adoptingcertainothermethodspresentlytobenoticed,thatRomebecamesogreatandpowerful.AndthisiswellexpressedbyTitusLivius,inthewords,“CrescitintereaRomaAlbaeruinis.”

CHAPTERIV

ThatCommonwealthsHaveFollowedThreeMethodsforExtendingTheirPower

Anyonewhohasreadancienthistorywithattention,musthaveobservedthatthreemethodshavebeenusedbyrepublicsforextendingtheirpower.Oneofthese,followedbytheoldEtruscans,istoformaconfederationofmanyStates,whereinnonehasprecedenceovertherestinauthorityorrank,andeachallowstheotherstoshareitsacquisitions;asdotheStatesoftheSwissLeagueinourdays,andastheAchaiansandEtoliansdidinGreeceinearliertimes.AndbecausetheEtruscanswereopposedtotheRomansinmanywars,thatImaygiveaclearernotionofthismethodoftheirs,IshallenlargealittleinmyaccountoftheEtruscanpeople.

InItaly,beforetheRomansbecamesupreme,theEtruscanswereverypowerful,bothbyseaandland;andalthoughwehavenoseparatehistoryoftheiraffairs,wehavesomeslightrecordsleftusofthem,andsomeindicationsoftheirgreatness.Weknow,forinstance,thattheyplantedacolony,towhichtheygavethenameofHadria,onthecoastoftheuppersea;whichcolonybecamesorenownedthatitlentitsnametotheseaitself,whichtothisdaybytheLatinsiscalledtheHadriatic.Weknow,too,thattheirarmswereobeyedfromtheTibertothefootofthemountainswhichenclosethegreaterpartoftheItalianpeninsula;although,twohundredyearsbeforeRomegrewtoanygreatstrength,theyhadlosttheirsupremacyintheprovincenowknownasLombardy,ofwhichtheFrenchhadpossessedthemselves.Forthatpeople,whetherdrivenbynecessity,orattractedbytheexcellenceofthefruits,andstillmoreofthewineofItaly,camethereundertheirchief,Bellovesus;andafterdefeatingandexpellingtheinhabitantsofthecountry,settledthemselvestherein,andtherebuiltmanycities;callingthedistrictGallia,afterthenametheythenbore:andthisterritorytheyretaineduntiltheyweresubduedbytheRomans.

TheseEtruscans,therefore,livingwithoneanotheronafootingofcompleteequality,whentheysoughttoextendtheirpower,followedthatfirstmethodofwhichIhavejustnowspoken.TheirStatewasmadeupoftwelvecities,amongwhichwereChiusi,Veii,Friuli,Arezzo,Volterra,andthelike,andtheirgovernmentwasconductedintheformofaleague.Theycouldnot,however,extendtheirconquestsbeyondItaly;whileevenwithinthelimitsofItaly,muchterritoryremainedunoccupiedbythemforreasonspresentlytobenoticed.

Thesecondmethodistoprovideyourselfwithalliesorcompanions,takingheed,however,toretaininyourownhandsthechiefcommand,theseatofgovernment,andthetitularsupremacy.ThiswasthemethodfollowedbytheRomans.

ThethirdmethodistoholdotherStatesindirectsubjectiontoyou,andnotmerelyassociatedwithyouascompanions;andthiswastheplanpursuedbytheSpartansandAthenians.

Ofthesethreemethods,thelastiswhollyuseless,aswasseeninthecaseofthetwoStates

named,whichcametoruinfromnoothercausethanthattheyhadacquiredadominiongreaterthantheycouldmaintain.Fortoundertaketogoverncitiesbyforce,especiallysuchcitiesashavebeenusedtoliveinfreedom,isadifficultandarduoustask,inwhichyounevercansucceedwithoutanarmyandthatagreatone.Buttohavesuchanarmyyoumustneedshaveassociateswhowillhelptoswellthenumbersofyourowncitizens.AndbecauseAthensandSpartaneglectedthisprecaution,whatevertheydidwasdoneinvain;whereasRome,whichoffersaninstanceofthesecondofthemethodsweareconsidering,byattendingtothisprecautionreachedapowerthathadnolimit.Andasshealonehaslivedinthisway,soshealonehasattainedtothispitchofpower.ForjoiningwithherselfmanyStatesthroughoutItalyashercompanions,whoinmostrespectslivedwithheronafootingofequality,while,ashasbeennoted,alwaysreservingtoherselftheseatofempireandthetitularcommand,itcameaboutthattheseStates,withoutbeingawareofit,bytheirownefforts,andwiththeirownblood,wroughtouttheirownenslavement.

ForwhenRomebegantosendarmiesoutofItaly,forthepurposeofreducingforeignkingdomstoprovinces,andofsubjugatingnationswho,beingusedtoliveunderkings,werenotimpatientofheryoke,andwho,receivingRomangovernors,andhavingbeenconqueredbyarmiesbearingtheRomanname,recognizednomasterssavetheRomans,thosecompanionsofRomewhodweltinItalysuddenlyfoundthemselvessurroundedbyRomansubjects,andweigheddownbythegreatnessoftheRomanpower;andwhenatlasttheycametoperceivethemistakeinwhichtheyhadbeenliving,itwastoolatetoremedyit,sovastwastheauthoritywhichRomehadthenobtainedoverforeigncountries,andsogreattheresourceswhichshepossessedwithinherself;havingbythistimegrowntobethemightiestandbest–armedofStates.Sothatalthoughthesehercompanionssoughttoavengetheirwrongsbyconspiringagainsther,theyweresoondefeatedintheattempt,andremainedinaworseplightthanbefore,sincetheytoobecamesubjectsandnolongerassociates.Thismethod,then,asIhavesaid,wasfollowedbytheRomansalone;butnootherplancanbepursuedbyarepublicwhichdesirestoextenditspower;experiencehavingshownnoneothersosafeandcertain.

Themethodwhichconsistsinformingleagues,ofwhichIhavespokenaboveashavingbeenadoptedbytheEtruscans,theAchaians,andtheEtoliansofold,andinourowndaysbytheSwiss,isthenextbestafterthatfollowedbytheRomans,forasinthiswaytherecanbenogreatextensionofpower,twoadvantagesresult:first,thatyoudonotreadilyinvolveyourselfinwar;and,second,thatyoucaneasilypreserveanylittleacquisitionwhichyoumaymake.Thereasonwhyyoucannotgreatlyextendyourpoweris,thatasyourleagueismadeupofseparateStateswithdistinctseatsofgovernment,itisdifficultforthesetoconsultandresolveinconcert.ThesamecausesmaketheseStatescarelesstoenlargetheirterritories;becauseacquisitionswhichhavetobesharedamongmanycommunitiesarelessthoughtofthanthosemadebyasinglerepublicwhichlookstoenjoythemalltoitself.Again,sinceleaguesgovernthroughgeneralcouncils,theymustneedsbeslowerinresolvingthananationdwellingwithinonefrontier.

Moreover,wefindfromexperiencethatthismethodhascertainfixedlimitsbeyondwhichthereisnoinstanceofitseverhavingpassed;bywhichImeanthatsometwelveorfourteencommunitiesmayleaguethemselvestogether,butwillneverseektopassbeyondthatlimit:forafterassociatingthemselvesinsuchnumbersasseemtothemtosecuretheirsafetyagainstallbesides,theydesirenofurtherextensionoftheirpower,partlybecause

nonecessitycompelsthemtoextend,andpartlybecause,forthereasonsalreadygiven,theywouldfindnoprofitinextending.Forweretheytoseekextensiontheywouldhavetofollowoneoftwocourses:eithercontinuingtoadmitnewmemberstotheirleague,whosenumbermustleadtoconfusion;orelsemakingsubjects,acoursewhichtheywillavoidsincetheywillseedifficultyinmakingthem,andnogreatgoodinhavingthem.Wherefore,whentheirnumberhassoincreasedthattheirsafetyseemssecured,theyhaverecoursetotwoexpedients:eitherreceivingotherStatesundertheirprotectionandengagingfortheirdefence(inwhichwaytheyobtainmoneyfromvariousquarterswhichtheycaneasilydistributeamongthemselves);orelsehiringthemselvesoutassoldierstoforeignStates,anddrawingpayfromthisortheotherprincewhoemploysthemtocarryouthisenterprises;asweseedonebytheSwissatthepresentday,andaswereadwasdoneinancienttimesbycertainofthosenationswhomwehavenamedabove.TowhichwehaveawitnessinTitusLivius,whorelatesthatwhenPhilipofMacedoncametotreatwithTitusQuintiusFlamininus,andwhiletermswerebeingdiscussedinthepresenceofacertainEtoliancaptain,thismancomingtowordswithPhilip,thelattertauntedhimwithgreedandbadfaith;tellinghimthattheEtolianswerenotashamedtodrawpayfromoneside,andthensendtheirmentoserveontheother;sothatoftenthebannerofEtoliamightbeseendisplayedintwohostilecamps.

Wesee,therefore,thatthemethodofproceedingbyleagueshasalwaysbeenofthesamecharacter,andhasledalwaystothesameresults.Wesee,likewise,thatthemethodwhichproceedsbyreducingStatestodirectsubjectionhasconstantlyprovedaweakone,andproducedinsignificantgains;andthatwheneverthesegainshavepassedacertainlimit,ruinhasensued.AndifthelatterofthesetwomethodsbeoflittleutilityamongarmedStates,amongthosethatareunarmed,asisnowthecasewiththerepublicsofItaly,itisworsethanuseless.Wemayconclude,therefore,thatthetruemethodwasthatfollowedbytheRomans;whichisthemoreremarkableaswefindnonewhoadopteditbeforetheydid,andnonewhohavefolloweditsince.Asforleagues,IknowofnonationswhohavehadrecoursetotheminrecenttimesexcepttheSwissandtheSuevians.

Buttobringmyremarksonthisheadtoanend,IaffirmthatallthevariousmethodsfollowedbytheRomansinconductingtheiraffairs,whetherforeignordomestic,sofarfrombeingimitatedinourday,havebeenheldofnoaccount,somepronouncingthemtobemerefables,somethinkingthemimpracticable,othersoutofplaceandunprofitable;andso,abidinginthisignorance,werestapreytoallwhohavechosentoinvadeourcountry.ButshoulditseemdifficulttotreadinthefootstepsoftheRomans,itoughtnottoappearsohard,especiallyforusTuscans,toimitatetheTuscansofantiquity,whoif,fromthecausesalreadyassigned,theyfailedtoestablishanempirelikethatofRome,succeededinacquiringinItalythatdegreeofpowerwhichtheirmethodofactingallowed,andwhichtheylongpreservedinsecurity,withthegreatestrenowninarmsandgovernment,andthehighestreputationformannersandreligion.ThispowerandthisgloryoftheirswerefirstimpairedbytheGauls,andafterwardsextinguishedbytheRomans,andsoutterlyextinguished,thatoftheEtruscanEmpire,sosplendidtwothousandyearsago,wehaveatthepresentdaybarelyarecord.Thisitiswhichhasledmetoinquirewhencethisoblivionofthingsarises,aquestionofwhichIshalltreatinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERV

ThatChangesinSectsandTongues,andtheHappeningofFloodsandPestilences,ObliteratetheMemoryofthePast

Tothosephilosopherswhowillhaveitthattheworldhasexistedfromalleternity,itwere,Ithink,agoodanswer,thatifwhattheysaybetrueweoughttohaverecordofalongerperiodthanfivethousandyears;diditnotappearthatthememoryofpasttimesisblottedoutbyavarietyofcauses,somereferabletomen,andsometoHeaven.

Amongthecauseswhichhaveahumanoriginarethechangesinsectsandtongues;becausewhenanewsect,thatistosayanewreligion,comesup,itsfirstendeavour,inordertogiveitselfreputation,istoeffacetheold;andshoulditsohappenthatthefoundersofthenewreligionspeakanothertongue,thismayreadilybeeffected.ThisweknowfromobservingthemethodswhichChristianityhasfollowedindealingwiththereligionoftheGentiles,forwefindthatithasabolishedalltheritesandordinancesofthatworship,andobliteratedeverytraceoftheancientbelief.True,ithasnotsucceededinutterlyblottingoutourknowledgeofthingsdonebythefamousmenwhoheldthatbelief;andthisbecausethepropagatorsofthenewfaith,retainingtheLatintongue,wereconstrainedtouseitinwritingthenewlaw;forcouldtheyhavewrittenthisinanewtongue,wemayinfer,havingregardtotheirotherpersecutions,thatnorecordwhateverwouldhavesurvivedtousofpastevents.ForanyonewhoreadsofthemethodsfollowedbySaintGregoryandtheotherheadsoftheChristianreligion,willperceivewithwhatanimositytheypursuedallancientmemorials;burningtheworksofpoetsandhistorians;breakingimages;anddestroyingwhatsoeverelseaffordedanytraceofantiquity.Sothatiftothispersecutionanewlanguagehadbeenjoined,itmustsoonhavebeenfoundthateverythingwasforgotten.

Wemaybelieve,therefore,thatwhatChristianityhassoughttoeffectagainstthesectoftheGentiles,wasactuallyeffectedbythatsectagainstthereligionwhichprecededtheirs;andthat,fromtherepeatedchangesofbeliefwhichhavetakenplaceinthecourseoffiveorsixthousandyears,thememoryofwhathappenedataremotedatehasperished,or,ifanytraceofitremain,hascometoberegardedasafabletowhichnocreditisdue;liketheChronicleofDiodorusSiculus,which,professingtogiveanaccountoftheeventsoffortyorfiftythousandyears,isheld,andIbelievejustly,alyingtale.

AsforthecausesofoblivionwhichwemayrefertoHeaven,theyarethosewhichmakehavocofthehumanrace,andreducethepopulationofcertainpartsoftheworldtoaverysmallnumber.Thishappensbyplague,famine,orflood,ofwhichthreethelastisthemosthurtful,aswellbecauseitisthemostuniversal,asbecausethosesavedaregenerallyrudeandignorantmountaineers,whopossessingnoknowledgeofantiquitythemselves,canimpartnonetothosewhocomeafterthem.Orifamongthesurvivorstherechancetobeonepossessedofsuchknowledge,togivehimselfconsequenceandcredit,hewillconcealandpervertittosuithisprivateends,sothattohisposteritytherewillremainonlysomuchashemayhavebeenpleasedtocommunicate,andnomore.

Thatthesefloods,plagues,andfaminesdoinfacthappen,Iseenoreasontodoubt,both

becausewefindallhistoriesfullofthem,andrecognizetheireffectinthisoblivionofthepast,andalsobecauseitisreasonablethatsuchthingsshouldhappen.Foraswhenmuchsuperfluousmatterhasgatheredinsimplebodies,naturemakesrepeatedeffortstoremoveandpurgeitaway,therebypromotingthehealthofthesebodies,solikewiseasregardsthatcompositebodythehumanrace,wheneveryprovinceoftheworldsoteemswithinhabitantsthattheycanneithersubsistwheretheyarenorremoveelsewhere,everyregionbeingequallycrowdedandover–peopled,andwhenhumancraftandwickednesshavereachedtheirhighestpitch,itmustneedscomeaboutthattheworldwillpurgeherselfinoneoranotherofthesethreeways,totheendthatmen,becomingfewandcontrite,mayamendtheirlivesandlivewithmoreconvenience.

Etruria,then,ashasbeensaidabove,wasatonetimepowerful,aboundinginpietyandvalour,practisingherowncustoms,andspeakingherowntongue;butallthiswaseffacedbythepowerofRome,sothat,asIhaveobservedalready,nothingisleftofherbutthememoryofaname.

CHAPTERVI

OftheMethodsFollowedbytheRomansinMakingWar

HavingtreatedofthemethodsfollowedbytheRomansforincreasingtheirpower,weshallnowgoontoconsiderthosewhichtheyusedinmakingwar;andinalltheydidweshallfindhowwiselytheyturnedasidefromthecommonpathinordertorendertheirprogresstosupremegreatnesseasy.

Whosoevermakeswar,whetherfrompolicyorambition,meanstoacquireandtoholdwhatheacquires,andtocarryonthewarhehasundertakeninsuchamannerthatitshallenrichandnotimpoverishhisnativecountryandState.Itisnecessary,therefore,whetherforacquiringorholding,toconsiderhowcostmaybeavoided,andeverythingdonemostadvantageouslyforthepublicwelfare.Butwhoeverwouldeffectallthis,musttakethecourseandfollowthemethodsoftheRomans;whichconsisted,firstofall,inmakingtheirwars,astheFrenchsay,greatandshort.Forenteringthefieldwithstrongarmies,theybroughttoaspeedyconclusionwhateverwarstheyhadwiththeLatins,theSamnites,ortheEtruscans.

Andifwetakenoteofallthewarsinwhichtheywereengaged,fromthefoundationoftheircitydowntothesiegeofVeii,allwillbeseentohavebeenquicklyendedsomeintwenty,someinten,andsomeinnomorethansixdays.Andthiswastheirwont:Sosoonaswarwasdeclaredtheywouldgoforthwiththeirarmiestomeettheenemyandatoncedeliverbattle.Theenemy,onbeingrouted,tosavetheircountryfrompillage,verysooncametoterms,whentheRomanswouldtakefromthemcertainportionsoftheirterritory.Thesetheyeitherassignedtoparticularpersons,ormadetheseatofacolony,whichbeingsettledontheconfinesoftheconqueredcountryservedasadefencetotheRomanfrontier,totheadvantagebothofthecolonistswhohadtheselandsgiventhem,andoftheRomanpeoplewhoseborderswerethusguardedatnoexpensetothemselves.Andnoothersystemofdefencecouldhavebeenatoncesosafe,sostrong,andsoeffectual.Forwhiletheenemywerenotactuallyinthefield,thisguardwassufficient;andwhentheycameoutinforcetooverwhelmthecolony,theRomansalsowentforthinstrengthandgavethembattle;andgettingthebetterofthem,imposedhardertermsthanbefore,andsoreturnedhome.Andinthiswaytheycamegraduallytoestablishtheirnameabroad,andtoaddtotheirpower.

Thesemethodstheycontinuedtoemployuntiltheychangedtheirsystemofwarfare,whichtheydidduringthesiegeofVeii;whentoenablethemtocarryonaprolongedwar,theypassedalawforthepaymentoftheirsoldiers,whom,uptothattimetheyhadnotpaid,norneededtopay,becausetillthentheirwarshadbeenofbriefduration.Nevertheless,whileallowingpaytotheirsoldiersthattheymightthuswagelongerwars,andkeeptheirarmieslongerinthefieldwhenemployedondistantenterprises,theyneverdepartedfromtheiroldplanofbringingtheircampaignstoasspeedyanendasplaceandcircumstancesallowed,noreverceasedtoplantcolonies.

Theircustomofterminatingtheirwarswithdespatch,besidesbeingnaturaltotheRomans,wasstrengthenedbytheambitionoftheirconsuls,who,beingappointedfor

twelvemonthsonly,sixofwhichtheyhadtospendinthecity,wereeagertobringtheirwarstoanendasrapidlyastheycould,thattheymightenjoythehonoursofatriumph.Theusageofplantingcolonieswasrecommendedbythegreatadvantageandconveniencewhichresultedfromit.Indealingwiththespoilsofwarfaretheirpractice,nodoubt,inameasurechanged,sothatinthisrespecttheywerenotafterwardssoliberalastheywereatfirst;partly,becauseliberalitydidnotseemsonecessarywhentheirsoldierswereinreceiptofpay;and,partly,becausethespoilsthemselvesbeinggreaterthanbefore,theythoughtbytheirhelpsotoenrichthepublictreasuryastobeabletocarryontheirwarswithouttaxingthecity;and,infact,bypursuingthiscoursethepublicrevenuesweresoongreatlyaugmented.ThemethodsthusfollowedbytheRomansindividingplunderandinplantingcolonieshad,accordingly,thisresult,thatwhereasotherlessprudentprincesandrepublicsareimpoverishedbywar,Romewasenrichedbyit;nay,sofarwasthesystemcarried,thatnoconsulcouldhopeforatriumphunlesshebroughtbackwithhimforthepublictreasurymuchgoldandsilverandspoilsofeverykind.

Bymethodssuchasthese,atonetimebringingtheirwarstoarapidconclusionbyinvasionandactualdefeat,atanotherwearingoutanenemybyprotractedhostilities,andagainbyconcludingpeaceonadvantageousterms,theRomanscontinuallygrewricherandmorepowerful.

CHAPTERVII

OftheQuantityofLandAssignedbytheRomanstoEachColonist

Itwould,Ithink,bedifficulttofixwithcertaintyhowmuchlandtheRomansallottedtoeachcolonist,formybeliefisthattheygavemoreorlessaccordingtothecharacterofthecountrytowhichtheysentthem.Wemay,however,besurethatineveryinstance,andtowhatevercountrytheyweresent,thequantityoflandassignedwasnotverylarge:first,because,thesecolonistsbeingsenttoguardthenewlyacquiredcountry,bygivinglittlelanditbecamepossibletosendmoremen;andsecondbecause,astheRomanslivedfrugallyathome,itisunreasonabletosupposethattheyshouldwishtheircountrymentobetoowelloffabroad.AndTitusLiviustellsusthatonthecaptureofVeii,theRomanssentthitheracolony,allottingtoeachcolonistthreejugeraandsevenunciaeofland,which,accordingtoourmeasurementwouldbesomethingundertwoacres.

Besidestheabovereasons,theRomansmaylikelyenoughhavethoughtthatitwasnotsomuchthequantityofthelandallottedasitscarefulcultivationthatwouldmakeitsuffice.Itisverynecessary,however,thateverycolonyshouldhavecommonpasturagewhereallmaysendtheircattletograze,aswellaswoodswheretheymaycutfuel;forwithoutsuchconveniencesnocolonycanmaintainitself.

CHAPTERVIII

WhyCertainNationsLeaveTheirAncestralSeatsandOverflowtheCountriesofOthers

HavingspokenaboveofthemethodsfollowedbytheRomansinmakingwar,andrelatedhowtheEtruscanswereattackedbytheGauls,itseemstomenotforeigntothesetopicstoexplainthatofwarstherearetwokinds.Onekindofwarhasitsoriginintheambitionofprincesorrepublicswhoseektoextendtheirdominions.SuchwerethewarswagedbyAlexandertheGreat,andbytheRomans,andsucharethosewhichweseeeverydaycarriedonbyonepotentateagainstanother.Warsofthissorthavetheirdangers,butdonotutterlyextirpatetheinhabitantsofacountry;whattheconquerorseeksbeingmerelythesubmissionoftheconqueredpeople,whom,generallyspeaking,hesufferstoretaintheirlaws,andalwaystheirhousesandgoods.

Theotherspeciesofwariswhenanentirepeople,withallthefamiliesofwhichitismadeup,beingdrivenoutbyfamineordefeat,removesfromitsformerseat,andgoesinsearchofanewabodeandanewcountry,notsimplywiththeviewtoestablishdominionoverit,buttopossessitasitsown,andtoexpelorexterminatetheformerinhabitants.OfthismostterribleandcruelspeciesofwarfareSallustspeaksattheendofhishistoryofthewarwithJugurtha,whereinmentioningthatafterthedefeatofJugurthathemovementoftheGaulsintoItalybegantobenoticed,heobservesthat“inthewarsoftheRomanswithothernationsthestrugglewasformastery;butthatalwaysintheirwarswiththeGaulsthestruggleonbothsideswasforlife.”Foraprinceorcommonwealth,whenattackinganotherState,willbecontenttoridthemselvesofthoseonlywhoareattheheadofaffairs;butanentirepeople,setinmotioninthemannerdescribed,mustdestroyallwhoopposethem,sincetheirobjectistosubsistonthatwhereonthosewhomtheyinvadehavehithertosubsisted.

TheRomanshadtopassthroughthreeofthesedesperatewars;thefirstbeingthatinwhichtheircitywasactuallycapturedbythoseGaulswho,asalreadymentioned,hadpreviouslytakenLombardyfromtheEtruscansandmadeittheirseat,andforwhoseinvasionTitusLiviushasassignedtwocauses.First,thattheywereattracted,asIhavesaidbefore,bythefruitfulsoilandbythewineofItalywhichtheyhadnotinGaul;second,thattheirpopulationhavingmultipliedsogreatlythattheycouldnolongerfindwherewithaltoliveonathome,theprincesoftheirlanddecidedthatcertainoftheirnumbershouldgoforthtoseekanewabode;andsodeciding,choseasleadersofthosewhoweretogo,twoGaulishchiefs,BellovesusandSiccovesus;theformerofwhomcameintoItalywhilethelatterpassedintoSpain.FromtheimmigrationunderBellovesusresultedtheoccupationofLombardy,and,subsequently,thefirstwaroftheGaulswithRome.Atalaterdate,andafterthecloseofthefirstwarwithCarthage,camethesecondGallicinvasion,whenmorethantwohundredthousandGaulsperishedinbattlebetweenPiombinoandPisa.ThethirdofthesewarsbrokeoutonthedescentintoItalyoftheTodiandCimbri,who,afterdefeatingseveralRomanarmies,werethemselvesdefeatedbyMarius.

InthesethreemostdangerousconteststhearmsofRomeprevailed;butnoordinaryvalourwasneededfortheirsuccess.Forweseeafterwards,whenthespiritoftheRomanshaddeclined,andtheirarmieshadlosttheirformerexcellence,theirsupremacywasoverthrownbymenofthesamerace,thatistosaybytheGoths,theVandals,andotherslikethem,whospreadthemselvesoverthewholeoftheWesternEmpire.

Nationssuchasthese,quit,asIhavesaid,theirnativeland,whenforcedbyfamine,orbydefeatindomesticwars,toseekanewhabitationelsewhere.Whenthosethusdrivenforthareinlargenumbers,theyviolentlyinvadetheterritoriesofothernations,slaughteringtheinhabitants,seizingontheirpossessions,foundingnewkingdoms,andgivingnewnamestoprovinces;aswasdonebyMoses,andbythosetribeswhooverrantheRomanEmpire.ForthenewnameswhichwefindinItalyandelsewhere,havenootheroriginthanintheirhavingbeengivenbythesenewoccupants;aswhenthecountriesformerlyknownasGalliaCisalpinaandGalliaTransalpinatookthenamesofLombardyandFrance,fromtheLombardsandtheFrankswhosettledthemselvesthere.InthesamewaySclavoniawasformerlyknownasIllyria,HungaryasPannonia,andEnglandasBritain;whilemanyotherprovinceswhichitwouldbetedioustoenumerate,havesimilarlychangedtheirdesignations;aswhenthenameJudæawasgivenbyMosestothatpartofSyriaofwhichhetookpossession.

AndsinceIhavesaidabovethatnationssuchasthoseIhavebeendescribing,areoftendrivenbywarsfromtheirancestralhomes,andforcedtoseekanewcountryelsewhere,IshallcitetheinstanceoftheMaurusians,apeoplewhoancientlydweltinSyria,buthearingoftheinroadoftheHebrews,andthinkingthemselvesunabletoresistthem,choserathertoseeksafetyinflightthantoperishwiththeircountryinavainefforttodefendit.Forwhichreason,removingwiththeirfamilies,theywenttoAfrica,where,afterdrivingoutthenativeinhabitants,theytookuptheirabode;andalthoughtheycouldnotdefendtheirowncountry,wereabletopossessthemselvesofacountrybelongingtoothers.AndProcopius,whowritesthehistoryofthewarwhichBelisariusconductedagainstthoseVandalswhoseizedonAfrica,relates,thatoncertainpillarsstandinginplaceswheretheMaurusiansoncedwelt,hehadreadinscriptionsinthesewords:“WeMaurusianswhofledbeforeJoshua,therobber,thesonofNun;”[7]givingustoknowthecauseoftheirquittingSyria.Bethisasitmay,nationsthusdrivenforthbyasupremenecessity,are,iftheybeingreatnumber,inthehighestdegreedangerous,andcannotbesuccessfullywithstoodexceptbyapeoplewhoexcelinarms.

Whenthoseconstrainedtoabandontheirhomesarenotinlargenumbers,theyarenotsodangerousasthenationsofwhomIhavebeenspeaking,sincetheycannotusethesameviolence,butmusttrusttotheiraddresstoprocurethemahabitation;and,afterprocuringit,mustlivewiththeirneighboursasfriendsandcompanions,aswefindÆneas,Dido,theMassilians,andotherslikethemtohavelived;allofwhomcontrivedtomaintainthemselvesinthedistrictsinwhichtheysettled,bysecuringthegoodwilloftheneighbouringnations.

AlmostallthegreatemigrationsofnationshavebeenandcontinuetobefromthecoldandbarrenregionofScythia,becausefromthepopulationtherebeingexcessive,andthesoilillabletosupportthem,theyareforcedtoquittheirhome,manycausesoperatingtodrivethemforthandnonetokeepthemback.Andif,forthelastfivehundredyears,ithasnot

happenedthatanyofthesenationshasactuallyoverrunanothercountry,therearevariousreasonstoaccountforit.First,thegreatclearancewhichthatregionmadeofitsinhabitantsduringthedeclineoftheRomanEmpire,whenmorethanthirtynationsissuedfromitinsuccession;andnext,thecircumstancethatthecountriesofGermanyandHungary,whencealsothesenationscame,arenowsomuchimprovedthatmencanlivethereincomfort,andconsequentlyarenotconstrainedtoshifttheirhabitations.Besideswhich,sincethesecountriesareoccupiedbyaverywarlikerace,theyserveasasortofbulwarktokeepbacktheneighbouringScythians,whoforthisreasondonotventuretoattackthem,norattempttoforceapassage.Nevertheless,movementsonagreatscalehaveoftentimesbeenbegunbytheTartars,andbeenatoncewithstoodbytheHungariansandPoles,whosefrequentboastitis,thatbutforthem,ItalyandtheChurchwouldmorethanoncehavefelttheweightoftheTartararms.

OfthenationsofwhomIhavebeenspeaking,Ishallnowsaynomore.

[7]NosMaurusiiquifugimusafacieJesulatronisfiliiNavae.Procop.Hist.Bell.Vand.II.

CHAPTERIX

OftheCausesWhichCommonlyGiveRisetoWarsBetweenStates

TheoccasionwhichledtowarbetweentheRomansandSamnites,whoforlonghadbeeninleaguewithoneanother,isofcommonoccurrenceinallpowerfulStates,beingeitherbroughtaboutbyaccident,orelsepurposelycontrivedbysomeonewhowouldsetwara–foot.AsbetweentheRomansandtheSamnites,theoccasionofwarwasaccidental.ForinmakingwarupontheSidiciniansandafterwardsontheCampanians,theSamniteshadnothoughtofinvolvingthemselveswiththeRomans.ButtheCampaniansbeingoverpowered,and,contrarytotheexpectationofRomansandSamnitesalike,resortingtoRomeforaid,theRomans,onwhoseprotectiontheythrewthemselves,wereforcedtosuccourthemasdependants,andtoacceptawarwhich,itseemedtothem,theycouldnotwithhonourdecline.ForthoughtheymighthavethoughtitunreasonabletobecalledontodefendtheCampaniansasfriendsagainsttheirownfriendstheSamnites,itseemedtothemshamefulnottodefendthemassubjects,orasapeoplewhohadplacedthemselvesundertheirprotection.Fortheyreasonedthattodeclinetheirdefencewouldclosethegateagainstallotherswhoatanyfuturetimemightdesiretosubmitthemselvestotheirpower.And,accordingly,sincegloryandempire,andnotpeace,weretheendswhichtheyalwayshadinview,itbecameimpossibleforthemtorefusethisprotectorship.

AsimilarcircumstancegaverisetothefirstwarwiththeCarthaginians,namelytheprotectorateassumedbytheRomansofthecitizensofMessinainSicily,andthislikewisecameaboutbychance.ButthesecondwarwithCarthagewasnottheresultofchance.ForHannibaltheCarthaginiangeneralattackedtheSaguntans,whowerethefriendsofRomeinSpain,notfromanydesiretoinjurethem,butinordertosetthearmsofRomeinmotion,andsogainanopportunityofengagingtheRomansinawar,andpassingonintoItaly.ThismethodofpickingaquarrelisconstantlyresortedtobypowerfulStateswhentheyareboundbyscruplesofhonourorlikeconsiderations.ForifIdesiretomakewaronaprincewithwhomIamunderanancientandbindingtreaty,Ishallfindsomecolourorpretextforattackingthefriendofthatprince,verywellknowingthatwhenIattackhisfriend,eithertheprincewillresentit,whenmyschemeforengaginghiminwarwillberealized;orthat,shouldhenotresentit,hisweaknessorbasenessinnotdefendingonewhoisunderhisprotectionwillbemadeapparent;eitherofwhichalternativeswilldiscredithim,andfurthermydesigns.

Wearetonote,therefore,inconnectionwiththissubmissionoftheCampanians,whathasjustnowbeensaidastoprovokinganotherpowertowar;andalsotheremedyopentoaStatewhich,beingunequaltoitsowndefence,ispreparedtogoalllengthstoruinitsassailant,—thatremedybeingtogiveitselfupunreservedlytosomeonewhomitselectsforitsdefender;astheCampaniansgavethemselvesuptotheRomans,andastheFlorentinesgavethemselvesuptoKingRobertofNaples,who,afterrefusingtodefendthemashisfriendsagainstCastruccioofLuccabywhomtheywerehardpressed,defendedthemashissubjects.

CHAPTERX

ThatContrarytotheVulgarOpinion,MoneyisNottheSinewsofWar

Sinceanymanmaybeginawarathispleasure,butcannotathispleasurebringittoaclose,aprincebeforeheengagesinanywarlikeenterpriseoughttomeasurehisstrengthandgovernhimselfaccordingly.Buthemustbeprudentenoughnottodeceivehimselfastohisstrength,whichhewillalwaysdo,ifhemeasureitbymoney,byadvantageofposition,orbythegood–willofhissubjects,whileheisunprovidedwithanarmyofhisown.Thesearethingswhichmayswellyourstrengthbutdonotconstituteit,beinginthemselvesnullandofnoavailwithoutanarmyonwhichyoucandepend.

Withoutsuchanarmynoamountofmoneywillmeetyourwants,thenaturalstrengthofyourcountrywillnotprotectyou,andthefidelityandattachmentofyoursubjectswillnotendure,sinceitisimpossiblethattheyshouldcontinuetruetoyouwhenyoucannotdefendthem.Lakes,andmountains,andthemostinaccessiblestrongholds,wherevaliantdefendersarewanting,becomenobetterthanthelevelplain;andmoney,sofarfrombeingasafeguard,ismorelikelytoleaveyouapreytoyourenemy;sincenothingcanbefalserthanthevulgaropinionwhichaffirmsittobethesinewsofwar.

ThisopinionisputforwardbyQuintusCurtius,where,inspeakingofthewarbetweenAntipatertheMacedonianandtheKingofSparta,herelatesthatthelatter,fromwantofmoney,wasconstrainedtogivebattleandwasdefeated;whereas,couldhehaveputofffightingforafewdaysthenewsofAlexander’sdeathwouldhavereachedGreece,andhemighthavehadavictorywithoutabattle.Butlackingmoney,andfearingthatonthataccounthissoldiersmightdeserthim,hewasforcedtohazardanengagement.ItwasforthisreasonthatQuintusCurtiusdeclaredmoneytobethesinewsofwar,amaximeverydaycitedandacteduponbyprinceslesswisethantheyshouldbe.Forbuildinguponthis,theythinkitenoughfortheirdefencetohavelaidupgreattreasures;notreflectingthatweregreattreasuresallthatisneededforvictory,DariusofoldhadconqueredAlexander,theGreekstheRomans,andinourowntimesCharlesofBurgundytheSwiss;whilethepopeandtheFlorentinestogetherwouldhavehadlittledifficultyindefeatingFrancescoMaria,nephewofPopeJuliusII.,intherecentwarofUrbino;andyet,ineveryoneoftheseinstances,thevictoryremainedwithhimwhoheldthesinewsofwartoconsist,notinmoney,butingoodsoldiers.

Croesus,kingofLydia,aftershowingSolontheAthenianmuchbesides,atlastdisplayedtohimtheboundlessrichesofhistreasure–house,andaskedhimwhathethoughtofhispower.WhereuponSolonansweredthathethoughthimnowhitmorepowerfulinrespectofthesetreasures,foraswarismadewithironandnotwithgold,anothercomingwithmoreironmightcarryoffhisgold.AfterthedeathofAlexandertheGreatatribeofGauls,passingthroughGreeceontheirwayintoAsia,sentenvoystotheKingofMacedoniatotreatfortermsofaccord;whentheking,todismaythembyadisplayofhisresources,showedthemgreatstoreofgoldandsilver.Butthesebarbarians,whentheysawallthiswealth,intheirgreedtopossessit,thoughbeforetheyhadlookedonpeaceassettled,brokeoffnegotiations;andthusthekingwasruinedbythoseverytreasureshehad

amassedforhisdefence.Inlikemanner,notmanyyearsago,theVenetians,withafulltreasury,losttheirwholedominionswithoutderivingtheleastadvantagefromtheirwealth.

Imaintain,therefore,thatitisnotgold,asisvulgarlysupposed,thatisthesinewsofwar,butgoodsoldiers;orwhilegoldbyitselfwillnotgainyougoodsoldiers,goodsoldiersmayreadilygetyougold.HadtheRomanschosentomakewarwithgoldratherthanwithironallthetreasuresoftheearthwouldnothavesufficedthemhavingregardtothegreatnessoftheirenterprisesandthedifficultiestheyhadtoovercomeincarryingthemout.Butmakingtheirwarswithirontheyneverfeltanywantofgold;forthosewhostoodinfearofthembroughtgoldintotheircamp.

AndsupposingittruethattheSpartankingwasforcedbylackofmoneytoriskthechancesofabattle,itonlyfaredwithhiminrespectofmoneyasithasoftenfaredwithothersfromothercauses;sinceweseethatwhereanarmyisinsuchstraitsforwantofvictualthatitmusteitherfightorperishbyfamine,itwillalwaysfight,asbeingthemorehonourablecourseandthatonwhichfortunemayinsomewaysmile.So,too,ithasoftenhappenedthatacaptain,seeinghisenemyabouttobereinforced,hasbeenobligedeithertotrusttofortuneandatoncedeliverbattle,orelse,waitingtillthereinforcementiscomplete,tofightthen,whetherhewillorno,andatwhateverdisadvantage.Wefindalso,asinthecaseofHasdrubalwhenbeset,intheMarchofAncona,atoncebyClaudiusNeroandbytheotherRomanconsul,thatacaptain,whenhemusteitherfightorfly,willalwaysfight,sinceitwillseemtohimthatbythiscourse,howeverhazardous,hehasatleastachanceofvictory,whilebytheotherhisruiniscertain.

Therearemanycircumstances,therefore,whichmayforceacaptaintogivebattlecontrarytohisintention,amongwhichthewantofmoneymaysometimesbeone.Butthisisnogroundforpronouncingmoneytobethesinewsofwar,anymorethanthoseotherthingsfromthewantofwhichmenarereducedtothesamenecessity.Oncemore,therefore,Irepeatthatnotgoldbutgoodsoldiersconstitutethesinewsofwar.Money,indeed,ismostnecessaryinasecondaryplace;butthisnecessitygoodsoldierswillalwaysbeabletosupply,sinceitisasimpossiblethatgoodsoldiersshouldlackmoney,asthatmoneybyitselfshouldsecuregoodsoldiers.AndthatwhatIsayistrueisshownbycountlesspassagesinhistory.WhenPericlespersuadedtheAthenianstodeclarewaragainstthewholePeloponnesus,assuringthemthattheirdexterity,aidedbytheirwealth,wassuretobringthemoffvictorious,theAthenians,thoughforawhiletheyprosperedinthiswar,intheendwereoverpowered,theprudentcounselsandgoodsoldiersofSpartaprovingmorethanamatchforthedexterityandwealthofAthens.But,indeed,therecanbenobetterwitnesstothetruthofmycontentionthanTitusLiviushimself.ForinthatpassageofhishistorywhereinhediscusseswhetherifAlexandertheGreathadinvadedItaly,hewouldhavesucceededinvanquishingtheRomans,threethingsarenotedbyhimasessentialtosuccessinwar;towit,manyandgoodsoldiers,prudentcaptains,andfavourablefortune;andafterexaminingwhethertheRomansorAlexanderwouldhavehadtheadvantageineachofthesethreeparticulars,hearrivesathisconclusionwithoutanymentionofmoney.

TheCampanians,therefore,whenaskedbytheSidicinianstoarmintheirbehalf,musthavemeasuredtheirstrengthbywealthandnotbysoldiers;forafterdeclaringintheir

favourandsufferingtwodefeats,tosavethemselvestheywereobligedtobecometributarytoRome.

CHAPTERXI

ThatItWereUnwisetoAllyYourselfaPrinceWhoHasReputationRatherThanStrength.

TomarkthemistakemadebytheSidiciniansintrustingtotheprotectionoftheCampanians,andbytheCampaniansinsupposingthemselvesabletoprotecttheSidicinians,TitusLiviuscouldnothaveexpressedhimselfinapterwordsthanbysaying,that“theCampaniansratherlenttheirnametotheSidiciniansthanfurnishedanysubstantialaidtowardstheirdefence.”

Herewehavetonotethatallianceswithprinceswhofromdwellingatadistancehavenofacility,orwhofromtheirownembarrassments,orfromothercauses,havenoabilitytorenderaid,affordratherreputationthanprotectiontothosewhoputtheirtrustinthem.AswasthecaseinourowntimeswiththeFlorentines,when,intheyear1479,theywereattackedbythePopeandtheKingofNaples.ForbeingfriendsoftheFrenchkingtheydrewfromthatfriendshipmorereputationthanhelp.ThesamewouldbethecasewiththatprincewhoshouldengageinanyenterpriseinrelianceontheEmperorMaximilian,hisbeingoneofthosefriendshipswhich,inthewordsofourhistorian,nomenmagisquampraesidiumadferunt.

Onthisoccasion,therefore,theCampaniansweremisledbyimaginingthemselvesstrongerthantheyreallywere.Foroften,fromdefectofjudgment,mentakeuponthemtodefendothers,whentheyhaveneitherskillnorabilitytodefendthemselves.OfwhichwehaveafurtherinstanceintheTarentines,who,whentheRomanandSamnitearmieswerealreadydrawnupagainstoneanotherforbattle,sentmessengerstotheRomanconsultoacquainthimthattheydesiredpeacebetweenthetwonations,andwouldthemselvesdeclarewaragainstwhichsoeverofthetwofirstbeganhostilities.Theconsul,laughingattheirthreats,inthepresenceofthemessengers,orderedthesignalforbattletosound,andbadehisarmyadvancetomeettheenemy;showingtheTarentinesbyactsratherthanwordswhatanswerhethoughttheirmessagedeserved.

HavingspokeninthepresentChapterofunwisecoursesfollowedbyprincesfordefendingothers,Ishallspeakinthenext,ofthemethodstheyfollowindefendingthemselves.

CHAPTERXII

WhetherWhenInvasionisImminentItisBettertoAnticipateortoAwaitIt.

Ihaveoftenhearditdisputedbymenwellversedinmilitaryaffairs,whether,whentherearetwoprincesofnearlyequalstrength,andthebolderofthetwoproclaimswarupontheother,itisbetterforthatothertoawaitattackwithinhisownfrontier,ortomarchintotheenemy’scountryandfighthimthere;andIhaveheardreasonsgiveninfavourofeachofthesecourses.

Theywhomaintainthatanenemyshouldbeattackedinhisowncountry,citetheadvicegivenbyCroesustoCyrus,whenthelatterhadcometothefrontiersoftheMassagetætomakewaronthatpeople.ForwordbeingsentbyTomyristheirqueenthatCyrusmight,athispleasure,eitherenterherdominions,whereshewouldawaithim,orelseallowhertocomeandmeethim;andthematterbeingdebated,Croesus,contrarytotheopinionofotheradvisers,counselledCyrustogoforwardandmeetthequeen,urgingthatwerehetodefeatheratadistancefromherkingdom,hemightnotbeabletotakeitfromher,sinceshewouldhavetimetorepairherstrength;whereas,werehetodefeatherwithinherowndominions,hecouldfollowheruponherflight,and,withoutgivinghertimetorecoverherself,depriveherofherState.TheycitealsotheadvicegivenbyHannibaltoAntiochus,whenthelatterwasmeditatingawarontheRomans.ForHannibaltoldhimthattheRomanscouldnotbevanquishedexceptinItaly,whereaninvadermightturntoaccountthearmsandresourcesoftheirfriends,whereasanyonemakingwaruponthemoutofItaly,andleavingthatcountryintheirhands,wouldleavethemanunfailingsourcewhencetodrawwhateverreinforcementtheymightneed;andfinally,hetoldhim,thattheRomansmightmoreeasilybedeprivedofRomethanoftheirempire,andofItalymoreeasilythanofanyoftheirotherprovinces.TheylikewiseinstanceAgathocles,who,beingunequaltosupportawarathome,invadedtheCarthaginians,bywhomhewasbeingattacked,andreducedthemtosueforpeace.TheyalsociteScipio,whotoshiftthewarfromItaly,carrieditintoAfrica.

Thosewhoholdacontraryopinioncontendthattohaveyourenemyatadisadvantageyoumustgethimawayfromhishome,allegingthecaseoftheAthenians,whowhiletheycarriedonthewarattheirconvenienceintheirownterritory,retainedtheirsuperiority;butwhentheyquittedthatterritory,andwentwiththeirarmiestoSicily,losttheirfreedom.TheycitealsothefableofthepoetswhereinitisfiguredthatAntæus,kingofLibya,beingassailedbytheEgyptianHercules,couldnotbeovercomewhileheawaitedhisadversarywithintheboundsofhisownkingdom;butsosoonashewaswithdrawnfromthesebythecraftofHercules,losthiskingdomandhislife.WhencethefablerunsthatAntæus,beingsontothegoddessEarth,whenthrowntothegrounddrewfreshstrengthfromtheEarth,hismother;andthatHercules,perceivingthis,heldhimupawayfromtheEarth.

Recentopinionsarelikewisecitedasfavouringthisview.EveryoneknowshowFerrando,kingofNaples,wasinhisdayaccountedamostwiseprince;andhowtwoyearsbeforehisdeaththerecamearumourthatCharlesVIIIofFrancewasmeditatinganattackuponhim;andhow,aftermakinggreatpreparationsforhisdefence,hesickened;andbeingon

thepointofdeath,amongothercounselslefthissonAlfonsothisadvice,thatnothingintheworldshouldtempthimtopassoutofhisownterritory,buttoawaittheenemywithinhisfrontier,andwithhisforcesunimpaired;awarningdisregardedbyAlfonso,whosentintoRomagnaanarmy,whichhelost,andwithithiswholedominions,withoutabattle.

Otherargumentsonbothsidesofthequestioninadditiontothosealreadynoticed,areasfollows:Hewhoattacksshowshighercouragethanhewhostandsonhisdefence,andthisgiveshisarmygreaterconfidence.Moreover,byattackingyourenemyyoudeprivehimofmanyopportunitiesforusinghisresources,sincehecanreceivenoaidfromsubjectswhohavebeenstrippedoftheirpossessions;andwhenanenemyisathisgates,aprincemustbecarefulhowheleviesmoneyandimposestaxes;sothat,asHannibalsaid,thespringswhichenableacountrytosupportawarcometobedriedup.Again,thesoldiersofaninvader,findingthemselvesinaforeignland,areunderastrongernecessitytofight,andnecessity,ashasoftenbeensaid,istheparentofvalour.

Ontheotherhand,itmaybearguedthattherearemanyadvantagestobegainedbyawaitingtheattackofyourenemy.Forwithoutputtingyourselfmuchabout,youmayharasshimbyinterceptinghissupplies,whetherofvictualorofwhatsoeverelseanarmystandsinneed:fromyourbetterknowledgeofthecountryyoucanimpedehismovements;andbecausemenmustermorewillinglytodefendtheirhomesthantogoondistantexpeditions,youcanmeethimwithmorenumerousforces,ifdefeatedyoucanmoreeasilyrepairyourstrength,becausethebulkofyourarmy,findingshelterathand,willbeabletosaveitself,andyourreserveswillhavenodistancetocome.Inthiswayyoucanuseyourwholestrengthwithoutriskingyourentirefortunes;whereas,inleavingyourcountry,youriskyourentirefortunes,withoutputtingforthyourwholestrength.Nay,wefindthattoweakenanadversarystillfurther,somehavesufferedhimtomakeamarchofseveraldaysintotheircountry,andthentocapturecertainoftheirtowns,thatbyleavinggarrisonsinthese,hemightreducethenumbersofhisarmy,andsobeattackedatgreaterdisadvantage.

Butnowtospeakmyownmindonthematter,Ithinkweshouldmakethisdistinction.Eitheryouhaveyourcountrystronglydefended,astheRomanshadandtheSwisshavetheirs,or,liketheCarthaginiansofoldandtheKingofFranceandtheItaliansatthepresentday,youhaveitundefended.Inthelattercaseyoumustkeeptheenemyatadistancefromyourcountry,forasyourstrengthliesnotinmenbutinmoney,wheneverthesupplyofmoneyiscutoffyouareundone,andnothingsosooncutsoffthissupplyasawarofinvasion.OfwhichwehaveexampleintheCarthaginians,who,whiletheircountrywasfreefrominvasion,wereablebymeansoftheirgreatrevenuestocarryonwarinItalyagainsttheRomans,butwhentheywereinvadedcouldnotdefendthemselvesevenagainstAgathocles.TheFlorentines,inlikemanner,couldmakenoheadagainstCastruccio,lordofLucca,whenheattackedthemintheirowncountry;andtoobtainprotection,werecompelledtoyieldthemselvesuptoKingRobertofNaples.Andyet,afterCastruccio’sdeath,thesesameFlorentineswereboldenoughtoattacktheDukeofMilaninhisowncountry,andstrongenoughtostriphimofhisdominions.Suchvalourdidtheydisplayindistantwars,suchweaknessinthosethatwerenear.

ButwhenacountryisarmedasRomewasandSwitzerlandnowis,thecloseryoupressit,theharderitistosubdue;becausesuchStatescanassembleastrongerforcetoresist

attackthanforattackingothers.NordoesthegreatauthorityofHannibalmovemeinthisinstance,sinceresentmentandhisownadvantagemightleadhimtospeakashespoketoAntiochus.ForhadtheRomanssufferedinGaul,andwithinthesamespaceoftime,thosethreedefeatsatthehandsofHannibalwhichtheysufferedinItaly,itmusthavemadeanendofthem;sincetheycouldnothaveturnedtheremnantsoftheirarmiestoaccountastheydidinItaly,nothavingthesameopportunityforrepairingtheirstrength;norcouldtheyhavemettheirenemywithsuchnumerousarmies.Forweneverfindthemsendingforthaforceofmorethanfiftythousandmenfortheinvasionofanyprovince;whereas,indefendingtheirowncountryagainsttheinroadoftheGaulsattheendofthefirstCarthaginianwar,wehearofthembringingsomeeighteenhundredthousandmenintothefield;andtheirfailuretovanquishtheGaulsinLombardyastheyhadvanquishedthoseinTuscanyarosefromtheirinabilitytoleadagreatforcesofaragainstanumerousenemy,ortoencounterhimwiththesameadvantages.InGermanytheCimbriansroutedaRomanarmywhohadtherenomeanstorepairtheirdisaster;butwhentheycameintoItaly,theRomanscouldcollecttheirwholestrength,anddestroythem.Outoftheirnativecountry,whencetheycanbringnomorethanthirtyorfortythousandmen,theSwissmayreadilybedefeated;butintheirowncountry,wheretheycanassembleahundredthousand,theyarewell–nighinvincible.

Inconclusion,therefore,Irepeatthattheprincewhohashispeoplearmedandtrainedforwar,shouldalwaysawaitagreatanddangerouswarathome,andnevergoforthtomeetit.Butthathewhosesubjectsareunarmed,andwhosecountryisnothabituatedtowar,shouldalwayscarrythewartoasgreatadistanceashecanfromhome.Forinthiswayeachwilldefendhimselfinthebestmannerhismeansadmit.

CHAPTERXIII

ThatMenRiseFromHumbletoHighFortunesRatherbyFraudThanbyForce.

Iholditasmostcertainthatmenseldomifeverrisetogreatplacefromsmallbeginningswithoutusingfraudorforce,unless,indeed,theybegiven,ortakebyinheritancetheplacetowhichsomeotherhasalreadycome.Force,however,willneversufficebyitselftoeffectthisend,whilefraudoftenwill,asanyonemayplainlyseewhoreadsthelivesofPhilipofMacedon,AgathoclesofSicily,andmanyotherslikethem,whofromthelowestor,atanyrate,fromverylowbeginnings,roseeithertosovereigntyortothehighestcommand.

ThisnecessityforusingdeceitistaughtbyXenophoninhislifeofCyrus;fortheveryfirstexpeditiononwhichCyrusissent,againsttheKingofArmenia,isseentoteemwithfraud;anditisbyfraud,andnotbyforce,thatheisrepresentedashavingacquiredhiskingdom;sothattheonlyinferencetobedrawnfromhisconduct,asXenophondescribesit,is,thattheprincewhowouldaccomplishgreatthingsmusthavelearnedhowtodeceive.Xenophon,moreover,representshisheroasdeceivinghismaternalgrandsireCyaxares,kingoftheMedians,inavarietyofways;givingittobeunderstoodthatwithoutsuchdeceithecouldnothavereachedthegreatnesstowhichhecame.NordoIbelievethatanymanborntohumblefortunescanbeshowntohaveattainedgreatstation,bysheerandopenforce,whereasthishasoftenbeeneffectedbymerefraud,suchasthatusedbyGiovanniGaleazzotodeprivehisuncleBernabooftheStateandgovernmentofLombardy.

Thesameartswhichprincesareconstrainedtouseattheoutsetoftheircareer,mustalsobeusedbycommonwealths,untiltheyhavegrownpowerfulenoughtodispensewiththemandtrusttostrengthalone.AndbecauseRomeatalltimes,whetherfromchanceorchoice,followedallsuchmethodsasarenecessarytoattaingreatness,inthisalsoshewasnotbehindhand.And,tobeginwith,shecouldhaveusednogreaterfraudthanwasinvolvedinhermethodabovenoticed,ofmakingforherselfcompanions;sinceunderthisnameshemadeforherselfsubjects,forsuchtheLatinsandtheothersurroundingnations,infact,became.ForavailingherselfatfirstoftheirarmstosubdueneighbouringcountriesandgainherselfreputationasaState,herpowerwassomuchincreasedbytheseconqueststhattherewasnonewhomshecouldnotovercome.ButtheLatinsneverknewthattheywereenslaveduntiltheysawtheSamnitestwiceroutedandforcedtomaketerms.Thissuccess,whileitaddedgreatlytothefameoftheRomansamongprincesatadistance,whoweretherebymadefamiliarwiththeRomannamethoughnotwiththeRomanarms,bredatthesametimejealousyanddistrustamongthosewho,liketheLatins,bothsawandfeltthesearms;andsuchweretheeffectsofthisjealousyanddistrust,thatnottheLatinsonlybutalltheRomancoloniesinLatium,alongwiththeCampanianswhomalittlewhilebeforetheRomanshaddefendedleaguedthemselvestogetheragainsttheauthorityofRome.ThiswarwassetonfootbytheLatinsinthemannerinwhich,asIhavealreadyexplained,mostwarsarebegun,notbydirectly

attackingtheRomans,butbydefendingtheSidiciniansagainsttheSamniteswhoweremakingwaruponthemwiththepermissionoftheRomans.AndthatitwasfromtheirhavingfoundoutthecraftypolicyoftheRomansthattheLatinswereledtotakethisstep,isplainfromthewordswhichTitusLiviusputsinthemouthofAnniusSetinustheLatinprætor,who,inaddressingtheLatincouncil,ismadetosay,“Forifevennowwecanputupwithslaveryunderthedisguiseofanequalalliance,etc”

Wesee,therefore,thattheRomans,fromthetimetheyfirstbegantoextendtheirpower,werenotunfamiliarwiththeartofdeceiving,anartalwaysnecessaryforthosewhowouldmounttogreatheightsfromlowbeginnings;andwhichisthelesstobecondemnedwhen,asinthecaseoftheRomans,itisskilfullyconcealed.

CHAPTERXIV

ThatMenOftenErrinThinkingTheyCanSubduePridebyHumility.

Youshalloftenfindthathumilityisnotmerelyofnoservicetoyou,butisevenhurtful,especiallywhenusedindealingwithinsolentmen,who,throughenvyorotherlikecause,haveconceivedhatredagainstyou.ProofwhereofissuppliedbyourhistorianwhereheexplainsthecausesofthiswarbetweentheRomansandtheLatins.ForontheSamnitescomplainingtotheRomansthattheLatinshadattackedthem,theRomans,desiringnottogivetheLatinsgroundofoffence,wouldnotforbidthemproceedingwiththewar.ButtheendeavourtoavoidgivingoffencetotheLatinsonlyservedtoincreasetheirconfidence,andledthemthesoonertodeclaretheirhostility.OfwhichwehaveevidenceinthelanguageusedbythesameLatinPrætor,AnniusSetinus,attheaforesaidcouncil,whenhesaid:—”Youhavetriedtheirpatiencebyrefusingthem,soldiers.Whodoubtsbutthattheyareoffended?Stilltheyhaveputupwiththeaffront.TheyhaveheardthatweareassemblinganarmyagainsttheiralliestheSamnites;andyettheyhavenotstirredfromtheircity.Whencethisastonishingforbearance,butfromtheirknowingourstrengthandtheirownweakness?”WhichwordsgiveusclearlytounderstandhowmuchthepatienceoftheRomansincreasedthearroganceoftheLatins.

Aprince,therefore,shouldneverstoopfromhisdignity,norshouldheifhewouldhavecreditforanyconcessionmakeitvoluntarily,unlesshebeableorbelievehimselfabletowithholdit.Foralmostalwayswhenmattershavecometosuchapassthatyoucannotgivewaywithcredititisbetterthatathingbetakenfromyoubyforcethanyieldedthroughfearofforce.Forifyouyieldthroughfearandtoescapewar,thechancesarethatyoudonotescapeit;sincehetowhom,outofmanifestcowardiceyoumakethisconcession,willnotrestcontent,butwillendeavourtowringfurtherconcessionsfromyou,andmakinglessaccountofyou,willonlybethemorekindledagainstyou.Atthesametimeyouwillfindyourfriendslesszealousonyourbehalf,sincetothemyouwillappeareitherweakorcowardly.Butif,sosoonasthedesignsofyourenemyaredisclosed,youatoncepreparetoresistthoughyourstrengthbeinferiortohis,hewillbegintothinkmoreofyou,otherneighbouringprinceswillthinkmore;andmanywillbewillingtoassistyou,onseeingyoutakeuparms,who,hadyourelinquishedhopeandabandonedyourselftodespair,wouldneverhavestirredafingertosaveyou.

Theaboveistobeunderstoodasapplyingwhereyouhaveasingleadversaryonly;butshouldyouhaveseveral,itwillalwaysbeaprudentcourse,evenafterwarhasbeendeclared,torestoretosomeoneoftheirnumbersomethingyouhaveofhis,soastoregainhisfriendshipanddetachhimfromtheotherswhohaveleaguedthemselvesagainstyou.

CHAPTERXV

ThatWeakStatesAreAlwaysDubiousinTheirResolves;andThatTardyResolvesAreAlwaysHurtful

Touchingthisverymatter,andwithregardtotheseearliestbeginningsofwarbetweentheLatinsandtheRomans,itmaybenoted,thatinallourdeliberationsitbehovesustocomequicklytoadefiniteresolve,andnottoremainalwaysindubietyandsuspense.ThisisplainlyseeninconnectionwiththecouncilconvenedbytheLatinswhentheythoughttoseparatethemselvesfromtheRomans.FortheRomanssuspectingthehostilehumourwherewiththeLatinswereinfected,inordertolearnhowthingsreallystood,andseewhethertheycouldnotwinbackthemalcontentswithoutrecoursetoarms,gavethemtoknowthattheymustsendeightoftheircitizenstoRome,astheyhadoccasiontoconsultwiththem.OnreceivingwhichmessagetheLatins,knowingthattheyhaddonemanythingscontrarytothewishesoftheRomans,calledacounciltodeterminewhooftheirnumbershouldbesent,andtoinstructthemwhattheyweretosay.ButAnnius,theirprætor,beingpresentinthecouncilwhenthesematterswerebeingdiscussed,toldthem“thathethoughtitoffargreatermomentforthemtoconsiderwhattheyweretodothanwhattheyweretosay;forwhentheirresolveswereformed,itwouldbeeasytoclothetheminfitwords.”This,intruth,wassoundadviceandsuchaseveryprinceandrepublicshouldlaytoheart.Because,wherethereisdoubtanduncertaintyastowhatwemaydecideondoing,weknownothowtosuitourwordstoourconduct;whereas,withourmindsmadeup,andthecoursewearetofollowfixed,itisaneasymattertofindwordstodeclareourresolves.Ihavenoticedthispointthemorereadily,becauseIhaveoftenfoundsuchuncertaintyhinderthepublicbusinessofourownrepublic,toitsdetrimentanddiscredit.Andinallmattersofdifficulty,whereincourageisneededforresolving,thisuncertaintywillalwaysbemetwith,wheneverthosewhohavetodeliberateanddecideareweak.

Notlessmischievousthandoubtfulresolvesarethosewhicharelateandtardy,especiallywhentheyhavetobemadeinbehalfofafriend.Forfromtheirlatenesstheyhelpnone,andhurtourselves.Tardyresolvesareduetowantofspiritorwantofstrength,ortotheperversityofthosewhohavetodetermine,whobeingmovedbyasecretdesiretooverthrowthegovernment,ortocarryoutsomeselfishpurposeoftheirown,suffernodecisiontobecometo,butonlythwartandhinder.Whereas,goodcitizens,evenwhentheyseethepopularmindtobebentondangerouscourses,willneveropposetheadoptionofafixedplan,moreparticularlyinmatterswhichdonotbrookdelay.

AfterHieronymus,theSyracusantyrant,wasputtodeath,therebeingatthattimeagreatwarbetweentheRomansandtheCarthaginians,thecitizensofSyracusefelltodisputingamongthemselveswithwhichnationtheyshouldtakepart;andsofiercegrewthecontroversybetweenthepartisansofthetwoalliances,thatnocoursecouldbeagreedon,andtheytookpartwithneither;untilApollonides,oneoftheforemostoftheSyracusancitizens,toldtheminaspeechrepletewithwisdom,thatneitherthosewhoinclinedtoholdbytheRomans,northosewhochoserathertosidewiththeCarthaginians,weredeserving

ofblame;butthatwhatwasutterlytobecondemnedwasdoubtanddelayintakingonesideorother;forfromsuchuncertaintyheclearlyforesawtheruinoftheirrepublic;whereas,bytakingadecidedcourse,whateveritmightbe,somegoodmightcome.NowTitusLiviuscouldnotshowmoreclearlythanhedoesinthispassage,themischiefwhichresultsfromrestinginsuspense.Heshowsit,likewise,inthecaseoftheLavinians,ofwhomherelates,thatbeingurgedbytheLatinstoaidthemagainstRome,theyweresolonginmakinguptheirminds,thatwhenthearmywhichtheyatlastsenttosuccourtheLatinswasissuingfromtheirgates,wordcamethattheLatinsweredefeated.WhereuponMillionius,theirprætor,said,“WiththeRomansthisshortmarchwillcostusdear.”ButhadtheLaviniansresolvedatonceeithertograntaidortorefuseit,takingalattercoursetheywouldnothavegivenoffencetotheRomans,takingtheformer,andrenderingtimelyhelp,theyandtheLatinstogethermighthavehadavictory.Butbydelaytheystoodtoloseineveryway,astheeventshowed.

Thisexample,haditbeenrememberedbytheFlorentines,mighthavesavedthemfromallthatlossandvexationwhichtheyunderwentatthehandsoftheFrench,atthetimeKingLouisXII.ofFrancecameintoItalyagainstLodovico,dukeofMilan.ForwhenLouisfirstproposedtopassthroughTuscanyhemetwithnoobjectionfromtheFlorentines,whoseenvoysathiscourtarrangedwithhimthattheyshouldstandneutral,whiletheking,onhisarrivalinItaly,wastomaintaintheirgovernmentandtakethemunderhisprotection;amonth’stimebeingallowedtherepublictoratifytheseterms.Butcertainpersons,who,intheirfolly,favouredthecauseofLodovico,delayedthisratificationuntilthekingwasalreadyontheeveofvictory;whentheFlorentinessuddenlybecomingeagertoratify,thekingwouldnotaccepttheirratification,perceivingtheirconsenttobegivenunderconstraintandnotoftheirowngood–will.ThiscostthecityofFlorencedear,andwentneartoloseherfreedom,whereofshewasafterwardsdeprivedonanotherlikeoccasion.AndthecoursetakenbytheFlorentineswasthemoretobeblamedinthatitwasofnosortofservicetoDukeLodovico,who,hadhebeenvictorious,wouldhaveshowntheFlorentinesmanymoresignsofhisdispleasurethandidtheking.

AlthoughthehurtwhichresultstorepublicsfromweaknessofthissorthasalreadybeendiscussedinanotherChapter,nevertheless,sinceanopportunityofferedfortouchinguponitagain,Ihavewillinglyavailedmyselfofit,becausetomeitseemsamatterofwhichrepublicslikeoursshouldtakespecialheed.

CHAPTERXVI

ThattheSoldiersofOurDaysDepartWidelyFromtheMethodsofAncientWarfare.

Inalltheirwarswithothernations,themostmomentousbattleeverfoughtbytheRomans,wasthatwhichtheyfoughtwiththeLatinswhenTorquatusandDeciuswereconsuls.ForitmaywellbebelievedthatasbythelossofthatbattletheLatinsbecamesubjecttotheRomans,sotheRomanshadtheynotprevailedmusthavebecomesubjecttotheLatins.AndTitusLiviusisofthisopinion,sinceherepresentsthearmiesasexactlyequalineveryrespect,indisciplineandinvalour,innumbersandinobstinacy,theonlydifferencehedrawsbeing,thatofthetwoarmiestheRomanshadthemorecapablecommanders.Wefind,however,twocircumstancesoccurringintheconductofthisbattle,thelikeofwhichneverhappenedbefore,andseldomsince,namely,thattogivesteadinesstothemindsoftheirsoldiers,andrenderthemobedienttothewordofcommandandresolutetofight,oneoftheconsulsputhimself,andtheotherhisson,todeath.

TheequalitywhichTitusLiviusdeclarestohaveprevailedinthesetwoarmies,arosefromthis,thathavinglongservedtogethertheyusedthesamelanguage,discipline,andarms;thatindisposingtheirmenforbattletheyfollowedthesamesystem;andthatthedivisionsandofficersoftheirarmiesborethesamenames.Itwasnecessary,therefore,thatastheywereofequalstrengthandvalour,somethingextraordinaryshouldtakeplacetorenderthecourageoftheonearmymorestubbornandunflinchingthanthatoftheother,itbeingonthisstubbornness,asIhavealreadysaid,thatvictorydepends.Forwhilethistemperismaintainedinthemindsofthecombatantstheywillneverturntheirbacksontheirfoe.AndthatitmightendurelongerinthemindsoftheRomansthanoftheLatins,partlychance,andpartlythevalouroftheconsulscausedittofalloutthatTorquatusslewhisson,andDeciusdiedbyhisownhand.

Inpointingoutthisequalityofstrength,TitusLiviustakesoccasiontoexplainthewholesystemfollowedbytheRomansintheorderingoftheirarmiesandindisposingthemforbattle;andashehastreatedthesubjectatlength,Ineednotgooverthesameground,andshalltouchonlyonwhatIjudgeinitmosttodeserveattention,but,beingoverlookedbyallthecaptainsofourtimes,hasledtodisorderinmanyarmiesandinmanybattles.

FromthispassageofTitusLivius,then,welearnthattheRomanarmyhadthreeprincipaldivisions,orbattalionsaswemightnowcallthem,ofwhichtheynamedthefirsthastati,thesecondprincipes,andthethirdtriarii,toeachofwhichcavalrywereattached.Inarrayinganarmyforbattletheysetthehastatiinfront.Directlybehindthem,inthesecondrank,theyplacedtheprincipes;andinthethirdrankofthesamecolumn,thetriarii.Thecavalryofeachofthesethreedivisionstheydisposedtotherightandleftofthedivisiontowhichitbelonged;andtothesecompaniesofhorse,fromtheirformandposition,theygavethenamewings(alæ),fromtheirappearinglikethetwowingsofthemainbodyofthearmy.Thefirstdivision,thehastati,whichwasinfront,theydrewupincloseordertoenableittowithstandandrepulsetheenemy.Theseconddivision,theprincipes,sinceitwasnottobeengagedfromthebeginning,butwasmeanttosuccourthe

firstincasethatweredrivenin,wasnotformedincloseorderbutkeptinopenfile,sothatitmightreceivetheotherintoitsrankswheneveritwasbrokenandforcedtoretire.Thethirddivision,that,namely,ofthetriarii,haditsranksstillmoreopenthanthoseofthesecond,sothat,ifoccasionrequired,itmightreceivethefirsttwodivisionsofthehastatiandprincipes.Thesedivisions,therefore,beingdrawnupinthisorder,theengagementbegan,andifthehastatiwereoverpoweredanddrivenback,theyretiredwithinthelooseranksoftheprincipes,whenboththesedivisions,beingthusunitedintoone,renewedtheconflict.Ifthese,again,wereroutedandforcedback,theyretreatedwithintheopenranksofthetriarii,andallthreedivisions,formingintoone,oncemorerenewedthefight,inwhich,iftheywereoverpowered,sincetheyhadnofurthermeansofrecruitingtheirstrength,theylostthebattle.Andbecausewheneverthislastdivision,ofthetriarii,hadtobeemployed,thearmywasinjeopardy,therearosetheproverb,“Resredactaestadtriarios,”equivalenttoourexpressionofplayingalaststake.

Thecaptainsofourday,astheyhaveabandonedalltheothercustomsofantiquity,andpaynoheedtoanypartoftheancientdiscipline,soalsohavediscardedthismethodofdisposingtheirmen,thoughitwasoneofnosmallutility.Fortoinsurethedefeatofacommanderwhosoarrangeshisforcesastobeablethriceduringanengagementtorenewhisstrength,Fortunemustthricedeclareagainsthim,andhemustbematchedwithanadversaryablethreetimesovertodefeathim;whereashewhosesolechanceofsuccessliesinhissurvivingthefirstonset,asisthecasewithallthearmiesofChristendomatthepresentday,mayeasilybevanquished,sinceanyslightmishap,andtheleastfailureinthesteadinessofhismen,maydeprivehimofvictory.

Andwhattakesfromourarmiesthecapacitytorenewtheirstrengthis,thatprovisionisnownolongermadeforonedivisionbeingreceivedintotheranksofanother,whichhappensbecauseatpresentanarmyisarrangedforbattleinoneorotheroftwoimperfectmethods.Foreitheritsdivisionsareplacedsidebyside,soastoformalineofgreatwidthbutofnodepthorsolidity;orif,tostrengthenit,itbedrawnupincolumnsafterthefashionoftheRomanarmies,shouldthefrontlinebebroken,noprovisionhavingbeenmadeforitsbeingreceivedbythesecond,itisthrownintocompletedisorder,andbothdivisionsfalltopieces.Forifthefrontlinebedrivenback,itjostlesthesecond,ifthesecondlineendeavourtoadvance,thefirststandsinitsway:andthus,thefirstdrivingagainstthesecond,andthesecondagainstthethird,suchconfusionfollowsthatoftenthemosttriflingaccidentwillcausetheruinofanentirearmy.

AtthebattleofRavenna,whereM.deFoix,theFrenchcommander,wasslain,althoughaccordingtomodernnotionsthiswasawell–foughtfield,boththeFrenchandtheSpanisharmiesweredrawnupinthefirstofthefaultymethodsabovedescribed;thatistosay,eacharmyadvancedwiththewholeofitsbattalionssidebyside,sothateachpresentedasinglefrontmuchwiderthandeep;thisbeingalwaystheplanfollowedbymodernarmieswhen,asatRavenna,thegroundisopen.Forknowingthedisordertheyfallintoonretreat,formingthemselvesinasingleline,theyendeavour,asIhavesaid,asmuchaspossibletoescapeconfusionbyextendingtheirfront.Butwherethegroundconfinesthemtheyfallatonceintothedisorderspokenof,withoutanefforttopreventit.

Troopstraversinganenemy’scountry,whethertopillageorcarryoutanyotheroperationofwar,areliabletofallintothesamedisorder;andatS.RegolointhePisanterritory,and

atotherplaceswheretheFlorentineswerebeatenbythePisansduringthewarwhichfollowedontherevoltofPisaafterthecomingofCharlesofFranceintoItaly,ourdefeatwasduetonoothercausethanthebehaviourofourowncavalry,whobeingpostedinfront,andbeingrepulsedbytheenemy,fellbackontheinfantryandthrewthemintoconfusion,whereuponthewholearmytooktoflight;andMesserCiriacodelBorgo,theveteranleaderoftheFlorentinefoot,hasoftendeclaredinmypresencethathehadneverbeenroutedbyanycavalrysavethosewhowerefightingonhisside.ForwhichreasontheSwiss,whoarethegreatestproficientsinmodernwarfare,whenservingwiththeFrench,makeittheirfirstcaretoplacethemselvesontheirflank,sothatthecavalryoftheirfriends,ifrepulsed,maynotthrowthemintodisorder.

Butalthoughthesemattersseemeasytounderstandandnotdifficulttoputinpractice,nonehasyetbeenfoundamongthecommandersofourtimes,whoattemptedtoimitatetheancientsortocorrectthemoderns.Foralthoughthesealsohaveatripartitedivisionoftheirarmiesintovan–guard,main–body,andrear–guard,theonlyusetheymakeofitisingivingorderswhentheirmenareinquarters;whereasonactiveserviceitrarelyhappensthatalldivisionsarenotequallyexposedtothesameonset.

Andbecausemany,toexcusetheirignorance,willhaveitthatthedestructivefireofartilleryforbidsouremployingatthepresentdaymanyofthetacticsusedbytheancients,IwilldiscussthisquestioninthefollowingChapter,andexaminewhetherartillerydoesinfactpreventusfromusingthevaliantmethodsofantiquity.

CHAPTERXVII

WhatImportancetheArmiesofthePresentDayShouldAllowtoArtillery;andWhethertheCommonlyReceivedOpinionConcerningItbeJust.

Lookingtothenumberofpitchedbattles,orwhataretermedbytheFrenchjournées,andbytheItaliansfattid’arme,foughtbytheRomansatdiverstimes,Iamledfurthertoexaminethegenerallyreceivedopinion,thathadartillerybeeninuseintheirday,theRomanswouldnothavebeenallowed,oratleastnotwiththesameease,tosubjugateprovincesandmakeothernationstheirtributaries,andcouldneverhavespreadtheirpowerintheastonishingwaytheydid.Foritissaidthatbyreasonofthesefire–armsmencannolongeruseordisplaytheirpersonalvalourastheycouldofold;thatthereisgreaterdifficultynowthantherewasinformertimesinjoiningbattle;thatthetacticsfollowedthencannotbefollowednow;andthatintimeallwarfaremustresolveitselfintoaquestionofartillery.

Judgingitnotoutofplacetoinquirewhethertheseopinionsaresound,andhowfarartilleryhasaddedtoortakenfromthestrengthofarmies,andwhetheritsuselessensorincreasestheopportunitiesforagoodcaptaintobehavevaliantly,Ishallatonceaddressmyselftothefirstoftheavermentsnoticedabove,namely,thatthearmiesoftheancientRomanscouldnothavemadetheconqueststheydid,hadartillerythenbeeninuse.

TothisIanswerbysayingthat,sincewarismadeforpurposeseitherofoffenceordefence,wehavefirsttoseeinwhichofthesetwokindsofwarfareartillerygivesthegreateradvantageorinflictsthegreaterhurt.Now,thoughsomethingmightbesaidbothways,Ineverthelessbelievethatartilleryisbeyondcomparisonmorehurtfultohimwhostandsonthedefensivethantohimwhoattacks.Forhewhodefendshimselfmusteitherdosoinatownorinafortifiedcamp.Ifwithinatown,eitherthetownwillbeasmallone,asfortifiedtownscommonlyare,oritwillbeagreatone.Intheformercase,hewhoisonthedefensiveisatonceundone.Forsuchistheshockofartillerythatthereisnowallsostrongthatinafewdaysitwillnotbatterdown,when,unlessthosewithinhaveampleroomtowithdrawbehindcoveringworksandtrenches,theymustbebeaten;itbeingimpossibleforthemtoresisttheassaultofanenemywhoforcesanentrancethroughthebreachesintheirwalls.Norwillanyartilleryadefendermayhavebeofanyservicetohim;sinceitisanestablishedaxiomthatwheremenareabletoadvanceinnumbersandrapidly,artilleryispowerlesstocheckthem.

Forthisreason,instormingtownsthefuriousassaultsofthenorthernnationsproveirresistible,whereastheattacksofourItaliantroops,whodonotrushoninforce,butadvancetotheassaultinsmallknotsofskirmishers(scaramouches,astheyarefitlynamed),mayeasilybewithstood.Thosewhoadvanceinsuchlooseorder,andwithsolittlespirit,againstabreachcoveredbyartillery,advancetocertaindestruction,andasagainstthemartilleryisuseful.Butwhentheassailantsswarmtothebreachsomassedtogetherthatonepushesonanother,unlesstheybebroughttoastandbyditchesandearthworks,theypenetrateeverywhere,andnoartilleryhasanyeffecttokeepthemback;andthoughsomemustfall,yetnotsomanyastopreventavictory.

Thefrequentsuccessofthenorthernnationsinstormingtowns,andmoreparticularlytherecoveryofBresciabytheFrench,isproofsufficientofthetruthofwhatIsay.ForthetownofBresciarisingagainsttheFrenchwhilethecitadelstillheldout,theVenetians,tomeetanyattackwhichmightbemadefromthecitadeluponthetown,rangedgunsalongthewholelineofroadwhichledfromtheonetotheother,plantingtheminfront,andinflank,andwhereverelsetheycouldbebroughttobear.OfallwhichM.deFoixmakingnoaccount,dismountedwithhismen–at–armsfromhorseback,and,advancingwiththemonfootthroughthemidstofthebatteries,tookthetown;nordowelearnthathesustainedanyconsiderablelossfromtheenemy’sfire.Sothat,asIhavesaid,hewhohastodefendhimselfinasmalltown,whenhiswallsarebattereddownandhehasnoroomtoretirebehindotherworks,andhasonlyhisartillerytotrustto,isatonceundone.

Butevenwherethetownyoudefendisagreatone,sothatyouhaveroomtofallbackbehindnewworks,artilleryisstill,byalongway,moreusefulfortheassailantthanforthedefender.Fortoenableyourartillerytodoanyhurttothosewithout,youmustraiseyourselfwithitabovetheleveloftheground,since,ifyouremainonthelevel,theenemy,byerectinganylowmoundorearth–work,cansosecurehimselfthatitwillbeimpossibleforyoutotouchhim.Butinraisingyourselfabovetheleveloftheground,whetherbyextendingyourselfalongthegalleryofthewalls,orotherwise,youareexposedtotwodisadvantages;for,first,youcannottherebringintopositiongunsofthesamesizeorrangeashewhoiswithoutcanbringtobearagainstyou,sinceitisimpossibletoworklargegunsinaconfinedspace;and,secondly,althoughyoushouldsucceedingettingyourgunsintoposition,youcannotconstructsuchstrongandsolidworksfortheirprotectionasthosecanwhoareoutside,andonlevelground,andwhohavealltheroomandeveryotheradvantagewhichtheycoulddesire.Itisconsequentlyimpossibleforhimwhodefendsatowntomaintainhisgunsinpositionatanyconsiderableheight,whenthosewhoareoutsidehavemuchandpowerfulartillery;while,ifheplaceitlower,itbecomes,ashasbeenexplained,toagreatextentuseless.Sothatintheendthedefenceofthecityhastobeeffected,asinancienttimes,byhandtohandfighting,orelsebymeansofthesmallerkindsoffire–arms,fromwhichifthedefenderderivesomeslightadvantage,itisbalancedbytheinjuryhesustainsfromthegreatartilleryofhisenemy,wherebythewallsofthecityarebattereddownandalmostburiedintheirditches;sothatwhenitcomesoncemoretoanencounteratclosequarters,byreasonofhiswallsbeingdemolishedandhisditchesfilledup,thedefenderisnowatafargreaterdisadvantagethanhewasformerly.WhereforeIrepeatthatthesearmsareinfinitelymoreusefulforhimwhoattacksatownthanforhimwhodefendsit.

Astotheremainingmethod,whichconsistsinyourtakingupyourpositioninanentrenchedcamp,whereyouneednotfightunlessyouplease,andunlessyouhavetheadvantage,Isaythatthismethodcommonlyaffordsyounogreaterfacilityforavoidinganengagementthantheancientshad;nay,thatsometimes,owingtotheuseofartillery,youareworseoffthantheywere.Foriftheenemyfallsuddenlyuponyou,andhavesomeslightadvantage(asmayreadilybethecasefromhisbeingonhigherground,orfromyourworksonhisarrivalbeingstillincompletesothatyouarenotwhollyshelteredbythem),forthwith,andwithoutyourbeingabletopreventhim,hedislodgesyou,andyouareforcedtoquityourdefencesanddeliverbattle:ashappenedtotheSpaniardsatthebattleofRavenna.ForhavingpostedthemselvesbetweentheriverRoncoandan

earthwork,fromtheirnothavingcarriedthisworkhighenough,andfromtheFrenchhavingaslightadvantageofground,theywereforcedbythefireofthelattertoquittheirentrenchmentscometoanengagement.

Butassumingthegroundyouhavechosenforyourcamptobe,asitalwaysshould,higherthanthatoccupiedbytheenemy,andyourworkstobecompleteandsufficient,sothatfromyourpositionandpreparationstheenemydarenotattackyou,recoursewillthenbehadtotheverysamemethodsaswereresortedtoinancienttimeswhenanarmywassopostedthatitcouldnotbeassailed;thatistosay,yourcountrywillbewasted,citiesfriendlytoyoubesiegedorstormed,andyoursuppliesintercepted;untilyouareforced,atlast,ofnecessitytoquityourcampandtofightapitchedbattle,inwhich,aswillpresentlyappear,artillerywillbeoflittleservicetoyou.

Ifweconsider,therefore,forwhatendstheRomansmadewars,andthatattackandnotdefencewastheobjectofalmostalltheircampaigns,itwillbeclear,ifwhatIhavesaidbetrue,thattheywouldhavehadstillgreateradvantage,andmighthaveachievedtheirconquestswithevengreaterease,hadartillerybeeninuseintheirtimes.

Andastothesecondcomplaint,thatbyreasonofartillerymencannolongerdisplaytheirvalourastheycouldinancientdays,Iadmitittobetruethatwhentheyhavetoexposethemselvesafewatatime,menrunmorerisksnowthanformerly;aswhentheyhavetoscaleatownorperformsomesimilarexploit,inwhichtheyarenotmassedtogetherbutmustadvancesinglyandonebehindanother.Itistrue,also,thatCaptainsandcommandersofarmiesaresubjectedtoagreaterriskofbeingkillednowthanofold,sincetheyanbereachedeverywherebytheenemy’sfire;anditisnoprotectiontothemtobewiththoseoftheirmenwhoarefurthestfromtheenemy,ortobesurroundedbythebravestoftheirguards.Still,wedonotoftenfindeitherofthesetwodangersoccasioningextraordinaryloss.Fortownsstronglyfortifiedarenotattackedbyescalade,norwilltheassailingarmyadvanceagainsttheminweaknumbers;butwillendeavour,asinancienttimes,toreducethembyregularsiege.Andeveninthecaseoftownsattackedbystorm,thedangersarenotsoverymuchgreaternowthantheywereformerly;forinthoseolddaysalso,thedefendersoftownswerenotwithoutwarlikeengines,whichiflessterribleintheiroperation,had,sofaraskillinggoes,muchthesameeffect.Andasforthedeathsofcaptainsandleadersofcompanies,itmaybesaidthatduringthelasttwenty–fouryearsofwarinItaly,wehavehadfewerinstancesofsuchdeathsthanmightbefoundinaperiodoftenyearsofancientwarfare.ForexceptingtheCountLodovicodellaMirandola,whofellatFerrara,whentheVenetiansafewyearsagoattackedthatcity,andtheDukedeNemours,slainatCirignuola,wehavenoinstanceofanycommanderbeingkilledbyartillery.For,atRavenna,M.deFoixdiedbysteelandnotbyshot.WhereforeIsaythatifmennolongerperformdeedsofindividualprowess,itresultsnotsomuchfromtheuseofartillery,asfromthefaultydisciplineandweaknessofourarmies,whichbeingcollectivelywithoutvalourcannotdisplayitinparticularinstances.

Astothethirdassertion,thatarmiescannolongerbebroughttoengageoneanother,andthatwarwillsooncometobecarriedonwhollywithartillery,Imaintainthatthisallegationisutterlyuntrue,andwillalwaysbesoheldbythosewhoarewillinginhandlingtheirtroopstofollowtheusagesofancientvalour.Forwhosoeverwouldhaveagoodarmymusttrainit,eitherbyrealorbymimicwarfare,toapproachtheenemy,to

comewithinsword–thrust,andtograpplewithhim;andmustrelymoreonfootsoldiersthanonhorse,forreasonspresentlytobeexplained.Butwhenyoutrusttoyourfoot–soldiers,andtothemethodsalreadyindicated,artillerybecomespowerlesstoharmyou.Forfoot–soldiers,inapproachinganenemy,canwithmoreeaseescapethefireofhisartillerythaninancienttimestheycouldhaveavoidedachargeofelephantsorofscythedchariots,oranyotherofthosestrangecontrivanceswhichhadtobeencounteredbytheRomans,andagainstwhichtheyalwaysdevisedsomeremedy.And,certainly,asagainstartillery,theirremedywouldhavebeeneasier,byasmuchasthetimeduringwhichartillerycandohurtisshorterthanthetimeduringwhichelephantsandchariotscould.Forbytheseyouwerethrownintodisorderafterbattlejoined,whereasartilleryharassesyouonlybeforeyouengage;adangerwhichinfantrycaneasilyescape,eitherbyadvancingsoastobecoveredbytheinequalitiesoftheground,orbylyingdownwhilethefiringcontinues;nay,wefindfromexperiencethateventheseprecautionsmaybedispensedwith,especiallyasagainstgreatartillery,whichcanhardlybelevelledwithsuchprecisionthatitsfireshallnoteitherpassoveryourheadfromtherangebeingtoohigh,orfallshortfromitsbeingtoolow.

Sosoon,however,astheengagementisbegun,itisperfectlyclearthatneithersmallnorgreatartillerycanharmyouanylonger;since,iftheenemyhavehisartillerymeninfront,youtakethem;ifinrear,theywillinjurehimbeforetheyinjureyou;andifinflank,theycanneverfiresoeffectivelyastopreventyourclosing,withtheresultalreadyexplained.Nordoesthisadmitofmuchdispute,sincewehaveproofofitinthecaseoftheSwissatNovara,intheyear1513,when,withneithergunsnorcavalry,theyadvancedagainsttheFrencharmy,whohadfortifiedthemselveswithartillerybehindentrenchments,androutedthemwithoutsufferingtheslightestcheckfromtheirfire.Infurtherexplanationwhereofitistobenoted,thattoworkartilleryeffectivelyitshouldbeprotectedbywalls,byditches,orbyearth–works;andthatwhenever,frombeingleftwithoutsuchprotectionithastobedefendedbymen,ashappensinpitchedbattlesandengagementsintheopenfield,itiseithertakenorotherwisebecomesuseless.Norcanitbeemployedontheflankofanarmy,saveinthemannerinwhichtheancientsmadeuseoftheirwarlikeengines,whichtheymovedoutfromtheircolumnsthattheymightbeworkedwithoutinconvenience,butwithdrewwithinthemwhendrivenbackbycavalryorothertroops.Hewholooksforanyfurtheradvantagefromartillerydoesnotrightlyunderstanditsnature,andtruststowhatismostlikelytodeceivehim.ForalthoughtheTurk,usingartillery,hasgainedvictoriesovertheSoldanandtheSofi,theonlyadvantagehehashadfromithasbeentheterrorintowhichthehorsesoftheenemy,unusedtosuchsounds,arethrownbytheroaroftheguns.

Andnow,tobringtheseremarkstoaconclusion,Isaybrieflythat,employedbyanarmywhereinthereissomestrainoftheancientvalour,artilleryisuseful;butemployedotherwise,againstabraveadversary,isutterlyuseless.

CHAPTERXVIII

ThattheAuthorityoftheRomansandtheExampleofAncientWarfareShouldMakeUsHoldFootSoldiersofMoreAccountThanHorse.

BymanyargumentsandinstancesitcanbeclearlyestablishedthatintheirmilitaryenterprisestheRomanssetfarmorestoreontheirinfantrythanontheircavalry,andtrustedtotheformertocarryoutallthechiefobjectswhichtheirarmiesweremeanttoeffect.Amongmanyotherexamplesofthis,wemaynoticethegreatbattlewhichtheyfoughtwiththeLatinsnearthelakeRegillus,wheretosteadytheirwaveringrankstheymadetheirhorsemendismount,andrenewingthecombatonfootobtainedavictory.HereweseeplainlythattheRomanshadmoreconfidenceinthemselveswhentheyfoughtonfootthanwhentheyfoughtonhorseback.Thesameexpedientwasresortedtobytheminmanyoftheirotherbattles,andalwaysintheirsorestneedtheyfoundittheirsureststay.

NorarewetocondemnthepracticeindeferencetotheopinionofHannibal,who,atthebattleofCannæ,onseeingtheconsulsmakethehorsemendismount,saidscoffingly,“Betterstillhadtheydeliveredtheirknightstomeinchains.”Forthoughthissayingcamefromthemouthofamostexcellentsoldier,still,ifwearetoregardauthority,weoughtrathertofollowtheauthorityofacommonwealthlikeRome,andofthemanygreatcaptainswhoservedher,thanthatofHannibalalone.But,apartfromauthority,therearemanifestreasonstobearoutwhatIsay.Foramanmaygoonfootintomanyplaceswhereahorsecannotgo;mencanbetaughttokeeprank,andifthrownintodisordertorecoverform;whereas,itisdifficulttokeephorsesinline,andimpossibleifoncetheybethrownintodisordertoreformthem.Moreoverwefindthatwithhorsesaswithmen,somehavelittlecourageandsomemuch;andthatoftenaspiritedhorseisriddenbyafaint–heartedrider,oradullhorsebyacourageousrider,andthatinwhateverwaysuchdisparityiscaused,confusionanddisorderresult.Again,infantry,whendrawnupincolumn,caneasilybreakandisnoteasilybrokenbycavalry.Thisisvouched,notonlybymanyancientandmanymoderninstances,butalsobytheauthorityofthosewholaydownrulesforthegovernmentofStates,whoshowthatatfirstwarswerecarriedonbymountedsoldiers,becausethemethodsforarrayinginfantrywerenotyetunderstood,butthatsosoonasthesewerediscovered,thesuperiorityoffootoverhorsewasatoncerecognized.Insayingthis,Iwouldnothaveitsupposedthathorsemenarenotofthegreatestuseinarmies,whetherforpurposesofobservation,forharryingandlayingwastetheenemy’scountry,forpursuingaretreatingfoeorhelpingtorepulsehiscavalry.Butthesubstanceandsinewofanarmy,andthatpartofitwhichoughtconstantlytobemostconsidered,shouldalwaysbetheinfantry.AndamongsinsoftheItalianprinceswhohavemadetheircountrytheslaveofforeigners,thereisnoneworsethanthattheyhaveheldthesearmsincontempt,andturnedtheirwholeattentiontomountedtroops.

Thiserrorisduetothecraftofourcaptainsandtotheignoranceofourrulers.ForthecontrolofthearmiesofItalyforthelastfiveandtwentyyearsrestinginthehandsofmen,who,ashavingnolandsoftheirown,maybelookedonasmeresoldiersoffortune,thesefellforthwithoncontrivinghowtheymightmaintaintheircreditbybeingsuppliedwith

thearmswhichtheprincesofthecountrywerewithout.Andastheyhadnosubjectsoftheirownofwhomtheycouldmakeuse,andcouldnotobtainconstantemploymentandpayforalargenumberoffoot–soldiers,andasasmallnumberwouldhavegiventhemnoimportance,theyhadrecoursetohorsemen.Foracondottieredrawingpayfortwoorthreehundredhorsemenwasmaintainedbytheminthehighestcredit,andyetthecostwasnottoogreattobemetbytheprinceswhoemployedhim.Andtoeffecttheirobjectwithmoreease,andincreasetheircreditstillfurther,theseadventurerswouldallownomeritorfavourtobeduetofoot–soldiers,butclaimedallfortheirhorsemen.Andtosuchalengthwasthisbadsystemcarried,thatintheverygreatestarmyonlythesmallestsprinklingofinfantrywastobefound.This,togetherwithmanyotherillpracticeswhichaccompaniedit,hassoweakenedthemilitiaofItaly,thatthecountryhaseasilybeentrampleduponbyallthenationsoftheNorth.

Thatitisamistaketomakemoreaccountofcavalrythanofinfantry,maybestillmoreclearlyseenfromanotherexampletakenfromRomanhistory.TheRomansbeingengagedonthesiegeofSora,atroopofhorseasallyfromthetowntoattacktheircamp;whentheRomanmasteroftheknightsadvancingwithhisownhorsementogivethembattle,itsochancedthat,attheveryfirstonset,theleadersonbothsideswereslain.Bothpartiesbeingthusleftwithoutcommanders,andthecombat,nevertheless,continuing,theRomansthinkingtherebytohavetheadvantageoftheiradversaries,alightedfromhorseback,obligingtheenemy’scavalry,inordertodefendthemselves,todothelike.TheresultwasthattheRomanshadthevictory.Nowtherecouldbenostrongerinstancethanthistoshowthesuperiorityoffootoverhorse.ForwhileinotherbattlestheRomancavalryweremadebytheirconsulstodismountinordertosuccourtheirinfantrywhowereindistressandinneedofsuchaid,onthisoccasiontheydismounted,nottosuccourtheirinfantry,nortoencounteranenemycontendingonfoot,butbecausetheysawthatthoughtheycouldnotprevailagainsttheenemyfightingashorsemenagainsthorsemen,onfoottheyreadilymight.AndfromthisIconcludethatfoot–soldiers,ifrightlyhandled,canhardlybebeatenexceptbyothersoldiersfightingonfoot.

Withveryfewcavalry,butwithaconsiderableforceofinfantry,theRomancommanders,CrassusandMarcusAntonius,eachformanydaystogetheroverrantheterritoriesoftheParthians,althoughopposedbythecountlesshorsemenofthatnation.Crassus,indeed,withthegreaterpartofhisarmy,waslefttheredead,andAntoniusonlysavedhimselfbyhisvalour;butevenintheextremitiestowhichtheRomanswerethenbrought,seehowgreatlysuperiorfoot–soldiersaretohorse.Forthoughfightinginanopencountry,farfromthesea–coast,andcutofffromhissupplies,AntoniusprovedhimselfavaliantsoldierinthejudgmentevenoftheParthiansthemselves,thewholestrengthofwhosecavalryneverventuredtoattackthecolumnsofhisarmy.AndthoughCrassusperishedthere,anyonewhoreadsattentivelytheaccountofhisexpeditionmustseethathewasratheroutwittedthandefeated,andthatevenwhenhisconditionwasdesperate,theParthiansdurstnotclosewithhim,buteffectedhisdestructionbyhangingcontinuallyontheflanksofhisarmy,andinterceptinghissupplies,whilecajolinghimwithpromiseswhichtheyneverkept.

Itmight,Igrant,behardertodemonstratethisgreatsuperiorityoffootoverhorse,hadwenotverymanymodernexamplesaffordingtheclearestproofofit.Forinstance,atthebattleofNovara,ofwhichwehavealreadyspoken,ninethousandSwissfootwereseento

attacktenthousandcavalrytogetherwithanequalnumberofinfantry,andtodefeatthem;thecavalrybeingpowerlesstoinjurethem,whileoftheinfantry,whoweremostlyGascons,andbadlydisciplined,theymadenoaccount.Onanotheroccasionwehaveseentwenty–sixthousandSwissmarchonMilantoattackFrancisI.ofFrance,whohadwithhimtwentythousandmen–at–arms,fortythousandfoot,andahundredpiecesofartillery;andalthoughtheywerenotvictoriousasatNovara,theyneverthelessfoughtvaliantlyfortwodaystogether,and,intheend,thoughbeaten,wereabletobringoffhalftheirnumber.Withfoot–soldiersonlyMarcusAttiliusRegulusventuredtoopposehimself,nottocavalrymerely,buttoelephants;andiftheattemptfaileditdoesnotfollowthathewasnotjustifiedbythevalourofhismeninbelievingthemequaltosurmountthisdanger.

Irepeat,therefore,thattoprevailagainstwell–disciplinedinfantry,youmustmeetthemwithinfantrydisciplinedstillbetter,andthatotherwiseyouadvancetocertaindestruction.InthetimeofFilippoVisconti,DukeofMilan,somesixteenthousandSwissmadeadescentonLombardy,whereupontheDuke,whoatthattimehadIlCarmagnolaashiscaptain,senthimwithsixthousandmen–at–armsandaslenderfollowingoffoot–soldierstomeetthem.Notknowingtheirmanneroffighting,Carmagnolafelluponthemwithhishorsemen,expectingtoputthematoncetorout;butfindingthemimmovable,afterlosingmanyofhismenhewithdrew.But,beingamostwisecaptain,andskilfulindevisingnewremediestomeetunwonteddangers,afterreinforcinghiscompanyheagainadvancedtotheattack;andwhenabouttoengagemadeallhismen–at–armsdismount,andplacingtheminfrontofhisfoot–soldiers,felloncemoreupontheSwiss,whocouldthennolongerwithstandhim.Forhismen,beingonfootandwellarmed,easilypenetratedtheSwissrankswithouthurttothemselves;andgettingamongthem,hadnodifficultyincuttingthemdown,sothatoftheentirearmyoftheSwissthoseonlyescapedwhoweresparedbyhishumanity.

Ofthisdifferenceintheefficiencyofthesetwokindsoftroops,manyIbelieveareaware;butsuchistheunhappinessandperversityofthetimesinwhichwelive,thatneitherancientnormodernexamples,noreventheconsciousnessoferror,canmoveourpresentprincestoamendtheirways,orconvincethemthattorestorecredittothearmsofaStateorprovince,itisnecessarytorevivethisbranchoftheirmilitiaalso,tokeepitnearthem,tomakemuchofit,andtogiveitlife,thatinreturn,itmaygivebacklifeandreputationtothem.Butastheyhavedepartedfromallthoseothermethodsalreadyspokenof,sohavetheydepartedfromthis,andwiththisresult,thattothemtheacquisitionofterritoryisratheralossthanagain,aspresentlyshallbeshown.

CHAPTERXIX

ThatAcquisitionsMadebyILL-governedStatesandSuchasFollowNottheValiantMethodsoftheRomans,TendRathertoTheirRuinThantoTheir

Aggrandizement

Tothesefalseopinions,foundedontheperniciousexamplefirstsetbythepresentcorruptage,weoweit,thatnomanthinksofdepartingfromthemethodswhichareinuse.Ithadbeenimpossible,forinstance,somethirtyyearsago,topersuadeanItalianthattenthousandfoot–soldierscould,onplainground,attacktenthousandcavalrytogetherwithanequalnumberofinfantry;andnotmerelyattack,butdefeatthem;aswesawdonebytheSwissatthatbattleofNovara,towhichIhavealreadyreferredsooften.Foralthoughhistoryaboundsinsimilarexamples,nonewouldhavebelievedthem,or,believingthem,wouldhavesaidthatnowadaysmenaresomuchbetterarmed,thatasquadronofcavalrycouldshatterarock,tosaynothingofacolumnofinfantry.Withsuchfalsepleaswouldtheyhavebeliedtheirjudgment,takingnoaccountthatwithaveryscantyforceoffoot–soldiers,LucullusroutedahundredandfiftythousandofthecavalryofTigranes,amongwhomwereabodyofhorsemenverynearlyresemblingourownmen–at–arms.Now,however,thiserrorisdemonstratedbytheexampleofthenorthernnations.

Andsincewhathistoryteachesastothesuperiorityoffoot–soldiersisthusprovedtobetrue,menoughtlikewisetobelievethattheothermethodspractisedbytheancientsareinlikemannersalutaryanduseful.Andwerethisonceaccepted,bothprincesandcommonwealthswouldmakefewerblundersthantheydo,wouldbestrongertoresistsuddenattack,andwouldnolongerplacetheirsolehopeofsafetyinflight;whilethosewhotakeinhandtoprovideaStatewithnewinstitutionswouldknowbetterwhatdirectiontogivethem,whetherinthewayofextendingormerelyofpreserving;andwouldseethattoaugmentthenumbersoftheircitizens,toassumeotherStatesascompanionsratherthanreducethemtosubjection,tosendoutcoloniesforthedefenceofacquiredterritories,toholdtheirspoilsatthecreditofthecommonstock,toovercomeenemiesbyinroadsandpitchedbattlesratherthanbysieges,toenrichthepublicpurse,keepdownprivatewealth,andzealously,tomaintainallmilitaryexercises,arethetruewaystoaggrandizeaStateandtoextenditsempire.Orifthesemethodsforaddingtotheirpowerarenottotheirmind,letthemrememberthatacquisitionsmadeinanyotherwayaretheruinofrepublics,andsosetboundstotheirambition,wiselyregulatingtheinternalgovernmentoftheircountrybysuitablelawsandordinances,forbiddingextension,andlookingonlytodefence,andtakingheedthattheirdefencesareingoodorder,asdothoserepublicsofGermanywhichliveandforlonghavelived,infreedom.

Andyet,asIhavesaidonanotheroccasion,whenspeakingofthedifferencebetweenthemethodssuitableforacquiringandthosesuitableformaintaining,itisimpossibleforarepublictoremainlonginthepeacefulenjoymentoffreedomwithinarestrictedfrontier.Forshoulditforbearfrommolestingothers,othersarenotlikelytorefrainfrommolestingit;whencemustgrowatoncethedesireandthenecessitytomakeacquisitions;orshouldnoenemiesbefoundabroad,theywillbefoundathome,forthisseemstobeincidentalto

allgreatStates.AndifthefreeStatesofGermanyare,andhavelongbeenabletomaintainthemselvesontheirpresentfooting,thisarisesfromcertainconditionspeculiartothatcountry,andtobefoundnowhereelse,withoutwhichthesecommunitiescouldnotgoonlivingastheydo.

ThedistrictofGermanyofwhichIspeakwasformerlysubjecttotheRomanEmpire,inthesamewayasFranceandSpain;butonthedeclineoftheEmpire,andwhenitsverynamecametobelimitedtothisoneprovince,itsmorepowerfulcitiestakingadvantageoftheweaknessandnecessitiesoftheEmperors,begantofreethemselvesbybuyingfromthemtheirliberty,subjecttothepaymentofatriflingyearlytribute;until,gradually,allthecitieswhichhelddirectlyfromtheEmperor,andwerenotsubjecttoanyintermediatelord,had,inlikemanner,purchasedtheirfreedom.Whilethiswenton,itsohappenedthatcertaincommunitiessubjecttotheDukeofAustria,amongwhichwereFriburg,thepeopleofSchweitz,andthelike,roseinrebellionagainsthim,andmeetingattheoutsetwithgoodsuccess,bydegreesacquiredsuchaccessionofstrengththatsofarfromreturningundertheAustrianyoke,theyarebecomeformidabletoalltheirneighboursThesearetheStateswhichwenownameSwiss.

Germanyis,consequently,dividedbetweentheSwiss,thecommunitieswhichtakethenameofFreeTowns,thePrinces,andtheEmperor;andthereasonwhy,amidsomanyconflictinginterests,warsdonotbreakout,orbreakingoutareofshortcontinuance,isthereverenceinwhichallholdthissymboloftheImperialauthority.ForalthoughtheEmperorbewithoutstrengthofhisown,hehasneverthelesssuchcreditwithalltheseothersthathealonecankeepthemunited,and,interposingasmediator,canspeedilyrepressbyhisinfluenceanydissensionsamongthem.

ThegreatestandmostprotractedwarswhichhavetakenplaceinthiscountryhavebeenthosebetweentheSwissandtheDukeofAustria;andalthoughformanyyearspasttheEmpireandthedukedomofAustriahavebeenunitedinthesameman,hehasalwaysfailedtosubduethestubbornnessoftheSwiss,whoarenevertobebroughttotermssavebyforce.NorhastherestofGermanylenttheEmperormuchassistanceinhiswarswiththeSwiss,theFreeTownsbeinglittledisposedtoattackotherswhosedesireistoliveastheythemselvesdo,infreedom;whilethePrincesoftheEmpireeitheraresopoorthattheycannot,orfromjealousyofthepoweroftheEmperorwillnot,takepartwithhimagainstthem.

Thesecommunities,therefore,abidecontentedwithintheirnarrowconfines,because,havingregardtotheImperialauthority,theyhavenooccasiontodesiregreater;andareatthesametimeobligedtoliveinunitywithintheirwalls,becauseanenemyisalwaysathand,andreadytotakeadvantageoftheirdivisionstoeffectanentrance.Butwerethecircumstancesofthecountryotherthantheyarethesecommunitieswouldbeforcedtomakeattemptstoextendtheirdominions,andbeconstrainedtorelinquishtheirpresentpeacefulmodeoflife.Andsincethesameconditionsarenotfoundelsewhere,othernationscannotadoptthiswayofliving,butarecompelledtoextendtheirpowereitherbymeansofleagues,orelsebythemethodsusedbytheRomans;andanyonewhoshouldactotherwisewouldfindnotsafetybutratherdeathanddestruction.Forsinceinathousandways,andfromcausesinnumerable,conquestsaresurroundedwithdangers,itmaywellhappenthatinaddingtoourdominions,weaddnothingtoourstrength;but

whosoeverincreasesnothisstrengthwhileheaddstohisdominions,mustneedsberuined.Hewhoisimpoverishedbyhiswars,evenshouldhecomeoffvictorious,canaddnothingtohisstrength,sincehespendsmorethanhegains,astheVenetiansandFlorentineshavedone.ForVenicehasbeenfarfeeblersincesheacquiredLombardy,andFlorencesincesheacquiredTuscany,thanwhentheonewascontenttobemistressoftheseas,andtheotherofthelandslyingwithinsixmilesfromherwalls.Andthisfromtheireagernesstoacquirewithoutknowingwhatwaytotake.ForwhichignorancetheseStatesarethemoretobeblamedinproportionasthereislesstoexcusethem;sincetheyhadseenwhatmethodswereusedbytheRomans,andcouldhavefollowedintheirfootsteps;whereastheRomans,withoutanyexamplesetthem,wereablebytheirownprudencetoshapeacourseforthemselves.

Buteventowell–governedStates,theirconquestsmaychancetooccasionmuchharm;aswhensomecityorprovinceisacquiredaboundinginluxuryanddelights,bywhosemannerstheconquerorbecomesinfected;ashappenedfirsttotheRomans,andafterwardstoHannibalontakingpossessionofCapua.AndhadCapuabeenatsuchadistancefromRomethatareadyremedycouldnothavebeenappliedtothedisordersofthesoldiery,orhadRomeherselfbeeninanydegreetaintedwithcorruption,thisacquisitionhadcertainlyprovedherruin.TowhichTitusLiviusbearswitnesswhenhesays,“MostmischievousatthistimetoourmilitarydisciplinewasCapua;forministeringtoalldelights,sheturnedawaythecorruptedmindsofoursoldiersfromtheremembranceoftheircountry.”And,truly,citiesandprovinceslikethis,avengethemselvesontheirconquerorswithoutbloodorblow;sincebyinfectingthemwiththeirownevilcustomstheypreparethemfordefeatatthehandsofanyassailant.NorcouldthesubjecthavebeenbetterhandledthanbyJuvenal,wherehesaysinhisSatires,thatintotheheartsoftheRomans,throughtheirconquestsinforeignlands,foreignmannersfoundtheirway;andinplaceoffrugalityandotheradmirablevirtues—

“Cameluxurymoremortalthanthesword,Andsettlingdown,avengedavanquishedworld.”[8]

AndiftheirconquestswereliketobefataltotheRomansatatimewhentheywerestillanimatedbygreatvirtueandprudence,howmustitfarewiththosewhofollowmethodsaltogetherdifferentfromtheirs,andwho,tocrowntheirothererrorsofwhichwehavealreadysaidenough,resorttoauxiliaryandmercenaryarms,bringinguponthemselvesthosedangerswhereofmentionshallbemadeintheChapterfollowing.

[8]SæviorarmisLuxuriaoccubuitvictumqueulcisciturorbem._Juv.Sat.vi.292.

CHAPTERXX

OftheDangersIncurredbyPrincesorRepublicsWhoResorttoAuxiliaryorMercenaryArms

HadInotalready,inanothertreatise,enlargedontheinutilityofmercenaryandauxiliary,andontheusefulnessofnationalarms,IshoulddwellonthesemattersinthepresentDiscoursemoreatlengththanitismydesigntodo.Forhavinggiventhesubjectveryfullconsiderationelsewhere,hereIwouldbebrief.StillwhenIfindTitusLiviussupplyingacompleteexampleofwhatwehavetolookforfromauxiliaries,bywhomImeantroopssenttoourassistancebysomeotherprinceorruler,paidbyhimandunderofficersbyhimappointed,itisnotfitthatIshouldpassitbyinsilence.

Itisrelated,then,byourhistorian,thattheRomans,afterdefeatingontwodifferentoccasionsarmiesoftheSamniteswithforcessentbythemtosuccourtheCapuans,whomtheythusrelievedfromthewarwhichtheSamnitesWerewagingagainstthem,beingdesirioustoreturntoRome,leftbehindtwolegionstodefendtheCapuans,thatthelattermightnot,frombeingaltogetherdeprivedoftheirprotection,oncemorebecomeapreytotheSamnites.Butthesetwolegions,rottinginidlenessbegantotakesuchdelighttherein,thatforgetfuloftheircountryandthereverenceduetothesenate,theyresolvedtoseizebyviolencethecitytheyhadbeenlefttoguardbytheirvalour.FortothemitseemedthatthecitizensofCapuawereunworthytoenjoyadvantageswhichtheyknewnothowtodefend.TheRomans,however,gettingtimelynoticeofthisdesign,atoncemetanddefeatedit,inthemannertobemorefullynoticedwhenIcometotreatofconspiracies.

Oncemorethen,Irepeat,thatofallthevariouskindsoftroops,auxiliariesarethemostpernicious,becausetheprinceorrepublicresortingtothemforaidhasnoauthorityoverthem,theonlypersonwhopossessessuchauthoritybeinghewhosendsthem.For,asIhavesaid,auxiliarytroopsarethosesenttoyourassistancebysomeotherpotentate,underhisownflag,underhisownofficers,andinhisownpay,aswerethelegionssentbytheRomanstoCapua.Suchtroops,ifvictorious,willforthemostpartplunderhimbywhom,aswellashimagainstwhom,theyarehiredtofight;andthistheydo,sometimesattheinstigationofthepotentatewhosendsthem,sometimesforambitiousendsoftheirown.ItwasnotthepurposeoftheRomanstoviolatetheleagueandtreatywhichtheyhadmadewithCapua;buttotheirsoldiersitseemedsoeasyamattertomastertheCapuans,thattheywerereadilyledintothisplotfordeprivingthemoftheirtownandterritories.Manyotherexamplesmightbegiventothesameeffect,butitisenoughtomentionbesidesthisinstance,thatofthepeopleofRegium,whoweredeprivedoftheircityandoftheirlivesbyanotherRomanlegionsentfortheirprotection.

Princesandrepublics,therefore,shouldresorttoanyotherexpedientforthedefenceoftheirStatessoonerthancallinhiredauxiliaries,whentheyhavetoresttheirentirehopesofsafetyonthem;sinceanyaccordorterms,howeverhard,whichyoumaymakewithyourenemy,willbecarefullystudiedandcurrenteventswellconsidered,itwillbeseenthatforonewhohassucceededwithsuchassistance,hundredshavebeenbetrayed.Nor,intruth,cananybetteropportunityforusurpingacityorprovincepresentitselftoan

ambitiousprinceorcommonwealth,thantobeaskedtosendanarmyforitsdefence.Ontheotherhand,hewhoissogreedyofconquestastosummonsuchhelp,notforpurposesofdefencebutinordertoattackothers,seekstohavewhathecanneverholdandismostlikelytobetakenfromhimbytheverypersonwhohelpshimtogainit.Yetsuchistheperversityofmenthat,togratifythedesireofthemoment,theyshuttheireyestothoseillswhichmustspeedilyensueandarenomoremovedbyexampleinthismatterthaninallthoseothersofwhichIhavespoken;forweretheymovedbytheseexamplestheywouldseethatthemoredisposedtheyaretodealgenerouslywiththeirneighbours,andthemoreaversetheyaretousurpauthorityoverthem,thereadierwillthesebetothrowthemselvesintotheirarms;aswillatonceappearfromthecaseoftheCapuans.

CHAPTERXXI

ThatCapuaWastheFirstCitytoWhichtheRomansSentaPrætor;NorThere,UntilFourHundredYearsAfterTheyBegantoMakeWar.

ThegreatdifferencebetweenthemethodsfollowedbytheancientRomansinaddingtotheirdominions,andthoseusedforthatpurposebytheStatesofthepresenttime,hasnowbeensufficientlydiscussed.Ithasbeenseen,toohowindealingwiththecitieswhichtheydidnotthinkfittodestroy,andevenwiththosewhichhadmadetheirsubmissionnotascompanionsbutassubjects,itwascustomarywiththeRomanstopermitthemtoliveonundertheirownlaws,withoutimposinganyoutwardsignofdependence,merelybindingthemtocertainconditions,orcomplyingwithwhichtheyweremaintainedintheirformerdignityandimportance.Weknow,further,thatthesamemethodscontinuedtobefollowedbytheRomansuntiltheypassedbeyondtheconfinesofItaly,andbegantoreduceforeignkingdomsandStatestoprovinces:asplainlyappearsinthefactthatCapuawasthefirstcitytowhichtheysentaprætor,andhimfromnomotiveofambition,butattherequestoftheCapuansthemselveswho,livingatvariancewithoneanother,thoughtitnecessarytohaveaRomancitizenintheirtownwhomightrestoreunityandgoodorderamongthem.Influencedbythisexample,andurgedbythesameneed,thepeopleofAntiumwerethenexttoaskthattheytoomighthaveaprætorgiventhem;touchingwhichrequestandinconnectionwithwhichnewmethodofgoverning,TitusLiviusobserves,“thatnotthearmsonlybutalsothelawsofRomenowbegantoexertaninfluence;”showinghowmuchthecoursethusfollowedbytheRomanspromotedthegrowthoftheirauthority.

Forthosecities,moreespecially,whichhavebeenusedtofreedomortobegovernedbytheirowncitizens,restfarbettersatisfiedwithagovernmentwhichtheydonotsee,eventhoughitinvolvesomethingofoppression,thanwithonewhichstandingconstantlybeforetheireyes,seemseverydaytoreproachthemwiththedisgraceofservitude.Andtotheprincethereisanotheradvantageinthismethodofgovernment,namely,thatasthejudgesandmagistrateswhoadministerthelawscivilandcriminalwithinthesecities,arenotunderhiscontrol,nodecisionoftheirscanthrowresponsibilityordiscredituponhim;sothathethusescapesmanyoccasionsofcalumnyandhatred.Ofthetruthwhereof,besidestheancientinstanceswhichmightbenoted,wehavearecentexamplehereinItaly.ForGenoa,aseveryoneknows,hasmanytimesbeenoccupiedbytheFrenchking,whoalways,untillately,sentthitheraFrenchgovernortoruleinhisname.Recently,however,notfromchoicebutofnecessity,hehaspermittedthetowntobeself–governedunderaGenoeseruler;andanyonewhohadtodecidewhichofthesetwomethodsofgoverninggivesthegreatersecuritytotheking’sauthorityandthegreatercontenttothepeoplethemselves,wouldassuredlyhavetopronounceinfavourofthelatter.

Men,moreover,inproportionastheyseeyouaversetousurpauthorityoverthem,growthereadiertosurrenderthemselvesintoyourhands;andfearyoulessonthescoreoftheirfreedom,whentheyfindyouactingtowardsthemwithconsiderationandkindness.ItwasthedisplayofthesequalitiesthatmovedtheCapuanstoasktheRomansforaprætor;forhadtheRomansbetrayedtheleasteagernesstosendthemone,theywouldatoncehave

conceivedjealousyandgrownestranged.

ButwhyturnforexamplestoCapuaandRome,whenwehavethemcloseathandinTuscanyandFlorence?WhoistherebutknowswhatatimeitissincethecityofPistojasubmittedofherownaccordtotheFlorentinesupremacy?Who,again,butknowstheanimositywhichdowntothepresentdayexistsbetweenFlorenceandthecitiesofPisa,Lucca,andSiena?ThisdifferenceoffeelingdoesnotarisefromthecitizensofPistojavaluingtheirfreedomlessthanthecitizensoftheseothertownsorthinkingthemselvesinferiortothem,butfromtheFlorentineshavingalwaysactedtowardstheformerasbrothers,towardsthelatterasfoes.ThisitwasthatledthePistojanstocomevoluntarilyunderourauthoritywhiletheothershavedoneanddoallintheirpowertoescapeit.Forthereseemsnoreasontodoubt,thatifFlorence,insteadofexasperatingtheseneighboursofhers,hadsoughttowinthemover,eitherbyenteringintoleaguewiththemorbylendingthemassistance,shewouldatthishourhavebeenmistressofTuscany.NotthatIwouldbeunderstoodtomaintainthatrecourseisnevertobehadtoforceandtoarms,butthattheseareonlytobeusedinthelastresort,andwhenallotherremediesareunavailing.

CHAPTERXXII

ThatinMattersofMomentMenOftenJudgeAmiss.

Howfalselymenoftenjudgeofthings,theywhoarepresentattheirdeliberationshaveconstantoccasiontoknow.Forinmanymatters,unlessthesedeliberationsbeguidedbymenofgreatparts,theconclusionscometoarecertaintobewrong.Andbecauseincorruptrepublics,andespeciallyinquiettimes,eitherthroughjealousyorfromotherlikecauses,menofgreatabilityareoftenobligedtostandaloof,itfollowsthatmeasuresnotgoodinthemselvesarebyacommonerrorjudgedtobegood,orarepromotedbythosewhoseekpublicfavourratherthanthepublicadvantage.Mistakesofthissortarefoundoutafterwardsinseasonsofadversity,whenrecoursemustbehadtothosepersonswhoinpeacefultimeshadbeen,asitwere,forgotten,asshallhereafterinitsproperplacebemorefullyexplained.Cases,moreover,ariseinwhichthosewhohavelittleexperienceofaffairsaresuretobemisled,fromthematterswithwhichtheyhavetodealbeingattendedbymanydeceptiveappearancessuchasleadmentobelievewhatsoevertheyaremindedtobelieve.

TheseremarksImakewithreferencetothefalsehopeswhichtheLatins,afterbeingdefeatedbytheRomans,wereledtoformonthepersuasionoftheirprætorNumitius,andalsowithreferencetowhatwasbelievedbymanyafewyearsago,whenFrancis,kingofFrance,cametorecoverMilanfromtheSwiss.ForFrancisofAngoulême,succeedingonthedeathofLouisXII.tothethroneofFrance,anddesiringtorecoverforthatrealmtheDuchyofMilan,onwhich,someyearsbefore,theSwisshadseizedattheinstanceofPopeJulius,soughtforalliesinItalytosecondhiminhisattempt;andbesidestheVenetians,whohadalreadybeengainedoverbyKingLouis,endeavouredtosecuretheaidoftheFlorentinesandPopeLeoX.;thinkingthatwerehetosucceedingettingtheseotherstotakepartwithhim,hisenterprisewouldbeeasier.FortheforcesoftheSpanishkingweretheninLombardy,andthearmyoftheEmperoratVerona.

PopeLeo,however,didnotfallinwiththewishesofFrancis,being,itissaid,persuadedbyhisadvisersthathisbestcoursewastostandneutral.FortheyurgedthatitwasnotfortheadvantageoftheChurchtohavepowerfulstrangers,whetherFrenchorSwiss,inItaly;butthattorestorethecountrytoitsancientfreedom,itmustbedeliveredfromtheyokeofboth.Andsincetoconquerboth,whethersinglyortogether,wasimpossible,itwastobedesiredthattheoneshouldoverthrowtheother,afterwhichtheChurchwithherfriendsmightfalluponthevictor.Anditwasaverredthatnobetteropportunityforcarryingoutthisdesigncouldeverbefoundthanthenpresenteditself;forboththeFrenchandtheSwisswereinthefield;whilethePopehadhistroopsinreadinesstoappearontheLombardfrontierandinthevicinityofthetwoarmies,where,undercolourofwatchinghisowninterests,hecouldeasilykeepthemuntiltheopposedhostscametoanengagement;when,asbotharmieswerefullofcourage,theirencountermightbeexpectedtobeabloodyone,andlikelytoleavethevictorsoweakenedthatitwouldbeeasyforthePopetoattackanddefeathim;andso,tohisowngreatglory,remainmasterofLombardyandsupremethroughoutItaly.

Howbaselessthisexpectationwas,wasseenfromtheevent.FortheSwissbeingroutedafteraprotractedcombat,thetroopsofthePopeandSpain,sofarfromventuringtoattacktheconqueror,preparedforflight;norwouldflighthavesavedthem,hadnotthehumanityorindifferenceofthekingwithheldhimfrompursuinghisvictory,anddisposedhimtomaketermswiththeChurch.

TheargumentsputforwardbythePope’sadvisershadacertainshowofreasonintheirfavour,whichlookedatfromadistanceseemedplausibleenough;butwereinrealitywhollycontrarytotruth;sinceitrarelyhappensthatthecaptainwhowinsavictorylosesanygreatnumberofhismen,hislossbeinginbattleonly,andnotinflight.Forintheheatofbattle,whilemenstandfacetoface,butfewfall,chieflybecausesuchcombatsdonotlastlong;andevenwhentheydolast,andmanyofthevictoriousarmyareslain,sosplendidisthereputationwhichattendsavictory,andsogreattheterroritinspires,asfartooutweighanylossthevictorsuffersbytheslaughterofhissoldiers;sothatanenemywho,trustingtofindhimweakened,shouldthenventuretoattackhim,wouldsoonbetaughthismistake,unlessstrongenoughtogivehimbattleatanytime,beforehisvictoryaswellasafter.Forinthatcasehemight,asfortuneandvalourshoulddetermine,eitherwinorlose;though,eventhen,thearmywhichhadfirstfoughtandwonwouldhaveanadvantage.AndthisweknowforatruthfromwhatbefelltheLatinsinconsequenceofthemistakemadebyNumitiustheirprætor,andtheirblindnessinbelievinghim.ForwhentheyhadalreadysuffereddefeatatthehandsoftheRomans,NumitiuscausedittobeproclaimedthroughoutthewholecountryofLatium,thatnowwasthetimetofallupontheenemy,exhaustedbyastruggleinwhichtheywerevictoriousonlyinname,whileinrealitysufferingallthoseillswhichattenddefeat,andwhomighteasilybecrushedbyanyfreshforcebroughtagainstthem.WhereupontheLatinsbelievedhim,andgettingtogetheranewarmy,wereforthwithroutedwithsuchlossasalwaysawaitsthosewholistentolikecounsels.

CHAPTERXXIII

ThatinChastisingTheirSubjectsWhenCircumstancesRequiredIttheRomansAlwaysAvoidedHalf-measures.

“SuchwasnowthestateofaffairsinLatium,thatpeaceandwarseemedalikeintolerable.”Noworsecalamitycanbefallaprinceorcommonwealththantobereducedtosuchstraitsthattheycanneitheracceptpeacenorsupportwar;asisthecasewiththosewhomitwouldruintoconcludepeaceonthetermsoffered,whilewarobligesthemeithertoyieldthemselvesaspoiltotheirallies,orremainapreytotheirfoes.Tothisgrievousalternativearemenledbyevilcounselsandunwisecourses,and,asalreadysaid,fromnotrightlymeasuringtheirstrength.Forthecommonwealthorprincewhohasrightlymeasuredhisstrength,canhardlybebroughtsolowasweretheLatins,whomadewarwiththeRomanswhentheyshouldhavemadeterms,andmadetermswhentheyshouldhavemadewar,andsomismanagedeverythingthatthefriendshipandtheenmityofRomewerealikefatal.Whenceitcamethat,inthefirstplace,theyweredefeatedandbrokenbyManliusTorquatus,andafterwardsutterlysubduedbyCamillus;who,whenhehadforcedthemtosurrenderatdiscretiontotheRomanarms,andhadplacedgarrisonsinalltheirtowns,andtakenhostagesfromall,returnedtoRomeandreportedtothesenatethatthewholeofLatiumnowlayattheirmercy.

Andbecausethesentencethenpassedbythesenateismemorable,andworthytobestudiedbyprincesthatitmaybeimitatedbythemonlikeoccasion,IshallcitetheexactwordswhichLiviusputsintothemouthofCamillus,asconfirmingwhatIhavealreadysaidtouchingthemethodsusedbytheRomanstoextendtheirpower,andasshowinghowinchastisingtheirsubjectstheyalwaysavoidedhalf–measuresandtookadecidedcourse.Forgovernmentconsistsinnothingelsethaninsocontrollingyoursubjectsthatitshallneitherbeintheirpowernorfortheirinteresttoharmyou.Andthisiseffectedeitherbymakingsuchsureworkwiththemasputsitoutoftheirpowertodoyouinjury,orelsebysoloadingthemwithbenefitsthatitwouldbefollyinthemtoseektoaltertheircondition.AllwhichisimpliedfirstinthemeasuresproposedbyCamillus,andnextintheresolutionspassedontheseproposalsbythesenate.ThewordsofCamilluswereasfollows:“Theimmortalgodshavemadeyousoentirelymastersinthematteryouarenowconsidering,thatitlieswithyoutopronouncewhetherLatiumshallorshallnotlongerexist.SofarastheLatinsareconcerned,youcansecurealastingpeaceeitherbyclemencyorbyseverity.Wouldyoudealharshlywiththosewhomyouhaveconqueredandwhohavegiventhemselvesintoyourhands,youcanblotoutthewholeLatinnation.Wouldyou,afterthefashionofourancestors,increasethestrengthofRomebyadmittingthevanquishedtotherightsofcitizenship,hereyouhaveopportunitytodoso,andwiththegreatestglorytoyourselves.That,assuredly,isthestrongestgovernmentwhichtheyrejoiceinwhoobeyit.Now,then,isyourtime,whilethemindsofallarebentonwhatisabouttohappen,toobtainanascendencyoverthem,eitherbypunishmentorbybenefits.”

Uponthismotionthesenateresolved,inaccordancewiththeadvicegivenbytheconsul,totakethecaseofeachcityseparately,andeitherdestroyutterlyorelsetreatwith

tendernessallthemoreimportantoftheLatintowns.Tothosecitiestheydealtwithleniently,theygrantedexemptionsandprivileges,conferringuponthemtherightsofcitizenship,andsecuringtheirwelfareineveryparticular.Theotherstheyrazedtotheground,andplantingcoloniesintheirroom,eitherremovedtheinhabitantstoRome,orsoscatteredanddispersedthemthatneitherbyarmsnorbycounselswasiteveragainintheirpowertoinflicthurt.For,asIhavesaidalready,theRomansnever,inmattersofmoment,resortedtohalf–measures.Andthesentencewhichtheythenpronouncedshouldbeapatternforallrulers,andoughttohavebeenfollowedbytheFlorentineswhen,intheyear1502,ArezzoandalltheValdiChianaroseinrevolt.Forhadtheyfollowedit,theywouldhaveestablishedtheirauthorityonasurerfooting,andaddedmuchtothegreatnessoftheircitybysecuringforitthoselandswhichareneededtosupplyitwiththenecessariesoflife.Butpursuingthathalf–heartedpolicywhichismostmischievousinexecutingjustice,someoftheAretinestheyoutlawed,sometheycondemnedtodeath,andalltheydeprivedoftheirdignitiesandancientimportanceintheirtown,whileleavingthetownitselfuntouched.AndifinthecouncilsthenheldanyFlorentinerecommendedthatArezzoshouldbedismantled,theywhothoughtthemselveswiserthantheirfellowsobjected,thattodosowouldbelittletothehonourofourrepublic,sinceitwouldlookasthoughshelackedstrengthtoholdit.Reasonslikethisareofasortwhichseemsound,butarenotreallyso;for,bythesamerule,noparricideshouldbeputtodeath,noranyothermalefactor,howeveratrocioushiscrimes;because,forsooth,itwouldbediscreditabletotherulertoappearunequaltothecontrolofasinglecriminal.Theywhoholdsuchopinionsfailtoseethatwhenmenindividually,orentirecitiescollectively,offendagainsttheState,theprinceforhisownsafety,andasawarningtoothers,hasnoalternativebuttomakeanendofthem;andthattruehonourliesinbeingableandinknowinghowtochastisesuchoffenders,andnotinincurringendlessdangersintheefforttoretainthem.Fortheprincewhodoesnotchastiseoffendersinawaythatputsitoutoftheirpowertooffendagain,isaccountedunwiseorworthless.

HownecessaryitwasfortheRomanstoexecuteJusticeagainsttheLatins,isfurtherseenfromthecoursetookwiththemenofPrivernum.AndherethetextofLiviussuggeststwopointsforourattention:first,asalreadynoted,thatasubjugatedpeopleiseithertobecaressedorcrushed;andsecond,howmuchitisforouradvantagetomaintainamanlybearing,andtospeakthetruthfearlesslyinthepresenceofthewise.ForthesenatebeingmettodeterminethefateofthecitizensofPrivernum,whoafterrebellinghadbeenreducedtosubmissionbytheRomanarms,certainofthesecitizensweresentbytheircountrymentopleadforpardon.Whenthesehadcomeintothepresenceofthesenate,oneofthemwasaskedbyasenator,“Whatpunishmenthethoughthisfellowcitizensdeserved?”TowhichheofPrivernumanswered,“Suchpunishmentastheydeservewhodeemthemselvesworthyoffreedom.”“But,”saidtheconsul,“shouldweremityourpunishment,whatsortofpeacecanwehopetohavewithyou?”Towhichtheotherreplied,“Ifgrantedonfairterms,afirmandlastingpeace;ifonunfair,apeaceofbriefduration.”Uponthis,thoughmanyofthesenatorsweredispleased,thewiseramongthemdeclared“thattheyhadheardthevoiceoffreedomandmanhood,andwouldneverbelievethatthemanorpeoplewhosospokeoughttoremainlongerthanwasneedfulinapositionwhichgavethemcauseforshame;sincethatwasasafepeacewhichwasacceptedwillingly;whereasgoodfaithcouldnotbelookedforwhereitwassoughttoimposeservitude.”Sosaying,theydecidedthatthepeopleofPrivernumshouldbe

admittedtoRomancitizenship,withalltherightsandprivilegestheretoappertaining;declaringthat“menwhoseonlythoughtwasforfreedom,wereindeedworthytobeRomans.”Sopleasingwasthistrueandhighanswertogenerousminds,whileanyothermusthaveseemedatoncefalseandshameful.Andtheywhojudgeotherwiseofmen,andofthosemen,especially,whohavebeenusedtobefree,orsotothinkthemselves,aremistaken;andareledthroughtheirmistaketoadoptcoursesunprofitableforthemselvesandaffordingnocontenttoothers.Whence,thefrequentrebellionsandthedownfallofStates.

But,returningtooursubject,Iconclude,aswellfromthisinstanceofPrivernum,asfromthemeasuresfollowedwiththeLatins,thatwhenwehavetopasssentenceuponpowerfulStatesaccustomedtoliveinfreedom,wemusteitherdestroythemutterly,orelsetreatthemwithmuchindulgence;andthatanyothercoursewemaytakewiththemwillbeunprofitable.Butmostcarefullyshouldweavoid,asofallcoursesthemostpernicious,suchhalf–measuresaswerefollowedbytheSamniteswhentheyhadtheRomansshutupintheCaudineForks,andwouldnotlistentothecounselsoftheoldmanwhourgedthemeithertosendtheircaptivesawaywitheveryhonourableattention,orelseputthemalltodeath;butadoptedamiddlecourse,andafterdisarmingthemandmakingthempassundertheyoke,sufferedthemtodepartatoncedisgracedandangered.Andnolongtimeafter,theyfoundtotheirsorrowthattheoldman’swarningwastrue,andthatthecoursetheyhadthemselveschosenwascalamitous;asshall,hereafter,initsplacebeshown.

CHAPTERXXIV

That,Commonly,FortressesDoMuchMoreHarmThanGood

TothewisemenofourdayitmayseemanoversightonthepartoftheRomans,that,whentheysoughttoprotectthemselvesagainstthemenofLatiumandPrivernum,itneveroccurredtothemtobuildstrongholdsintheircitiestobeacurbuponthem,andinsuretheirfidelity,especiallywhenweremembertheFlorentinesayingwhichthesesamewisemenoftenquote,totheeffectthatPisaandotherlikecitiesmustbeheldbyfortressesDoubtless,hadthoseoldRomansbeenlike–mindedwithourmodernsages,theywouldnothaveneglectedtobuildthemselvesfortresses,butbecausetheyfarsurpassedthemincourage,sense,andvigour,theyrefrained.AndwhileRomeretainedherfreedom,andadheredtoherownwiseordinancesandwholesomeusages,sheneverbuiltasinglefortresswiththeviewtoholdanycityorprovince,though,sometimes,shemayhavesufferedthosetostandwhichshefoundalreadybuilt.

Looking,therefore,tothecoursefollowedbytheRomansinthisparticular,andtothatadoptedbyourmodernrulers,itseemspropertoconsiderwhetherornotitisadvisabletobuildfortresses,andwhethertheyaremorelikelytohelportohurthimwhobuildsthemInthefirstplace,then,wearetorememberthatfortressesarebuilteitherasadefenceagainstforeignfoesoragainstsubjectsIntheformercase,Ipronouncethemunnecessary,inthelattermischievous.Andtostatethereasonswhyinthelattercasetheyaremischievous,Isaythatwhenprincesorrepublicsareafraidoftheirsubjectsandinfearlesttheyrebel,thismustproceedfromknowingthattheirsubjectshatethem,whichhatredinitsturnresultsfromtheirownillconduct,andthatagainfromtheirthinkingthemselvesabletoruletheirsubjectsbymereforce,orfromtheirgoverningwithlittleprudence.Nowoneofthecauseswhichleadthemtosupposethattheycanrulebymereforce,isthisverycircumstanceoftheirpeoplehavingthesefortressesontheirbacksSothattheconductwhichbreedshatredisitselfmainlyoccasionedbytheseprincesorrepublicsbeingpossessedoffortresses,which,ifthisbetrue,arereallyfarmorehurtfulthanusefulFirst,because,ashasbeensaidalready,theyrenderarulerbolderandmoreviolentinhisbearingtowardshissubjects,and,next,becausetheydonotinrealityaffordhimthatsecuritywhichhebelievesthemtogiveForallthosemethodsofviolenceandcoercionwhichmaybeusedtokeepapeopleunder,resolvethemselvesintotwo;sinceeitherliketheRomansyoumustalwayshaveitinyourpowertobringastrongarmyintothefield,orelseyoumustdissipate,destroy,anddisunitethesubjectpeople,andsodivideandscatterthemthattheycanneveragaincombinetoinjureyouForshouldyoumerelystripthemoftheirwealth,spoliatisarmasupersunt,armsstillremaintothem,orifyoudeprivethemoftheirweapons,furorarmaministrat,ragewillsupplythem,ifyouputtheirchiefstodeathandcontinuetomaltreattherest,headswillrenewthemselveslikethoseHydra;while,ifyoubuildfortresses,thesemayserveintimeofpeacetomakeyoubolderinoutragingyoursubjects,butintimeofwartheywillprovewhollyuseless,sincetheywillbeattackedatoncebyfoesbothforeignanddomestic,whomtogetheritwillbeimpossibleforyoutoresist.Andifeverfortresseswereuselesstheyaresoatthepresentday,byreasonoftheinventionofartillery,againstthefuryofwhich,asIhaveshownalready,a

pettyfortresswhichaffordsnoroomforretreatbehindfreshworks,cannotbedefended.

Buttogodeeperintothematter,Isay,eitheryouareaprinceseekingbymeansofthesefortressestoholdthepeopleofyourcityincheck;oryouareaprince,oritmaybearepublic,desiroustocontrolsomecitywhichyouhavegainedinwar.TotheprinceIwouldsay,that,forthereasonsalreadygiven,nothingcanbemoreunserviceablethanafortressasarestraintuponyoursubjects,sinceitonlymakesyouthereadiertooppressthem,andlessscrupuloushowyoudoso;whileitisthisveryoppressionwhichmovesthemtodestroyyou,andsokindlestheirhatred,thatthefortress,whichisthecauseofallthemischief,ispowerlesstoprotectyou.Awiseandgoodprince,therefore,thathemaycontinuegood,andgivenooccasionorencouragementtohisdescendantstobecomeevil,willneverbuildafortress,totheendthatneitherhenortheymayeverbeledtotrusttoitratherthantothegood–willoftheirsubjects.AndifFrancescoSforza,whowasaccountedawiseruler,onbecomingDukeofMilanerectedafortressinthatcity,Isaythathereinhewasunwise,andthattheeventhasshownthebuildingofthisfortresstohavebeenhurtfulandnothelpfultohisheirs.Forthinkingthatbyitsaidtheycouldbehaveasbadlyastheylikedtotheircitizensandsubjects,andyetbesecure,theyrefrainedfromnosortofviolenceoroppression,until,becomingbeyondmeasureodious,theylosttheirStateassoonasanenemyattackedit.Norwasthisfortress,whichinpeacehadoccasionedthemmuchhurt,anydefenceorofanyservicetheminwar.Forhadtheybeingwithoutit,throughthoughtlessness,treatedtheirsubjectsinhumanely,theymustsoonhavediscoveredandwithdrawnfromtheirdanger;andmight,thereafter,withnootherhelpthanthatofattachedsubjects,havewithstoodtheattacksoftheFrenchfarmoresuccessfullythantheycouldwiththeirfortress,butwithsubjectswhomtheyhadestranged.

And,intruth,fortressesareunserviceableineveryway,sincetheymaybelosteitherbythetreacheryofthosetowhomyoucommittheirdefence,orbytheoverwhelmingstrengthofanassailant,orelsebyfamine.AndwhereyouseektorecoveraStatewhichyouhavelost,andinwhichonlythefortressremainstoyou,ifthatfortressistobeofanyserviceorassistancetoyou,youmusthaveanarmywherewithtoattacktheenemywhohasdrivenyouout.ButwithsuchanarmyyoumightsucceedinrecoveringyourStateasreadilywithoutafortressaswithone;nay,perhaps,evenmorereadily,sinceyoursubjects,hadyounotusedthemill,fromtheoverweeningconfidenceyourfortressgaveyou,mightthenhavefeltbetterdisposedtowardsyou.AndtheeventshowsthatintimesofadversitythisveryfortressofMilanhasbeenofnoadvantagewhatever,eithertotheSforzasortotheFrench;but,onthecontrary,hasbroughtruinonboth,because,trustingtoit,theydidnotturntheirthoughtstonoblermethodsforpreservingthatState.GuidoUbaldo,dukeofUrbinoandsontoDukeFederigo,whoinhisdaywasawarriorofmuchrenown,butwhowasdrivenfromhisdominionsbyCesareBorgia,sontoPopeAlexanderVI.,whenafterwards,byasuddenstrokeofgoodfortune,hewasrestoredtothedukedomcausedallthefortressesofthecountrytobedismantled,judgingthemtobehurtful.Forashewasbelovedbyhissubjects,sofarastheywereconcernedhehadnoneedforfortresses;while,asagainstforeignenemies,hesawhecouldnotdefendthem,sincethiswouldhaverequiredanarmykeptconstantlyinthefield.Forwhichreasonshemadethemberazedtotheground.

WhenPopeJuliusII.haddriventheBentivoglifromBologna,aftererectingacitadelin

thattown,hecausedthepeopletobecruellyoppressedbyhisgovernor;whereupon,thepeoplerebelled,andheforthwithlostthecitadel;sothathiscitadel,andtheoppressionstowhichitled,wereoflessservicetohimthandifferentbehaviouronhisparthadbeen.WhenNiccolodaCastello,theancestoroftheVitelli,returnedtohiscountryoutofexile,hestraightwaypulleddownthetwofortressesbuilttherebyPopeSixtusIV.,perceivingthatitwasnotbyfortresses,butbythegood–willofthepeople,thathecouldbemaintainedinhisgovernment.

Butthemostrecent,andinallrespectsmostnoteworthyinstance,andthatwhichbestdemonstratesthefutilityofbuilding,andtheadvantageofdestroyingfortresses,iswhathappenedonlytheotherdayinGenoa.Everyoneknowshow,in1507,GenoaroseinrebellionagainstLouisXII.ofFrance,whocameinpersonandwithallhisforcestorecoverit;andafterrecoveringitbuiltthereacitadelstrongerthananybeforeknown,being,bothfromitspositionandfromeveryothercircumstance,mostinaccessibletoattack.Forstandingontheextremityofahill,namedbytheGenoeseCodefa,whichjutsoutintothesea,itcommandedthewholeharbourandthegreaterpartofthetown.But,afterwards,intheyear1512,whentheFrenchweredrivenoutofItaly,theGenoese,inspiteofthiscitadel,againrebelled,andOttavianoFregosoassumingthegovernment,afterthegreatestefforts,continuedoveraperiodofsixteenmonths,atlastsucceededinreducingthecitadelbyfamine.Byallitwasbelievedthathewouldretainitasarockofrefugeincaseofanyreverseoffortune,andbysomehewasadvisedtodoso;buthe,beingatrulywiseruler,andknowingwellthatitisbytheattachmentoftheirsubjectsandnotbythestrengthoftheirfortificationsthatprincesaremaintainedintheirgovernments,dismantledthiscitadel;andfoundinghisauthority,notuponmaterialdefences,butonhisownvalourandprudence,keptandstillkeepsit.Andwhereas,formerly,aforceofathousandfoot–soldierscouldeffectachangeinthegovernmentofGenoa,theenemiesofOttavianohaveassailedhimwithtenthousand,withoutbeingabletoharmhim.

Here,then,weseethat,whiletodismantlethisfortressoccasionedOttavianonoloss,itsconstructiongavetheFrenchkingnosortofadvantage.ForwhenhecouldcomeintoItalywithanarmy,hecouldrecoverGenoa,thoughhehadnocitadelthere;butwhenhecouldnotcomewithanarmy,itwasnotinhispowertoholdthecitybymeansofthecitadel.Moreoveritwascostlyforthekingtobuild,andshamefulforhimtolosethisfortress;whileforOttavianoitwasglorioustotake,andadvantageoustodestroyit.

Letusturnnowtothoserepublicswhichbuildfortressesnotwithintheirownterritories,butintownswhereoftheyhavetakenpossession.AndiftheaboveexampleofFranceandGenoasufficenottoshowthefutilityofthiscourse,thatofFlorenceandPisaought,Ithink,tobeconclusive.ForinerectingfortressestoholdPisa,theFlorentinesfailedtoperceivethatacitywhichhadalwaysbeenopenlyhostiletothem,whichhadlivedinfreedom,andwhichcouldcloakrebellionunderthenameofliberty,must,ifitweretoberetainedatall,beretainedbythosemethodswhichwereusedbytheRomans,andeitherbemadeacompanionorbedestroyed.OfhowlittleservicethesePisanfortresseswere,wasseenonthecomingofCharlesVIII.ofFranceintoItaly,towhom,whetherthroughthetreacheryoftheirdefendersorfromfearofworseevils,theywereatoncedeliveredup;whereas,hadtherebeennofortressesinPisa,theFlorentineswouldnothavelookedtothemasthemeanswherebythetownwastobeheld;thekingcouldnotbytheirassistancehavetakenthetownfromtheFlorentines;andthemethodswherebyithadpreviouslybeen

preservedmight,inalllikelihood,havecontinuedsufficienttopreserveit;and,atanyrate,hadservedthatendnoworsethanthefortresses.

These,then,aretheconclusionstowhichIcome,namely,thatfortressesbuilttoholdyourowncountryunderarehurtful,andthatthosebuilttoretainacquiredterritoriesareuseless;andIamcontenttorelyontheexampleoftheRomans,whointhetownstheysoughttoholdbythestronghand,ratherpulleddownfortressesthanbuiltthem.Andifany,tocontroverttheseviewsofmine,weretocitethecaseofTarentuminancienttimes,orofBresciainrecent,astownswhichwhentheyrebelledwererecoveredbymeansoftheircitadels;Ianswer,thatfortherecoveryofTarentum,FabiusMaximuswassentattheendofayearwithanarmystrongenoughtoretakeitevenhadtherebeennofortressthere;andthatalthoughheavailedhimselfofthefortressfortherecoveryofthetown,hemight,withoutit,haveresortedtoothermeanswhichwouldhavebroughtaboutthesameresult.NordoIseeofwhatserviceacitadelcanbesaidtobe,whentorecoverthecityyoumustemployaconsulararmyunderaFabiusMaximus.ButthattheRomanswould,inanycase,haverecoveredTarentum,isplainfromwhathappenedatCapua,wheretherewasnocitadel,andwhichtheyretook,simplybythevalouroftheirsoldiers.

Again,asregardsBrescia,Isaythatthecircumstancesattendingtherevoltofthattownweresuchasoccurbutseldom,namely,thatthecitadelremaininginyourhandsafterthedefectionofthecity,youshouldhappentohaveagreatarmynighathand,astheFrenchhadtheirsonthisoccasion.ForM.deFoixbeingincommandoftheking’sforcesatBologna,onhearingofthelossofBrescia,marchedthitherwithoutanhour’sdelay,andreachingBresciainthreedays,retookthetownwiththehelpofthecitadel.Buthere,again,weseethat,tobeofanyservice,thecitadelofBresciahadtobesuccouredbyadeFoix,andbythatFrencharmywhichinthreedays’timemarchedtoitsrelief.Sothatthisinstancecannotbeconsideredconclusiveasagainstothersofacontrarytendency.For,inthecourseofrecentwars,manyfortresseshavebeentakenandretaken,withthesamevarietyoffortunewithwhichopencountryhasbeenacquiredorlost;andthisnotonlyinLombardy,butalsoinRomagna,inthekingdomofNaples,andinallpartsofItaly.

And,further,touchingtheerectionoffortressesasadefenceagainstforeignenemies,Isaythatsuchdefencesarenotneededbytheprinceorpeoplewhopossessagoodarmy;whileforthosewhodonotpossessagoodarmy,theyareuseless.Forgoodarmieswithoutfortressesareinthemselvesasufficientdefence:whereas,fortresseswithoutgoodarmiesavailnothing.Andthisweseeinthecaseofthosenationswhichhavebeenthoughttoexcelbothintheirgovernmentandotherwise,as,forinstance,theRomansandtheSpartans.ForwhiletheRomanswouldbuildnofortresses,theSpartansnotmerelyabstainedfrombuildingthem,butwouldnotevensuffertheircitiestobeenclosedwithwalls;desiringtobeprotectedbytheirownvalouronly,andbynootherdefence.SothatwhenaSpartanwasaskedbyanAthenianwhathethoughtofthewallsofAthens,heanswered“thattheywerefinewallsifmeanttoholdwomenonly.”

Ifaprincewhohasagoodarmyhaslikewise,onthesea–frontofhisdominions,somefortressstrongenoughtokeepanenemyincheckforafewdays,untilhegetshisforcestogether,this,thoughnotnecessary,maysometimesbeforhisadvantage.Butforaprincewhoiswithoutastrongarmytohavefortresseserectedthroughouthisterritories,oruponhisfrontier,iseitheruselessorhurtful,sincetheymayreadilybelostandthenturned

againsthim;or,supposingthemsostrongthattheenemyisunabletotakethembyassault,hemayleavethembehind,andsorenderthemwhollyunprofitable.Forabravearmy,unlessstoutlymet,entersanenemy’scountrywithoutregardtothetownsorfortifiedplacesitleavesinitsrear,aswereadofhappeninginancienttimes,andhaveseendonebyFrancescoMariadellaRovere,whonolongwhileago,whenhemarchedagainstUrbino,madelittleofleavingtenhostilecitiesbehindhim.

Theprince,therefore,whocanbringtogetherastrongarmycandowithoutbuildingfortresses,whilehewhohasnotastrongarmyoughtnottobuildthem,butshouldcarefullystrengthenthecitywhereinhedwells,andkeepitwellstoredwithsupplies,anditsinhabitantswellaffected,sothathemayresistattacktillanaccordbeagreedon,orheberelievedbyforeignaid.Allotherexpedientsarecostlyintimeofpeace,andinwaruseless.

Whoevercarefullyweighsallthathasnowbeensaidwillperceive,thattheRomans,astheyweremostprudentinalltheirothermethods,soalsoshowedtheirwisdominthemeasurestheytookwiththemenofLatiumandPrivernum,when,withouteverthinkingoffortresses,theysoughtsecurityinbolderandmoresagaciouscourses.

CHAPTERXXV

ThatHeWhoAttacksaCityDividedAgainstItself,MustNotThinktoGetPossessionofItThroughItsDivisions.

ViolentdissensionsbreakingoutinRomebetweenthecommonsandthenobles,itappearedtotheVeientinesandEtruscansthatnowwastheirtimetodealafatalblowtotheRomansupremacy.Accordingly,theyassembledanarmyandinvadedtheterritoriesofRome.ThesenatesentCaiusManliusandMarcusFabiustomeetthem,whoseforcesencampingclosebytheVeientines,thelatterceasednottoreproachandvilifytheRomannamewitheverysortoftauntandabuse,andsoincensedtheRomansbytheirunmeasuredinsolencethat,frombeingdividedtheybecamereconciled,andgivingtheenemybattle,brokeanddefeatedthem.Here,again,wesee,whathasalreadybeennoted,howpronemenaretoadoptwrongcourses,andhowoftentheymisstheirobjectwhentheythinktosecureit.TheVeientinesimaginedthattheycouldconquertheRomansbyattackingthemwhiletheywereatfeudamongthemselves;butthisveryattackreunitedtheRomansandbroughtruinontheirassailants.Forthecausesofdivisioninacommonwealthare,forthemostpart,easeandtranquillity,whilethecausesofunionarefearandwar.Wherefore,hadtheVeientinesbeenwise,themoredividedtheysawRometobe,themoreshouldtheyhavesoughttoavoidwarwithher,andendeavouredtogainanadvantageoverherbypeacefularts.Andthebestwaytoeffectthisinadividedcityliesingainingtheconfidenceofbothfactions,andinmediatingbetweenthemasarbitersolongastheydonotcometoblows;butwhentheyresorttoopenviolence,thentorendersometardyaidtotheweakerside,soastoplungethemdeeperinhostilities,whereinbothmayexhausttheirforceswithoutbeingledbyyourputtingforthanexcessofstrengthtosuspectyouofadesiretoruinthemandremaintheirmaster.Wherethisiswellmanaged,itwillalmostalwayshappenthatyousucceedineffectingtheobjectyouproposetoyourself.

ThecityofPistoja,asIhavesaidalreadyinconnectionwithanothermatter,waswonovertotheFlorentinerepublicbynootherartificethanthis.Forthetownbeingsplitbyfactions,theFlorentines,bynowfavouringonesideandnowtheother,withoutincurringthesuspicionsofeither,broughtbothtosuchextremitiesthat,weariedoutwiththeirharassedlife,theythrewthemselvesatlastoftheirownaccordintothearmsofFlorence.ThecityofSiena,again,hasnevermadeanychangeinhergovernmentwhichhashadthesupportoftheFlorentines,savewhenthatsupporthasbeenslightandinsignificant;forwhenevertheinterferenceofFlorencehasbeenmarkedanddecided,ithashadtheeffectofunitingallpartiesinsupportofthingsastheystood.

OneotherinstanceIshalladdtothosealreadygiven.OftenerthanonceFilippoVisconti,dukeofMilan,relyingontheirdivisions,setwarsonfootagainsttheFlorentines,andalwayswithoutsuccess;sothat,inlamentingoverthesefailures,hewaswonttocomplainthatthemadhumoursoftheFlorentineshadcosthimtwomillionsofgold,withouthishavinganythingtoshowforit.TheVeientinesandEtruscans,therefore,asIhavesaidalready,weremisledbyfalsehopes,andintheendwereroutedbytheRomansinasinglepitchedbattle;andanywhoshouldlookhereaftertoprevailonlikegroundsandbysimilar

meansagainstadividedpeople,willalwaysfindthemselvesdeceived.

CHAPTERXXVI

ThatTauntsandAbuseBreedHatredAgainstHimWhoUsesThem,WithoutYieldingHimAnyAdvantage.

Toabstainfromthreatsandinjuriouslanguage,is,methinks,oneofthewisestprecautionsamancanuse.Forabuseandmenacetakenothingfromthestrengthofanadversary;thelatteronlymakinghimmorecautious,whiletheformerinflameshishatredagainstyou,andleadshimtoconsidermorediligentlyhowhemaycauseyouhurt.

ThisisseenfromtheexampleoftheVeientines,ofwhomIspokeinthelastChapter,who,totheinjuryofwaragainsttheRomans,addedthoseverbalinjuriesfromwhichallprudentcommandersshouldcompeltheirsoldierstorefrain.Fortheseareinjurieswhichstirandkindleyourenemytovengeance,andyet,ashasbeensaid,innowaydisablehimfromdoingyouhurt;sothat,intruth,theyareweaponswhichwoundthosewhousethem.OfthiswefindanotableinstanceinAsia,inconnectionwiththesiegeofAmida.ForGabade,thePersiangeneral,afterbesiegingthistownforagreatwhile,weariedoutatlastbyitsprotracteddefence,determinedonwithdrawinghisarmy;andhadactuallybeguntostrikehiscamp,whenthewholeinhabitantsoftheplace,elatedbytheirsuccess,cameoutuponthewallstotauntandupbraidtheirenemieswiththeircowardiceandmeannessofspirit,andtoloadthemwitheverykindofabuse.Stungbytheseinsults,Gabade,changinghisresolution,renewedthesiegewithsuchfurythatinafewdayshestormedandsackedthetown.AndtheverysamethingbefelltheVeientines,who,notcontent,aswehaveseen,tomakewarontheRomanswitharms,mustneedsassailthemwithfoulreproaches,advancingtothepalisadeoftheircamptorevilethem,andmolestingthemmorewiththeirtonguesthanwiththeirswords,untiltheRomansoldiers,whoatfirstweremostunwillingtofight,forcedtheconsulstoleadthemtotheattack.Whereupon,theVeientines,likethoseothersofwhommentionhasjustnowbeenmade,hadtopaythepenaltyoftheirinsolence.

Wisecaptainsofarmies,therefore,andprudentgovernorsofcities,shouldtakeallfitprecautionstopreventsuchinsultsandreproachesfrombeingusedbytheirsoldiersandsubjects,eitheramongstthemselvesoragainstanenemy.Forwhendirectedagainstanenemytheyleadtothemischiefsabovenoticed,whilestillworseconsequencesmayfollowfromournotpreventingthemamongourselvesbysuchmeasuresassensiblerulershavealwaystakenforthatpurpose.

ThelegionswhowereleftbehindfortheprotectionofCapuahaving,asshallinitsplacebetold,conspiredagainsttheCapuans,theirconspiracyledtoamutiny,whichwaspresentlysuppressedbyValeriusCorvinus;when,asoneoftheconditionsonwhichthemutineersmadetheirsubmission,itwasdeclaredthatwhosoevershouldthereafterupbraidanysoldieroftheselegionswithhavingtakenpartinthismutiny,shouldbevisitedwiththeseverestpunishment.Solikewise,whenTiberiusGracchuswasappointed,duringthewarwithHannibal,tocommandabodyofslaves,whomtheRomansintheirstraitsforsoldiershadfurnishedwitharms,oneofhisfirstactswastopassanordermakingitdeathforanytoreproachhismenwiththeirservileorigin.Somischievousathingdidthe

Romansesteemittouseinsultingwordstoothers,ortotauntthemwiththeirshame.Whetherthisbedoneinsportorearnest,nothingvexesmenmore,orrousesthemtofiercerindignation;“forthebitingjestwhichflavourstoomuchoftruth,leavesalwaysbehinditaranklingmemory.”[9]

[9]Namfacetiæasperæ,quandonimiumexverotraxere,acremsuimemoriamrelinquunt.Tacit.An.xv.68.

CHAPTERXXVII

ThatPrudentPrincesandRepublicsShouldbeContenttoHaveObtainedaVictory;for,Commonly,WhenTheyAreNot,Theft-victoryTurnstoDefeat.

Theuseofdishonouringlanguagetowardsanenemyismostlycausedbyaninsolenthumour,bredbyvictoryorthefalsehopeofit,wherebymenareoftentimeslednotonlytospeak,butalsotoactamiss.Forsuchfalsehopes,whentheygainanentryintomen’sminds,causethemtooverruntheirgoal,andtomissopportunitiesforsecuringacertaingood,onthechanceofobtainingsomethingbetter,butuncertain.Andthis,beingamatterthatdeservesattention,becauseindeceivingthemselvesmenofteninjuretheircountry,Idesiretoillustrateitbyparticularinstances,ancientandrecent,sincemereargumentmightnotplaceitinsoclearalight.

AfterroutingtheRomansatCannæ,HannibalsentmessengerstoCarthagetoannouncehisvictory,andtoasksupport.AdebatearisingintheCarthaginiansenateastowhatwastobedone,Hanno,anagedandwisecitizen,advisedthattheyshouldprudentlytakeadvantageoftheirvictorytomakepeacewiththeRomans,whileasconquerorstheymighthaveitonfavourableterms,andnotwaittomakeitafteradefeat;sinceitshouldbetheirobjecttoshowtheRomansthattheywerestrongenoughtofightthem,butnottoperilthevictorytheyhadwoninthehopeofwinningagreater.ThisadvicewasnotfollowedbytheCarthaginiansenate,butitswisdomwaswellseenlater,whentheopportunitytoactuponitwasgone.

WhenthewholeEasthadbeenoverrunbyAlexanderofMacedon,thecitizensofTyre(thenattheheightofitsrenown,andverystrongfrombeingbuilt,likeVenice,inthesea),recognizinghisgreatness,sentambassadorstohimtosaythattheydesiredtobehisgoodservants,andtoyieldhimallobedience,yetcouldnotconsenttoreceiveeitherhimorhissoldierswithintheirwalls.Whereupon,Alexander,displeasedthatasinglecityshouldventuretocloseitsgatesagainsthimtowhomalltherestoftheworldhadthrowntheirsopen,repulsedtheTyrians,andrejectingtheiroverturessettoworktobesiegetheirtown.Butasitstoodonthewater,andwaswellstoredwithvictualandallothermunitionsneededforitsdefence,afterfourmonthshadgone,Alexander,perceivingthathewaswastingmoretimeinaningloriousattempttoreducethisonecitythanhadsufficedformostofhisotherconquests,resolvedtooffertermstotheTyrians,andtomakethemthoseconcessionswhichtheythemselveshadasked.Butthey,puffedupbytheirsuccess,notmerelyrefusedthetermsoffered,butputtodeaththeenvoysenttoproposethem.Enragedbythis,Alexanderrenewedthesiege,andwithsuchvigour,thathetookanddestroyedthecity,andeitherslewormadeslavesofitsinhabitants.

Intheyear1512,aSpanisharmyenteredtheFlorentineterritory,withtheobjectofrestoringtheMedicitoFlorence,andoflevyingasubsidyfromthetown;havingbeensummonedthitherbycertainofthecitizens,whohadpromisedthemthatsosoonastheyappearedwithintheFlorentineconfinestheywouldarmintheirbehalf.ButwhentheSpaniardshadcomeintotheplainoftheArno,andnonedeclaredintheirfavour,beinginsoreneedofsupplies,theyofferedtomaketerms.ThisofferthepeopleofFlorencein

theirpriderejected,andsogaveoccasionforthesackofPratoandtheoverthrowoftheFlorentineRepublic.

Aprince,therefore,whoisattackedbyanenemymuchmorepowerfulthanhimself,canmakenogreatermistakethantorefusetotreat,especiallywhenoverturesaremadetohim;forhoweverpoorthetermsofferedmaybe,theyaresuretocontainsomeconditionsadvantageousforhimwhoacceptsthem,andwhichhemayconstrueasapartialsuccess.ForwhichreasonitoughttohavebeenenoughforthecitizensofTyrethatAlexanderwasbroughttoaccepttermswhichhehadatfirstrejected;andtheyshouldhaveesteemeditasufficienttriumphthat,bytheirresistanceinarms,theyhadforcedsogreatawarriortobowtotheirwill.And,inlikemanner,itshouldhavebeenasufficientvictoryfortheFlorentinesthattheSpaniardshadinpartyieldedtotheirwishes,andabatedsomethingoftheirowndemands,thepurportofwhichwastochangethegovernmentofFlorence,toseverherfromherallegiancetoFrance,and,further,toobtainmoneyfromher.ForifofthesethreeobjectstheSpaniardshadsucceededinsecuringthelasttwo,whiletheFlorentinesmaintainedtheintegrityoftheirgovernment,afairshareofhonourandcontentmentwouldhavefallentoeach.Andwhilepreservingtheirpoliticalexistence,theFlorentinesshouldhavemadesmallaccountoftheothertwoconditions;noroughtthey,evenwiththepossibilityandalmostcertaintyofgreateradvantagesbeforethem,tohaveleftmattersinanydegreetothearbitrationofFortune,bypushingthingstoextremes,andincurringriskswhichnoprudentmanshouldincur,unlesscompelledbynecessity.

Hannibal,whenrecalledbytheCarthaginiansfromItaly,whereforsixteenyearshehadcoveredhimselfwithglory,tothedefenceofhisnativecountry,foundonhisarrivalthatHasdrubalandSyphaxhadbeendefeated,thekingdomofNumidialost,andCarthageconfinedwithinthelimitsofherwalls,andleftwithoutotherresourcesaveinhimandhisarmy.Perceiving,therefore,thatthiswasthelaststakehiscountryhadtoplay,andnotchoosingtohazardituntilhehadtriedeveryotherexpedient,hefeltnoshametosueforpeace,judgingthatinpeaceratherthaninwarlaythebesthopeofsafetyforhiscountry.But,whenpeacewasrefusedhim,nofearofdefeatdeterredhimfrombattle,beingresolvedeithertoconquer,ifconquerhemight,orifhemustfall,tofallgloriously.Now,ifacommandersovaliantasHannibal,attheheadofanunconqueredarmy,waswillingtosueforpeaceratherthanappealtobattlewhenhesawthatbydefeathiscountrymustbeenslaved,whatcourseoughttobefollowedbyanothercommander,lessvaliantandwithlessexperiencethanhe?Butmenlabourunderthisinfirmity,thattheyknownotwheretosetboundstotheirhopes,andbuildingonthesewithoutotherwisemeasuringtheirstrength,rushheadlongondestruction.

CHAPTERXXVIII

ThattoNeglecttheRedressofGrievances,WhetherPublicorPrivate,isDangerousforaPrinceorCommonwealth

CertainGaulscomingtoattackEtruria,andmoreparticularlyClusiumitschiefcity,thecitizensofClusiumsoughtaidfromRome;whereupontheRomanssentthethreeFabii,asenvoystotheseGauls,tonotifytothem,inthenameoftheRomanpeople,thattheymustrefrainfrommakingwarontheEtruscans.FromwhatbefelltheRomansinconnectionwiththisembassy,weseeclearlyhowfarmenmaybecarriedinresentinganaffront.FortheseenvoysarrivingattheverymomentwhentheGaulsandEtruscanswereabouttojoinbattle,beingreadieratdeedsthanwords,tookpartwiththeEtruscansandfoughtintheirforemostranks.WhenceitcamethattheGaulsrecognizingtheRomanenvoys,turnedagainsttheRomansallthehatredwhichbeforetheyhadfeltfortheEtruscans;andgrewstillmoreincensedwhenonmakingcomplainttotheRomansenate,throughtheirambassador,ofthewrongdonethem,anddemandingthattheFabiishouldbegivenuptotheminatonementfortheiroffence,notmerelyweretheoffendersnotgivenuporpunishedinanyway,but,onthecontrary,whenthecomitiametwerecreatedtribuneswithconsularpowers.ButwhentheGaulsfoundthesemenhonouredwhodeservedtobechastised,theyconcludedthatwhathadhappenedhadbeendonebywayofslightandinsulttothem,and,burningwithfuryandresentment,hastenedforwardtoattackRome,whichtheytookwiththeexceptionoftheCapitol.

NowthisdisasterovertooktheRomansentirelyfromtheirdisregardofjustice.Fortheirenvoys,whohadviolatedthelawofnations,andhadthereforedeservedpunishment,theyhadonthecontrarytreatedwithhonour.Andthisshouldmakeusreflect,howcarefullyallprincesandcommonwealthsoughttorefrainfromcommittinglikewrongs,notonlyagainstcommunities,butalsoagainstparticularmen.Forifamanbedeeplywronged,eitherbyaprivatehandorbyapublicofficer,andbenotavengedtohissatisfaction,ifheliveinarepublic,hewillseektoavengehimself,thoughindoingsohebringruinonhiscountry;orifheliveunderaprince,andbeofaresoluteandhaughtyspirit,hewillneverrestuntilhehaswreakedhisresentmentagainsttheprince,thoughheknowsitmaycosthimdear.WhereofwehavenofinerortruerexamplethaninthedeathofPhilipofMacedon,thefatherofAlexander.ForPausanias,ahandsomeandhigh–bornyouthbelongingtoPhilip’scourt,havingbeenmostfoullyandcruellydishonouredbyAttalus,oneoftheforemostmenoftheroyalhousehold,repeatedlycomplainedtoPhilipoftheoutrage;whoforawhileputhimoffwithpromisesofvengeance,butintheend,sofarfromavenginghim,promotedAttalustobegovernoroftheprovinceofGreece.Whereupon,Pausanias,seeinghisenemyhonouredandnotpunished,turnedallhisresentmentfromhimwhohadoutraged,againsthimwhohadnotavengedhim,andonthemorningofthedayfixedforthemarriageofPhilip’sdaughtertoAlexanderofEpirus,whilePhilipwalkedbetweenthetwoAlexanders,hissonandhisson–in–law,towardsthetempletocelebratethenuptials,heslewhim.

ThisinstancenearlyresemblesthatoftheRomanenvoys;andoffersawarningtoall

rulersnevertothinksolightlyofanymanastosuppose,thatwhenwronguponwronghasbeendonehim,hewillnotbethinkhimselfofrevenge,howevergreatthedangerheruns,orthepunishmenthetherebybringsuponhimself.

CHAPTERXXIX

ThatFortuneObscurestheMindsofMenWhenSheWouldNotHaveThemHinderHerDesigns.

Ifwenotewellthecourseofhumanaffairs,weshalloftenfindthingscomeaboutandaccidentsbefall,againstwhichitseemstobethewillofHeaventhatmenshouldnotprovide.AndifthiswerethecaseeveninRome,sorenownedforhervalour,religion,andwiseordinances,weneednotwonderifitbefarmorecommoninothercitiesandprovinceswhereinthesesafeguardsarewanting.

HavinghereanotableopportunitytoshowhowHeaveninfluencesmen’sactions,TitusLiviusturnsittoaccount,andtreatsthesubjectatlargeandinpregnantwords,wherehesays,thatsinceitwasHeaven’swill,forendsofitsown,thattheRomansshouldfeelitspower,itfirstofallcausedtheseFabii,whoweresentasenvoystotheGauls,toactamiss,andthenbytheirmisconductstirreduptheGaulstomakewaronRome;and,lastly,soorderedmattersthatnothingworthyoftheirnamewasdonebytheRomanstowithstandtheirattack.Foritwasfore–ordainedbyHeaventhatCamillus,whoalonecouldsupplytheremedytosomightyanevil,shouldbebanishedtoArdea;andagain,thatthecitizens,whohadoftencreatedadictatortomeetattacksoftheVolsciansandotherneighbouringhostilenations,shouldfailtodosowhentheGaulsweremarchinguponRome.Moreover,thearmywhichtheRomansgottogetherwasbutaweakone,sincetheyusednosignalefforttomakeitstrong;nay,weresodilatoryinarmingthattheywerebarelyintimetomeettheenemyattheriverAllia,thoughnomorethantenmilesdistantfromRome.Here,again,theRomantribunespitchedtheircampwithoutobservinganyoftheusualprecautions,attendingneithertothechoiceofground,nortosurroundthemselveswithtrenchorPalisade,nortoavailthemselvesofanyotheraid,humanorDivine.Inorderingtheirarmyforbattle,moreover,disposeditinweakcolumns,andthesefarapart:sothatneithermennorofficersaccomplishedanythingworthyoftheRomandiscipline.ThebattlewasbloodlessfortheRomansfledbeforetheywereattacked;mostofthemretreatingtoVeii,theresttoRome,where,withoutturningasidetovisittheirhomes,theymadestraightfortheCapitol.

Meanwhile,thesenate,sofarfrombethinkingthemselveshowtheymightdefendthecity,didnotevenattendtoclosingthegates;andwhilesomeofthemmadetheirescapefromRome,othersenteredtheCapitolalongwiththosewhosoughtshelterthere.ItwasonlyinthedefenceoftheCapitolthatanymethodwasobserved,measuresbeingtakentopreventitbeingcrowdedwithuselessnumbers,andallthevictualwhichcouldbegot,beingbroughtintoittoenableittostandasiege.Ofthewomen,thechildren,andthemenwhoseyearsunfittedthemforservice,themostpartfledforrefugetotheneighbouringtowns,therestremainedinRomeapreytotheinvaders;sothatnoonewhohadheardoftheachievementsoftheRomansinpastyears,onbeingtoldofwhattookplaceonthisoccasion,couldhavebelievedthatitwasofthesamepeoplethatthingssocontrarywererelated.

Wherefore,TitusLivius,aftersettingforthallthesedisorders,concludeswiththewords,

“SofardoesFortunedarkenmen’smindswhenshewouldnothaveherascendencygainsaid.”Norcouldanyjusterobservationbemade.Andhenceitisthatthosewhoexperiencetheextremeswhetherofgoodorofevilfortune,are,commonly,littledeservingeitherofpraiseorblame;sinceitisapparentthatitisfromHeavenhavingaffordedthem,ordeniedthemopportunitiesforactingworthily,thattheyhavebeenbroughttotheirgreatnessortotheirundoing.Fortune,doubtless,whensheseekstoeffectgreatends,willoftenchooseasherinstrumentamanofsuchsenseandworththathecanrecognizetheopportunitieswhichsheholdsouttohim;and,inlikemanner,whenshedesirestobringaboutgreatcalamities,willputforwardsuchmenaswillofthemselvescontributetothatresult.Andallwhostandinherway,sheeitherremovesbydeath,ordeprivesofthemeansofeffectinggood.Anditiswellseeninthepassageweareconsidering,howFortune,toaggrandizeRome,andraisehertotheheightshereached,judgeditnecessary,asshallbemorefullyshowninthefollowingBook,tohumbleher;yetwouldnothaveherutterlyundone.ForwhichreasonwefindhercausingCamillustobebanished,butnotputtodeath;sufferingRometobetaken,butnottheCapitol;andbringingittopassthat,whiletheRomanstooknowiseprecautionforthedefenceoftheircity,theyneglectednoneindefendingtheircitadel.ThatRomemightbetaken,Fortunecausedthemassofthearmy,aftertheroutattheAllia,todirectitsflighttoVeii,thuswithdrawingthemeanswherewiththecitymighthavebeendefended;butwhilethusdisposingmatters,sheatthesametimepreparedalltheneedfulstepsforitsrecovery,inbringinganalmostentireRomanarraytoVeii,andCamillustoArdea,sothatagreatforcemightbeassembledfortherescueoftheircountry,underacaptaininnowaycompromisedbypreviousreverses,but,onthecontrary,intheenjoymentofanuntarnishedrenown.Imightcitemanymoderninstancestoconfirmtheseopinions,butsinceenoughhasbeensaidtoconvinceanyfairmind,Ipassthemover.ButoncemoreIrepeatwhat,fromallhistory,maybeseentobemosttrue,thatmenmayaidFortune,butnotwithstandher;mayinterweavetheirthreadswithherweb,butcannotbreakitBut,forallthat,theymustneverloseheart,sincenotknowingwhattheirendistobe,andmovingtowardsitbycross–roadsanduntravelledpaths,theyhavealwaysroomforhope,andoughtnevertoabandonit,whatsoeverbefalls,andintowhatsoeverstraitstheycome.

CHAPTERXXX

ThatReallyPowerfulPrincesand,CommonwealthsDoNotBuyFriendshipsWithMoney,butWithTheirValourandtheFameofTheir

Prowess

WhenbesiegedintheCapitol,theRomansalthoughexpectingsuccourfromVeiiandfromCamillus,nevertheless,beingstraitenedbyfamine,enteredintoanagreementtobuyofftheGaulswithgoldButattheverymomentwhen,inpursuanceofthisagreement,thegoldwasbeingweighedout,Camilluscameupwithhisarmy.This,saysourhistorian,wascontrivedbyFortune,“thattheRomansmightnotlivethereafterasmenransomedforaprice,”andthematterisnoteworthy,notonlywithreferencetothisparticularoccasion,butalsoasitbearsonthemethodsgenerallyfollowedbythisrepublic.ForweneverfindRomeseekingtoacquiretowns,ortopurchasepeacewithmoney,butalwaysconfidinginherownwarlikevalour,whichcouldnot,Ibelieve,besaidofanyotherrepublic.

Now,oneofthetestswherebytogaugethestrengthofanyState,istoobserveonwhattermsitliveswithitsneighbours:forwhenitsocarriesitselfthat,tosecureitsfriendship,itsneighbourspayittribute,thisisasuresignofitsstrength,butwhenitsneighbours,thoughoflessreputation,receivepaymentsfromit,thisisaclearproofofitsweaknessInthecourseoftheRomanhistorywereadhowtheMassilians,theEduans,theRhodians,HieroofSyracuse,theKingsEumenesandMassinissa,allofthemneighbourstotheRomanfrontiers,inordertosecurethefriendshipofRome,submittedtoimpostsandtributewheneverRomehadneedofthem,askingnoreturnsaveherprotection.ButwithaweakStatewefindthereverseofallthishappeningAnd,tobeginwithourownrepublicofFlorence,weknowthatintimespast,whenshewasattheheightofherrenown,therewasneveralordlingofRomagnawhohadnotasubsidyfromher,tosaynothingofwhatshepaidtothePerugians,totheCastellans,andtoallherotherneighboursButhadourcitybeenarmedandstrong,thedirectcontrarywouldhavebeenthecase,for,toobtainherprotection,allwouldhavepouredmoneyintoherlap,notseekingtoselltheirfriendshipbuttopurchasehers.

NoraretheFlorentinestheonlypeoplewhohavelivedonthisdishonourablefootingTheVenetianshavedonethesame,nay,theKingofFrancehimself,forallhisgreatdominions,livestributarytotheSwissandtotheKingofEngland;andthisbecausetheFrenchkingandtheothersnamed,withaviewtoescapedangersratherimaginarythanreal,havedisarmedtheirsubjects;seekingtoreapapresentgainbywringingmoneyfromthem,ratherthanfollowacoursewhichwouldsecuretheirownsafetyandthelastingwelfareoftheircountry.Whichill–practicesoftheirs,thoughtheyquietthingsforatime,mustintheendexhausttheirresources,andgiveriseinseasonsofdangertoincurablemischiefanddisorder.Itwouldbetedioustocountuphowofteninthecourseoftheirwars,theFlorentines,theVenetians,andthekingdomofFrancehavehadtoransomthemselvesfromtheirenemies,andtosubmittoanignominytowhich,onceonly,theRomanswereverynearbeingsubjected.Itwouldbetedious,too,torecitehowmanytownshavebeenboughtbytheFlorentinesandbytheVenetians,which,afterwards,have

onlybeenatroubletothem,fromtheirnotknowinghowtodefendwithironwhattheyhadwonwithgold.WhiletheRomanscontinuedfreetheyadheredtothismoregenerousandnoblemethod,butwhentheycameundertheemperors,andthese,again,begantodeteriorate,andtolovetheshaderatherthanthesunshine,theyalsotooktopurchasingpeace,nowfromtheParthians,nowfromtheGermans,andatothertimesfromotherneighbouringnations.Andthiswasthebeginningofthedeclineoftheirgreatempire.

Sucharetheevilsthatbefallwhenyouwithholdarmsfromyoursubjects;andthiscourseisattendedbythestillgreaterdisadvantage,thatthecloseranenemypressesyoutheweakerhefindsyou.ForanyonewhofollowstheevilmethodsofwhichIspeak,must,inordertosupporttroopswhomhethinkscanbetrustedtokeepoffhisenemies,beveryexactinginhisdealingswiththoseofhissubjectswhodwellintheheartofhisdominions;since,towidentheintervalbetweenhimselfandhisenemies,hemustsubsidizethoseprincesandpeopleswhoadjoinhisfrontiers.Statesmaintainedonthisfootingmaymakealittleresistanceontheirconfines;butwhenthesearepassedbytheenemynofurtherdefenceremains.Thosewhopursuesuchmethodsastheseseemnottoperceivethattheyareopposedtoreasonandcommonsense.Fortheheartandvitalpartsofthebody,nottheextremities,arethosewhichweshouldkeepguarded,sincewemayliveonwithoutthelatter,butmustdieiftheformerbehurt.ButtheStatesofwhichIspeak,leavingtheheartundefended,defendonlythehandsandfeet.Themischiefwhichhasthusbeen,andisatthisdaywroughtinFlorenceisplainenoughtosee.Forsosoonasanenemypenetrateswithinherfrontiers,andapproachesherheart,allisoverwithher.AndthesamewaswitnessedafewyearsagointhecaseoftheVenetians,whosecity,haditnotbeengirdledbythesea,mustthenhavefounditsend.InFrance,indeed,alikeresulthasnotbeenseensooften,shebeingsogreatakingdomastohavefewenemiesmightierthanherself.Nevertheless,whentheEnglishinvadedFranceintheyear1513,thewholekingdomtottered;andtheKinghimself,aswellaseveryoneelse,hadtoownthatasingledefeatmighthavecosthimhisdominions.

ButwiththeRomansthereverseofallthistookplace.FortheneareranenemyapproachedRome,themorecompletelyhefoundherarmedforresistance;andaccordinglyweseethatontheoccasionofHannibal’sinvasionofItaly,theRomans,afterthreedefeats,andaftertheslaughterofsomanyoftheircaptainsandsoldiers,werestillable,notmerelytowithstandtheinvader,buteven,intheend,tocomeoffvictorious.Thiswemayascribetotheheartbeingwellguarded,whiletheextremitieswerebutlittleheeded.ForthestrengthofRomerestedontheRomanpeoplethemselves,ontheLatinleague,ontheconfederatetownsofItaly,andonhercolonies,fromallofwhichsourcesshedrewsonumerousanarmy,asenabledhertosubduethewholeworldandtokeepitinsubjection.

ThetruthofwhatIsaymaybefurtherseenfromthequestionputbyHannotheCarthaginiantothemessengerssenttoCarthagebyHannibalafterhisvictoryatCannæ.ForwhenthesewerevauntingtheachievementsofHannibal,theywereaskedbyHannowhetheranyonehadcomeforwardonbehalfoftheRomanstoproposetermsofpeace,andwhetheranytownoftheLatinleagueorofthecolonizeddistrictshadrevoltedfromtheRomans.Andwhentobothinquiriestheenvoysanswered,“No,”Hannoobservedthatthewarwasnoneareranendthanonthedayitwasbegun.

Wecanunderstand,therefore,aswellfromwhathasnowbeensaid,asfromwhatIhaveoftensaidbefore,howgreatadifferencethereisbetweenthemethodsfollowedbytherepublicsofthepresenttimes,andthosefollowedbytherepublicsofantiquity;andwhyitisthatweseeeverydayastoundinglossesalternatewithextraordinarygains.Forwheremenareweak,Fortuneshowsherselfstrong;andbecauseshechanges,StatesandGovernmentschangewithher;andwillcontinuetochange,untilsomeonearise,who,followingreverentlytheexampleoftheancients,shallsocontrolher,thatsheshallnothaveopportunitywitheveryrevolutionofthesuntodisplayanewthegreatnessofherpower.

CHAPTERXXXI

OftheDangerofTrustingBanishedMen.

Thedangeroftrustingthosewhoareinexilefromtheirowncountry,beingonetowhichtherulersofStatesareoftenexposed,may,Ithink,befitlyconsideredintheseDiscourses;andInoticeitthemorewillingly,becauseIamabletoillustrateitbyamemorableinstancewhichTitusLivius,thoughwithanotherpurpose,relatesinhishistory.WhenAlexandertheGreatpassedwithhisarmyintoAsia,hisbrother–in–lawanduncle,AlexanderofEpirus,camewithanotherarmyintoItaly,beinginvitedthitherbythebanishedLucanians,whogavehimtobelievethat,withtheiraid,hemightgetpossessionofthewholeofthatcountry.Butwhen,confidinginthepromisesoftheseexiles,andfedbythehopestheyheldouttohim,hecameintoItaly,theyputhimtodeath,theirfellow–citizenshavingofferedtorestorethemtotheircountryuponthiscondition.Itbehovesus,therefore,torememberhowemptyarethepromises,andhowdoubtfulthefaith,ofmeninbanishmentfromtheirnativeland.Forastotheirfaith,itmaybeassumedthatwhenevertheycaneffecttheirreturnbyothermeansthanyours,notwithstandinganycovenantstheymayhavemadewithyou,theywillthrowyouover,andtakepartwiththeircountrymen.Andasfortheemptypromisesanddelusivehopeswhichtheysetbeforeyou,soextremeistheirdesiretoreturnhomethattheynaturallybelievemanythingswhichareuntrue,anddesignedlymisrepresentmanyothers;sothatbetweentheirbeliefsandwhattheysaytheybelieve,theyfillyouwithfalseimpressions,onwhichifyoubuild,yourlabourisinvain,andyouareledtoengageinenterprisesfromwhichnothingbutruincanresult.

TothisinstanceofAlexanderIshalladdonlyoneother,that,namely,ofThemistoclestheAthenian,who,beingproclaimedatraitor,fledintoAsiatoDarius,towhomhemadesuchlavishpromisesifhewouldonlyattackGreece,thatheinducedhimtoundertaketheenterprise.Butafterwards,whenhecouldnotfulfilwhathehadpromised,eitherfromshame,orthroughfearofpunishment,hepoisonedhimself.But,ifsuchamistakeasthiswasmadebyamanlikeThemistocles,wemayreckonthatmistakesstillgreaterwillbemadebythosewho,beingofafeeblernature,sufferthemselvestobemorecompletelyswayedbytheirfeelingsandwishesWherefore,letaprincebecarefulhowheembarksinanyenterpriseontherepresentationsofanexile;forotherwise,heislikelyeithertobeputtoshame,ortoincurthegravestcalamities.

Becausetownsaresometimes,thoughseldom,takenbycraft,throughsecretpracticeshadwiththeirinhabitants,IthinkitnotoutofplacetodiscussthematterinthefollowingChapter,whereinIshalllikewiseshowinhowmanywaystheRomanswerewonttomakesuchacquisitions.

CHAPTERXXXII

InHowManyWaystheRomansGainedPossessionofTowns.

Turningtheirthoughtswhollytoarms,theRomansalwaysconductedtheirmilitaryenterprisesinthemostadvantageousway,bothastocostandeveryothercircumstanceofwar.Forwhichreasontheyavoidedattemptingtownsbysiege,judgingtheexpenseandinconvenienceofthismethodofcarryingonwargreatlytooutweighanyadvantagetobegainedbyit.Accordingly,theythoughtitbetterandmorefortheirinteresttoreducetownsinanyotherwaythanthis;andinallthoseyearsduringwhichtheywereconstantlyengagedinwarswefindveryfewinstancesoftheirproceedingbysiege.

Forthecaptureoftowns,therefore,theytrustedeithertoassaultortosurrender.Assaultswereeffectedeitherbyopenforce,orbyforceandstratagemcombined.Whenatownwasassailedbyopenforce,thewallswerestormedwithoutbeingbreached,andtheassailantsweresaid“aggrediurbemcorona,”becausetheyencircledthecitywiththeirentirestrengthandkeptupanattackonallsides.Inthiswaytheyoftensucceededincarryingtowns,andevengreattowns,atafirstonset,aswhenScipiotooknewCarthageinSpain.Butwhentheyfailedtocarryatownbystorm,theysetthemselvestobreachthewallswithbatteringramsandotherwarlikeengines;ortheydugminessoastoobtainanentrancewithinthewalls,thisbeingthemethodfollowedintakingVeii;orelse,tobeonalevelwiththedefenders,theyerectedtowersoftimberorthrewupmoundsofearthagainsttheoutsideofthewallssoastoreachthetop.

Ofthesemethodsofattack,thefirst,whereinthecitywasentirelysurrounded,exposedthedefenderstomoresuddenperilsandleftthemmoredoubtfulremedies.Forwhileitwasnecessaryforthemtohaveasufficientforceatallpoints,itmighthappenthattheforcesattheirdisposalwerenotnumerousenoughtobeeverywhereatonce,ortorelieveoneanother.Oriftheirnumbersweresufficient,theymightnotallbeequallyresoluteinstandingtheirground,andtheirfailureatanyonepointinvolvedageneraldefeat.Consequently,asIhavesaid,thismethodofattackwasoftensuccessful.Butwhenitdidnotsucceedatthefirst,itwasrarelyrenewed,beingamethoddangeroustotheattackingarmy,whichhavingtosecureitselfalonganextendedline,waslefteverywheretooweaktoresistasallymadefromthetown;nay,ofitself,wasapttofallintoconfusionanddisorder.Thismethodofattack,therefore,couldbeattemptedonceonlyandbywayofsurprise.

Againstbreachesinthewallsthedefencewas,asatthepresentday,tothrowupnewworks;whileminesweremetbycounter–mines,inwhichtheenemywereeitherwithstoodatthepointofthesword,orbaffledbysomeotherwarlikecontrivance;asbyfillingcaskswithfeathers,which,beingsetonfireandplacedinthemine,chokedouttheassailantsbytheirsmokeandstench.Wheretowerswereemployedfortheattack,thedefenderssoughttodestroythemwithfire;andwheremoundsofearthwerethrownupagainstthewalls,theywoulddigholesatthebaseofthewallagainstwhichthemoundrested,andcarryofftheearthwhichtheenemywereheapingup;which,beingremovedfromwithinasfastasitwasthrownupfromwithout,themoundmadenoprogress.

Noneofthesemethodsofattackcanlongbepersistedinandtheassailant,ifunsuccessful,musteitherstrikehiscampandseekvictoryinsomeotherdirection,asScipiodidwhenheinvadedAfricaand,afterfailingintheattempttostormUtica,withdrewfromhisattackonthattownandturnedhisstrengthagainsttheCarthaginianarmyinthefield;orelserecoursemustbehadtoregularsiege,asbytheRomansatVeii,Capua,Carthage,Jerusalem,anddiversothercitieswhichtheyreducedinthisway.

Thecaptureoftownsbystratagemcombinedwithforceiseffected,asbytheRomansatPalæopolis,throughasecretunderstandingwithsomewithinthewalls.Manyattemptsofthissorthavebeenmade,bothbytheRomansandbyothers,butfewsuccessfully,becausetheleasthindrancedisarrangestheplanofaction,andbecausesuchhindrancesareverylikelytooccur.Foreithertheplotisdiscoveredbeforeitcanbecarriedout,asitreadilymay,whetherfromtreacheryonthepartofthosetowhomithasbeencommunicated,orfromthedifficultieswhichattenditsinception,thepreliminaryarrangementshavingtobemadewiththeenemyandwithpersonswithwhomitisnotpermitted,saveundersomepretextorother,toholdintercourse;orifitbenotdiscoveredwhileitisbeingcontrived,athousanddifficultieswillstillbemetwithinitsexecution.Forifyouarriveeitherbeforeoraftertheappointedtime,allisruined.Thefaintestsound,asofthecacklingofthegeeseintheCapitol,theleastdeparturefromsomeordinaryroutine,themosttriflingmistakeorerror,marsthewholeenterprise.Addtowhich,thedarknessofnightlendsfurtherterrortotheperilsofsuchundertakings;whilethegreatmajorityofthoseengagedinthem,havingnoknowledgeofthedistrictorplacesintowhichtheyarebrought,arebewilderedanddisconcertedbytheleastmishap,andputtoflightbyeveryimaginarydanger.Insecretnocturnalenterprisesofthissort,nomanwasevermoresuccessfulthanAratusofSicyon,althoughinanyencounterbydaythereneverwasamorearrantcoward.Thiswemustsupposeduerathertosomespecialandoccultqualityinherentintheman,thantosuccessbeingnaturallytobelookedforinthelikeattempts.Suchenterprises,accordingly,areoftenplanned,butfewareputintoexecution,andfewerstillwithsuccess.

Whencitiesareacquiredbysurrender,thesurrenderiseithervoluntaryorundercompulsion;voluntary,whenthecitizensappealtoyouforprotectionagainstsomethreateneddangerfromwithout,asCapuasubmittedtotheRomans;orwheretheyaremovedbyadesiretobebettergoverned,andareattractedbythegoodgovernmentwhichhetowhomtheysurrenderisseenexercisingoverotherswhohaveplacedthemselvesinhishands;aswasthecasewiththeRhodians,theMassilians,andotherswhoforlikecausesgavethemselvesuptotheRomanpeople.Compulsorysurrenderstakeplace,eitherastheresultofaprotractedsiege,likethosewehavespokenofabove;orfromthecountrybeingcontinuallywastedbyincursions,forays,andsimilarseverities,toescapewhichacitymakesitssubmission.

Ofthemethodswhichhavebeennoticed,theRomans,inpreferencetoallothers,usedthislast;andforfourhundredandfiftyyearsmadeittheiraimtowearouttheirneighboursbyinvasionandbydefeatintheopenfield,whileendeavouring,asIhaveelsewheresaid,toestablishtheirinfluenceoverthembytreatiesandconventions.Itwastothismethodofwarfarethereforethattheyalwaysmainlytrusted,because,aftertryingallothers,theyfoundnonesofreefrominconvenienceanddisadvantage—theprocedurebysiegeinvolvingexpenseanddelay,thatbyassault,difficultyanddanger,andthatbysecretpractice,uncertaintyanddoubt.Theyfound,likewise,thatwhileinsubduingoneobstinate

citybysiegemanyyearsmightbewasted,akingdommightbegainedinasingledaybythedefeatofahostilearmyinthefield.

CHAPTERXXXIII

ThattheRomansIntrustedtheCaptainsofTheirArmiesWiththeFullestPowers.

InreadingthisHistoryofTitusLiviuswithaviewtoprofitbyit,IthinkthatallthemethodsofconductfollowedbytheRomanpeopleandsenatemeritattention.Andamongotherthingsfittobeconsidered,itshouldbenoted,withhowampleanauthoritytheysentforththeirconsuls,theirdictators,andtheothercaptainsoftheirarmies,allofwhomwefindclothedwiththefullestpowers:nootherprerogativebeingreservedtoitselfbythesenatesavethatofdeclaringwarandmakingpeace,whileeverythingelsewaslefttothediscretionanddeterminationoftheconsul.Forsosoonasthepeopleandsenatehadresolvedonwar,forinstanceonawaragainsttheLatins,theythrewallfurtherresponsibilityupontheconsul,whomightfightordeclinebattleashepleased,andattackthisortheothercityashethoughtfit.

Thatthiswasso,isseeninmanyinstances,andespeciallyfromwhathappenedduringanexpeditionmadeagainsttheEtruscans.FortheconsulFabiushavingroutedthatpeoplenearSutrium,andthinkingtopassonwardthroughtheCiminianforestintoEtruria,sofarfromseekingtheadviceofthesenate,gavethemnohintwhateverofhisdesign,althoughforitsexecutionthewarhadtobecarriedintoanew,difficult,anddangerouscountry.Wehavefurtherwitnesstothesameeffect,intheactiontakeninrespectofthisenterprisebythesenate,whobeinginformedofthevictoryobtainedbyFabius,andapprehendingthathemightdecidetopassonwardthroughtheaforesaidforest,anddeemingitinexpedientthatheshouldincurriskbyattemptingthisinvasion,senttwomessengerstowarnhimnottoenterEtruria.Thesemessengers,however,didnotcomeupwiththeconsuluntilhehadalreadymadehiswayintothatcountryandgainedasecondvictory;when,insteadofopposinghisfurtheradvance,theyreturnedtoRometoannouncehisgoodfortuneandtheglorywhichhehadwon.

Whoever,therefore,shallwellconsiderthecharacteroftheauthoritywhereofIspeak,willseethatitwasmostwiselyaccorded;sincehaditbeenthewishofthesenatethataconsul,inconductingawar,shouldproceedstepbystepastheymightdirecthim,thismusthavemadehimatoncelesscautiousandmoredilatory;becausethecreditofvictorywouldnotthenhaveseemedtobewhollyhisown,butsharedbythesenateonwhoseadviceheacted.Besideswhich,thesenatemusthavetakenuponitselfthetaskofadvisingonmatterswhichitcouldnotpossiblyunderstand;foralthoughitmightcontainamongitsmembersallwhoweremostversedinmilitaryaffairs,still,sincethesemenwerenotonthespot,andwereignorantofmanyparticularswhich,iftheyweretogivesoundadvice,itwasnecessaryforthemtoknow,theymustinadvisinghavemadenumberlessmistakes.Forthesereasonstheydesiredthattheconsulshouldactonhisownresponsibility,andthatthehonoursofsuccessshouldbewhollyhis;judgingthattheloveoffamewouldactonhimatonceasaspurandasacurb,makinghimdowhateverhehadtodowell.

ThismatterIhavetheratherdweltuponbecauseIobservethatourmodernrepublics,suchastheVenetianandtheFlorentine,viewitinadifferentlight;sothatwhentheircaptains,

commissaries,orprovedditorihaveasingleguntoplaceinposition,theauthoritiesathomemustbeinformedandconsulted;acoursedeservingthesameapprovalasisduetoallthoseothermethodsoftheirs,which,onewithanother,havebroughtItalytoherpresentcondition.

BOOKIII

CHAPTERI

ForaSectorCommonwealthtoLastLong,ItMustOftenbeBroughtBacktoItsBeginnings.

Doubtless,allthethingsofthisworldhavealimitsettotheirduration;yetthoseofthemthebodieswhereofhavenotbeensufferedtogrowdisordered,buthavebeensocaredforthateithernochangeatallhasbeenwroughtinthem,or,ifany,achangeforthebetterandnotfortheworse,willrunthatcoursewhichHeavenhasinageneralwayappointedthem.AndsinceIamnowspeakingofmixedbodies,forStatesandSectsaresotoberegarded,Isaythatforthemthesearewholesomechangeswhichbringthembacktotheirfirstbeginnings.

ThoseStatesconsequentlystandsurestandendurelongestwhich,eitherbytheoperationoftheirinstitutionscanrenewthemselves,orcometoberenewedbyaccidentapartfromanydesign.Nothing,however,canbeclearerthanthatunlessthusrenewedthesebodiesdonotlast.Nowthewaytorenewthemis,asIhavesaid,tobringthembacktotheirbeginnings,sinceallbeginningsofsects,commonwealths,orkingdomsmustneedshaveinthemacertainexcellence,byvirtueofwhichtheygaintheirfirstreputationandmaketheirfirstgrowth.Butbecauseinprogressoftimethisexcellencebecomescorrupted,unlesssomethingbedonetorestoreittowhatitwasatfirst,thesebodiesnecessarilydecay;forasthephysicianstellusinspeakingofthehumanbody,“Somethingorotherisdailyaddedwhichsoonerorlaterwillrequiretreatment.”[10]

Asregardscommonwealths,thisreturntothepointofdepartureisbroughtabouteitherbyextrinsicaccidentorbyintrinsicforesight.Astothefirst,wehaveseenhowitwasnecessarythatRomeshouldbetakenbytheGauls,thatbeingthusinamannerreborn,shemightrecoverlifeandvigour,andresumetheobservancesofreligionandjusticewhichshehadsufferedtogrowrustedbyneglect.ThisiswellseenfromthosepassagesofLiviuswhereinhetellsusthatwhentheRomanarmywas‘sentforthagainsttheGauls,andagainwhentribuneswerecreatedwithconsularauthority,noreligiousriteswhateverwerecelebrated,andwhereinhefurtherrelateshowtheRomansnotonlyfailedtopunishthethreeFabii,whocontrarytothelawofnationshadfoughtagainsttheGauls,butevenclothedthemwithhonour.For,fromtheseinstances,wemaywellinferthattherestofthewiseordinancesinstitutedbyRomulus,andtheotherprudentkings,hadbeguntobeheldoflessaccountthantheydeserved,andlessthanwasessentialforthemaintenanceofgoodgovernment.

AndthereforeitwasthatRomewasvisitedbythiscalamityfromwithout,totheendthatallherordinancesmightbereformed,andthepeopletaughtthatitbehovedthemnotonlytomaintainreligionandjustice,butalsotoesteemtheirworthycitizens,andtoprizetheirvirtuesbeyondanyadvantagesofwhichtheythemselvesmightseemtohavebeendeprivedattheirinstance.Andthis,wefind,wasjusttheeffectproduced.Fornosoonerwasthecityretaken,thanalltheordinancesoftheoldreligionwereatoncerestored;theFabii,whohadfoughtinviolationofthelawofnations,werepunished;andtheworthandexcellenceofCamillussofullyrecognized,thatthesenateandthewholepeople,layingall

jealousiesaside,oncemorecommittedtohimtheentirechargeofpublicaffairs.

Itisnecessarythen,asIhavesaidalready,thatwheremendwelltogetherinaregulatedsociety,theybeoftenremindedofthoseordinancesinconformitywithwhichtheyoughttolive,eitherbysomethinginherentinthese,orelsebysomeexternalaccident.Areminderisgivenintheformerofthesetwoways,eitherbythepassingofsomelawwherebythemembersofthesocietyarebroughttoanaccount;orelsebysomemanofrarewortharisingamongthem,whosevirtuouslifeandexamplehavethesameeffectasalaw.InaCommonwealth,accordingly,thisendisservedeitherbythevirtuesofsomeoneofitscitizens,orbytheoperationofitsinstitutions.

TheinstitutionswherebytheRomanCommonwealthwasledbacktoitsstartingpoint,werethetribuneshipofthepeopleandthecensorship,togetherwithallthoselawswhichwerepassedtochecktheinsolenceandambitionofitscitizens.Suchinstitutions,however,requirefreshlifetobeinfusedintothembytheworthofsomeonemanwhofearlesslydevoteshimselftogivethemeffectinoppositiontothepowerofthosewhosetthematdefiance.

OfthelawsbeingthusreinforcedinRome,beforeitscapturebytheGauls,wehavenotableexamplesinthedeathsofthesonsofBrutus,oftheDecemvirs,andofManliusFrumentarius;andafteritscapture,inthedeathsofManliusCapitolinus,andofthesonofManliusTorquatusintheprosecutionofhismasteroftheknightsbyPapiriusCursor,andintheimpeachmentoftheScipios.Suchexamplesasthese,beingsignalandextraordinary,hadtheeffect,whenevertheytookplace,ofbringingmenbacktothetruestandardofright;butwhentheycametobeofrareroccurrence,theyleftmenmoreleisuretogrowcorrupted,andwereattendedbygreaterdangeranddisturbance.Wherefore,betweenoneandanotherofthesevindicationsofthelaws,nomorethantenyears,atmost,oughttointervene;becauseafterthattimemenbegintochangetheirmannersandtodisregardthelaws;andifnothingoccurtorecalltheideaofpunishment,andunlessfearresumeitsholdontheirminds,somanyoffenderssuddenlyspringuptogetherthatitisimpossibletopunishthemwithoutdanger.AndtothispurportitusedtobesaidbythosewhoruledFlorencefromtheyear1434to1494,thattheirgovernmentcouldhardlybemaintainedunlessitwasrenewedeveryfiveyears;bywhichtheymeantthatitwasnecessaryforthemtoarousethesameterrorandalarminmen’sminds,astheyinspiredwhentheyfirstassumedthegovernment,andwhenallwhooffendedagainsttheirauthorityweresignallychastised.Forwhentherecollectionofsuchchastisementhasdiedout,menareemboldenedtoengageinnewdesigns,andtospeakilloftheirrulers;forwhichtheonlyremedyistorestorethingstowhattheywereatfirst.

Arepublicmay,likewise,bebroughtbacktoitsoriginalform,withoutrecoursetoordinancesforenforcingjustice,bythemerevirtuesofasinglecitizen,byreasonthatthesevirtuesareofsuchinfluenceandauthoritythatgoodmenlovetoimitatethem,andbadmenareashamedtodepartfromthem.ThosetowhomRomeowedmostforservicesofthissort,wereHoratiusCocles,MutiusScævola,thetwoDecii,AtiliusRegulus,anddiversothers,whoserareexcellenceandgenerousexamplewroughtfortheircityalmostthesameresultsasmighthavebeeneffectedbyordinancesandlaws.Andiftotheseinstancesofindividualworthhadbeenadded,everytenyears,somesignalenforcementofjustice,itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforRomeevertohavegrowncorrupted.Butwhen

bothoftheseincitementstovirtuousbehaviorbegantorecurlessfrequently,corruptionspread,andafterthetimeofAtiliusRegulus,nolikeexamplewasagainwitnessed.ForthoughthetwoCatoscamelater,sogreatanintervalhadelapsedbeforetheelderCatoappeared,andagain,solongaperiodintervenedbetweenhimandtheyounger,andthesetwo,moreover,stoodsomuchalone,thatitwasimpossibleforthem,bytheirinfluence,toworkanyimportantchange;moreespeciallyfortheyounger,whofoundRomesomuchcorruptedthathecoulddonothingtoimprovehisfellow–citizens.

Thisisenoughtosayconcerningcommonwealths,butasregardssects,weseefromtheinstanceofourownreligionthatheretooalikerenewalisneeded.ForhadnotthisreligionofoursbeenbroughtbacktoitsoriginalconditionbySaintFrancisandSaintDominick,itmustsoonhavebeenutterlyextinguished.They,however,bytheirvoluntarypoverty,andbytheirimitationofthelifeofChrist,rekindledinthemindsofmenthedyingflameoffaith;andbytheefficaciousruleswhichtheyestablishedavertedfromourChurchthatruinwhichtheilllivesofitsprelatesandheadsmustotherwisehavebroughtuponit.Forlivinginpoverty,andgaininggreatauthoritywiththepeoplebyconfessingthemandpreachingtothem,theygotthemtobelievethatitiseviltospeakillevenofwhatisevil;andthatitisgoodtobeobedienttorulers,who,iftheydoamiss,maybelefttothejudgmentofGod.Bywhichteachingtheserulersareencouragedtobehaveasbadlyastheycan,havingnofearofpunishmentswhichtheyneitherseenorcredit.Nevertheless,itisthisrenewalwhichhasmaintained,andstillmaintains,ourreligion.

Kingdomsalsostandinneedofalikerenewal,andtohavetheirlawsrestoredtotheirformerforce;andweseehow,byattendingtothis,thekingdomofFrancehasprofited.Forthatkingdom,morethananyother,liesunderthecontrolofitslawsandordinances,whicharemaintainedbyitsparliaments,andmoreespeciallybytheparliamentofParis,fromwhichlasttheyderivefreshvigourwhenevertheyhavetobeenforcedagainstanyprinceoftherealm;forthisassemblypronouncessentenceevenagainstthekinghimself.Heretoforethisparliamenthasmaintaineditsnameasthefearlesschampionofthelawsagainstthenoblesoftheland;butshoulditeveratanyfuturetimesufferwrongstopassunpunished,andshouldoffencesmultiply,eitherthesewillhavetobecorrectedwithgreatdisturbancetotheState,orthekingdomitselfmustfalltopieces.

This,then,isourconclusion—thatnothingissonecessaryinanysociety,beitareligioussect,akingdom,oracommonwealth,astorestoretoitthatreputationwhichithadatfirst,andtoseethatitisprovidedeitherwithwholesomelaws,orwithgoodmenwhoseactionsmayeffectthesameends,withoutneedtoresorttoexternalforce.Foralthoughthislastmaysometimes,asinthecaseofRome,affordanefficaciousremedy,itistoohazardousaremedytomakeuseverwishtoemployit.

AndthatallmayunderstandhowmuchtheactionsofparticularcitizenshelpedtomakeRomegreat,andhowmanyadmirableresultstheywroughtinthatcity,Ishallnowproceedtosetthemforthandexaminethem;withwhichsurveythisThirdBookofmine,andlastdivisionoftheFirstDecadeofTitusLivius,shallbebroughttoaclose.But,althoughgreatandnotableactionsweredonebytheRomankings,nevertheless,sincehistoryhastreatedoftheseatmuchlength,hereIshallpassthemover,andsaynomoreabouttheseprinces,saveasregardscertainthingsdonebythemwithaneyetotheirprivateinterest.Ishallbegin,therefore,withBrutus,thefatherofRomanfreedom.

[10]“Quodquotidieaggregaturaliquidquodquandoqueindigetcuratione.”

CHAPTERII

ThatonOccasionItisWisetoFeignFolly.

NeverdidanymanbythemostsplendidachievementsgainforhimselfsogreatanameforwisdomandprudenceasisjustlyduetoJuniusBrutusforfeigningtobeafool.AndalthoughTitusLiviusmentionsonecauseonlyashavingledhimtoassumethispart,namely,thathemightlivemoresecurelyandlookafterhispatrimony;yetonconsideringhisbehaviorwemaybelievethatincounterfeitingfollyitwasalsohisobjecttoescapenotice,andsofindbetterconveniencetooverthrowthekings,andtofreehiscountrywheneveranoccasionoffered.ThatthiswasinhismindisseenfirstofallfromtheinterpretationhegavetotheoracleofApollo,when,torenderthegodsfavourabletohisdesigns,hepretendedtostumble,andsecretlykissedhismotherearth;and,again,fromthis,thatonthedeathofLucretia,thoughherfather,herhusband,andothersofherkinsmenwerepresent,hewasthefirsttodrawthedaggerfromherwound,andbindthebystandersbyoathnevermoretosufferkingtoreigninRome.

Fromhisexampleallwhoarediscontentedwiththeirprincearetaught,firstofall,tomeasure,andtoweightheirstrength,andiftheyfindthemselvesstrongenoughtodisclosetheirhostilityandproclaimopenwar,thentotakethatcourseasatoncethenoblerandlessdangerous;but,iftooweaktomakeopenwar,thensedulouslytocourtthefavouroftheprince,usingtothatendallsuchmethodsastheymayjudgeneedful,adaptingthemselvestohispleasures,andshowingdelightinwhatevertheyseehimdelightin.Suchanintimacy,inthefirstplace,enablesyoutolivesecurely,andpermitsyou,withoutincurringanyrisk,tosharethehappyfortunesoftheprince,whileitaffordsyoueveryfacilityforcarryingoutyourplans.Some,nodoubt,willtellyouthatyoushouldnotstandsoneartheprinceastobeinvolvedinhisdownfall;noryetatsuchadistancethatwhenhefallsyoushallbetoofarofftousetheoccasionforrisingonhisruin.Butalthoughthismeancourse,couldweonlyfollowit,werecertainlythebest,yet,sinceIbelieveittobeimpracticable,wemustresorttothemethodsaboveindicated,andeitherkeepaltogetheraloof,orelsecleavecloselytotheprince.Whosoeverdoesotherwise,ifhebeofgreatstation,livesinconstantperil;norwillitavailhimtosay,“Iconcernmyselfwithnothing;Icovetneitherhonoursnorpreferment;mysolewishistoliveaquietandpeacefullife.”Forsuchexcuses,thoughtheybelistenedto,arenotaccepted;norcananymanofgreatposition,howevermuchandsincerelyhedesireit,electtolivethislifeoftranquillitysincehisprofessionswillnotbebelieved;sothatalthoughhemightbecontentedtobeletalone,otherswillnotsufferhimtobeso.Wherefore,likeBrutus,menmustfeignfolly;andtoplaytheparteffectively,andsoastopleasetheirprince,mustsay,do,see,andpraisethingscontrarytotheirinclinations.

Butnow,havingspokenoftheprudenceshownbyBrutuswhenhesoughttorecoverthefreedomofRome,letusnextspeakoftheseveritywhichheusedtomaintainit.

CHAPTERIII

ThattoPreserveaNewlyAcquiredFreedomWeMustSlaytheSonsofBrutus.

TheseverityusedbyBrutusinpreservingforRomethefreedomhehadwonforher,wasnotlessnecessarythanuseful.Thespectacleofafathersittingonthejudgment,andnotmerelysentencinghisownsonstodeath,butbeinghimselfpresentattheirexecution,affordsanexamplerareinhistory.Butthosewhostudytherecordsofancienttimeswillunderstand,thatafterachangeintheformofagovernment,whetheritbefromacommonwealthtoatyrannyorfromatyrannytoacommonwealth,thosewhoarehostiletotheneworderofthingsmustalwaysbevisitedwithsignalpunishment.SothathewhosetsupasatyrantandslaysnotBrutus,andhewhocreatesafreegovernmentandslaysnotthesonsofBrutus,cannevermaintainhimselflong.ButsinceIhaveelsewheretreatedofthismatteratlarge,Ishallmerelyrefertowhathastherebeensaidconcerningit,andshallcitehereoneinstanceonly,happeninginourowndays,andmemorableinthehistoryofourcountry.

IspeakofPieroSoderini,whothoughtbyhispatienceandgoodnesstoovercometheverysametemperwhichpromptedthesonsofBrutustoreverttotheoldgovernment,andwhofailedintheendeavour.Foralthoughhissagacityshouldhavetaughthimthenecessity,whilechanceandtheambitionofthosewhoattackedhimfurnishedhimwiththeopportunityofmakinganendofthem,henevercouldresolvetostriketheblow;andnotmerelybelievedhimselfabletosubduedisaffectionbypatienceandkindness,andtomitigatetheenmityofparticularmenbytherewardsheheldouttothem,butalsopersuadedhimself,andoftendeclaredinthepresenceofhisfriends,thathecouldnotconfrontoppositionopenly,norcrushhisadversaries,withoutassumingextraordinarypowersandpassinglawsdestructiveofcivilequality;whichmeasures,althoughnotafterwardusedbyhimfortyrannicalends,wouldsoalarmthecommunity,thatafterhisdeaththeywouldneveragainconsenttoappointaGonfalonierforlife,anofficewhichhejudgeditessentialbothtomaintainandstrengthen.Nowalthoughthesescruplesofhiswerewiseandgood,weoughtneveroutofregardforwhatisgood,tosufferaneviltorunitscourse,sinceitmaywellhappenthattheevilwillprevailoverthegood.AndPieroshouldhavebelievedthatashisactsandintentionsweretobejudgedbyresults,hemight,ifhelivedandiffortunebefriendedhim,havemadeitcleartoall,thatwhathedidwasdonetopreservehiscountry,andnotfrompersonalambition;andhemighthavesocontrivedmattersthatnosuccessorofhiscouldeverturntobadendsthemeanswhichhehadusedforgoodends.Buthewasmisledbyapreconceivedopinion,andfailedtounderstandthatill–willisnottobevanquishedbytimenorpropitiatedbyfavours.And,so,fromnotknowinghowtoresembleBrutus,helostpower,andfame,andwasdrivenanexilefromhiscountry.

Thatitisashardamattertopreserveaprincedomasitistopreserveacommonwealth,willbeshownintheChapterfollowing.

CHAPTERIV

ThatanUsurperisNeverSafeinHisPrincedomWhileThoseLiveWhomHeHasDeprivedofIt.

FromwhatbefelltheelderTarquinatthehandsofthesonsofAncus,andServiusTulliusatthehandsofTarquintheProud,weseewhatanarduousandperilouscourseitistostripakingofhiskingdomandyetsufferhimtoliveon,hopingtoconciliatehimbybenefits.Wesee,too,howtheelderTarquinwasruinedbyhisbeliefthatheheldthekingdombyajusttitle,sinceithadbeengivenhimbythepeopleandconfirmedtohimbythesenate,neversuspectingthatthesonsofAncuswouldbesostirredbyresentmentthatitwouldbeimpossibletocontentthemwithwhatcontentedalltherestofRome.ServiusTulliusagain,wasruinedthroughbelievingthathecouldconciliatethesonsofAncusbyloadingthemwithfavours.

Bythefateofthefirstofthesekingseveryprincemaybewarnedthathecanneverlivesecurelyinhisprincedomsolongasthosefromwhomhehastakenitsurvive;whilethefateofthesecondshouldremindallrulersthatoldinjuriesarenottobehealedbysubsequentbenefits,andleastofallwhenthenewbenefitislessindegreethantheinjurysuffered.And,truly,ServiuswaswantinginwisdomwhenheimaginedthatthesonsofTarquinwouldcontentedlyresignthemselvestobethesons–in–lawofonewhomtheythoughtshouldbetheirsubject.Forthedesiretoreignissoprevailingapassion,thatitpenetratesthemindsnotonlyofthosewhoarerightfulheirs,butalsoofthosewhoarenot;ashappenedwiththewifeoftheyoungerTarquin,whowasdaughtertoServius,butwho,possessedbythismadness,andsettingatnaughtallfilialduty,incitedherhusbandtotakeherfather’skingdom,andwithithislife;somuchnoblerdidsheesteemittobeaqueenthanthedaughterofaking.ButwhiletheelderTarquinandServiusTulliuslostthekingdomfromnotknowinghowtosecurethemselvesagainstthosewhomtheyhaddeprivedofit,theyoungerTarquinlostitfromnotobservingtheordinancesoftheoldkings,asshallbeshowninthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERV

HowanHereditaryKingMayCometoLoseHisKingdom.

TarquintheProud,whenhehadputServiusTulliustodeath,inasmuchasthelatterleftnoheirs,tooksecurepossessionofthekingdom,havingnothingtofearfromanyofthosedangerswhichhadstoodinthewayofhispredecessors.Andalthoughthemeanswherebyhemadehimselfkingwerehatefulandmonstrous,nevertheless,hadheadheredtotheancientordinancesoftheearlierkings,hemighthavebeenendured,norwouldhehavearousedbothsenateandpeopletocombineagainsthimanddeprivehimofhisgovernment.Itwasnot,therefore,becausehissonSextusviolatedLucretiathatTarquinwasdrivenout,butbecausehehimselfhadviolatedthelawsofthekingdom,andgovernedasatyrant,strippingthesenateofallauthority,andbringingeverythingunderhisowncontrol.Forallbusinesswhichformerlyhadbeentransactedinpublic,andwiththesanctionofthesenate,hecausedtobetransactedinhispalace,onhisownresponsibility,andtothedispleasureofeveryoneelse,andsoverysoondeprivedRomeofwhateverfreedomshehadenjoyedunderherotherkings.

NorwasitenoughforhimtohavetheFathershisenemies,buthemustneedsalsokindlethecommonsagainsthim,wearingthemoutwithmeremechaniclabours,verydifferentfromtheenterprisesinwhichtheyhadbeenemployedbyhispredecessors;sothatwhenRomeoverflowedwithinstancesofhiscrueltyandpride,hehadalreadydisposedthemindsofallthecitizenstorebelwhenevertheyfoundtheopportunity.Wherefore,hadnotoccasionofferedintheviolencedonetoLucretia,someotherhadsoonbeenfoundtobringaboutthesameresult.ButhadTarquinlivedliketheotherkings,whenSextushissoncommittedthatoutrage,BrutusandCollatinuswouldhavehadrecoursetohimtopunishtheoffender,andnottothecommonsofRome.Andhenceletprinceslearnthatfromthehourtheyfirstviolatethoselaws,customs,andusagesunderwhichmenhavelivedforagreatwhile,theybegintoweakenthefoundationsoftheirauthority.Andshouldthey,aftertheyhavebeenstrippedofthatauthority,evergrowwiseenoughtoseehoweasilyprincedomsarepreservedbythosewhoarecontenttofollowprudentcounsels,thesenseoftheirlosswillgrievethemfarmore,andcondemnthemtoaworsepunishmentthananytheysufferatthehandsofothers.Foritisfareasiertobelovedbygoodmenthanbybad,andtoobeythelawsthantoseektocontrolthem.

Andtolearnwhatmeanstheymustusetoretaintheirauthority,theyhaveonlytotakeexamplebytheconductofgoodprinces,suchasTimoleonofCorinth,AratusofSicyone,andthelike,inwhoselivestheywillfindsuchsecurityandcontent,bothonthesideoftherulerandtheruled,asoughttostirthemwiththedesiretoimitatethem,which,forthereasonsalreadygiven,itiseasyforthemtodo.Formen,whentheyarewellgoverned,asknomore,norlookforfurtherfreedom;aswasthecasewiththepeoplesgovernedbythetwowhomIhavenamed,whomtheyconstrainedtocontinuetheirrulerswhiletheylived,thoughbothofthemsoughtrepeatedlytoreturntoprivatelife.

Butbecause,inthisandthetwoprecedingChapters,Ihavenoticedtheill–willwhicharoseagainstthekings,theplotscontrivedbythesonsofBrutusagainsttheircountry,and

thosedirectedagainsttheelderTarquinandServiusTullius,itseemstomenotoutofplacetodiscourseofthesemattersmoreatlengthinthefollowingChapter,asdeservingtheattentionbothofprincesandprivatecitizens.

CHAPTERVI

OfConspiracies.

Itwereanomissionnottosaysomethingonthesubjectofconspiracies,thesebeingasourceofmuchdangerbothtoprincesandtoprivatemen.Forweseethatmanymoreprinceshavelosttheirlivesandstatesthroughthesethaninopenwarfare;powertowageopenwaruponaprincebeingconcededtofew,whereaspowertoconspireagainsthimisdeniedtonone.Ontheotherhand,sinceconspiraciesareattendedateverystagebydifficultiesanddangers,nomorehazardousordesperateundertakingscanbeengagedinbyanyprivatecitizen;whenceitcomesthatwhilemanyconspiraciesareplanned,feweffecttheirobject.Wherefore,toputprincesontheirguardagainstthesedangers,andtomakesubjectsmorecautioushowtheytakepartinthem,andratherlearntolivecontentunderwhatevergovernmentfortunehasassignedthem,Ishalltreatofthematlength,withoutomittinganynoteworthycircumstancewhichmayservefortheinstructionofeither.Though,indeed,thisisagoldensentenceOfCorneliusTacitus,whereinhesaysthat“thepastshouldhaveourreverence,thepresentourobedience,andthatweshouldwishforgoodprinces,butputupwithany.”[11]Forassuredlywhosoeverdoesotherwiseislikelytobringruinbothonhimselfandonhiscountry.

But,togodeeperintothematter,wehavefirstofalltoexamineagainstwhomconspiraciesaredirected;andweshallfindthatmenconspireeitheragainsttheircountryortheirprince;anditisofthesetwokindsofconspiracythatatpresentIdesiretospeak.Forofconspiracieswhichhavefortheirobjectthesurrenderofcitiestoenemieswhoarebesiegingthem,andofallotherscontrivedforlikeends,Ihavealreadysaidenough.

First,then,Ishalltreatofthoseconspiracieswhicharedirectedagainstaprince,andbeginbyinquiringintotheircauses,whicharemanifold,butofwhichoneismoremomentousthanalltherest;Imean,thebeinghatedbythewholecommunity.Foritmayreasonablybeassumed,thatwhenaprincehasdrawnuponhimselfthisuniversalhatred,hemustalsohavegivenspecialoffencetoparticularmen,whichtheywillbeeagertoavenge.Andthiseagernesswillbeaugmentedbythefeelingofgeneralill–willwhichtheprinceisseentohaveincurred.Aprinceought,therefore,toavoidthisloadofpublichatred.HowheistodosoIneednotstopheretoexplain,havingdiscussedthematteralreadyinanotherplace;butifhecanguardagainstthis,offencegiventoparticularmenwillexposehimtobutfewattacks.Onereasonbeing,thattherearefewmenwhothinksomuchofaninjurydonethemastorungreatriskstorevengeit;another,thatassumingthemtohaveboththedispositionandthecouragetoavengethemselves,theyarerestrainedbytheuniversalfavourwhichtheyseeentertainedtowardstheprince.

Injuriesareeithertoaman’slife,tohisproperty,ortohishonour.Asregardsthefirst,theywhothreateninjuriestolifeincurmoredangerthantheywhoactuallyinflictthem;orrather,whilegreatdangerisincurredinthreatening,noneatallisincurredfrominflictingsuchinjuries.Forthedeadarepastthinkingofrevenge;andthosewhosurvive,forthemostpartleavesuchthoughtstothedead.Buthewhoselifeisthreatened,findinghimselfforcedbynecessityeithertodoorsuffer,becomesamanmostdangeroustotheprince,as

shallbefullyexplainedhereafter.

Aftermenacestolife,injuriestopropertyandhonourstirmenmorethananyothers,andoftheseaPrincehasmosttobeware.Forhecanneverstripamansobareofhispossessionsasnottoleavehimsomeweaponwherewithtoredresshiswrongs,noreversofardishonourhimastoquellthestubbornspiritwhichpromptsrevenge.Ofalldishonoursthosedonetothewomenofahouseholdaretheworst;afterwhichcomesuchpersonalindignitiesasnervedthearmofPausaniasagainstPhilipofMacedon,andofmanyanotheragainstotherprinces;and,inourowndays,itwasnootherreasonthatmovedGiulioBelantitoconspireagainstPandolfo,lordofSiena,thanthatPandolfo,whohadgivenhimhisdaughtertowife,afterwardstookherfromhim,aspresentlyshallbetold.ChiefamongthecauseswhichledthePazzitoconspireagainsttheMedici,wasthelawpassedbythelatterdeprivingthemoftheinheritanceofGiovanniBonromei.

Anothermostpowerfulmotivetoconspireagainstaprinceisthedesiremenfeeltofreetheircountryfromausurper.ThisitwaswhichimpelledBrutusandCassiustoconspireagainstCæsar,andcountlessothersagainstsuchtyrantsasPhalaris,Dionysius,andthelike.Againstthishumournotyrantcanguard,exceptbylayingdownhistyranny;whichasnonewilldo,fewescapeanunhappyend.WhencetheversesofJuvenal:—

“Fewtyrantsdieapeacefuldeath,andfewThekingswhovisitProserpine’sdreadlord,Unscathedbywoundsandblood.”[12]

Great,asIhavesaidalready,arethedangerswhichmenruninconspiring;foratalltimestheyareinperil,whetherincontriving,inexecuting,orafterexecution.Andsinceinconspiracieseithermanyareengaged,oroneonly(foralthoughitcannotproperlybesaidofonemanthatheconspires,theremayexistinhimthefixedresolvetoputtheprincetodeath),itisonlythesolitaryplotterwhoescapesthefirstofthesethreestagesofdanger.Forherunsnoriskbeforeexecutinghisdesign,sinceasheimpartsittonone,thereisnonetobringittotheearoftheprince.Adeliberateresolvelikethismaybeconceivedbyapersoninanyrankoflife,highorlow,baseornoble,andwhetherornohebethefamiliarofhisprince.Foreveryonemust,atsometimeorother,haveleavetospeaktotheprince,andwhoeverhasthisleavehasopportunitytoaccomplishhisdesign.Pausanias,ofwhomwehavemadementionsooften,slewPhilipofMacedonashewalkedbetweenhissonandhisson–in–lawtothetemple,surroundedbyathousandarmedguards.Pausaniasindeedwasnoble,andknowntotheprince,butFerdinandofSpainwasstabbedintheneckbyapoorandmiserableSpaniard;andthoughthewoundwasnotmortal,itsufficedtoshowthatneithercouragenoropportunitywerewantingtothewould–be–assassin.ADervish,orTurkishpriest,drewhisscimitaronBajazet,fatheroftheSultannowreigning,andifhedidnotwoundhim,itwasfromnolackeitherofdaringorofopportunity.AndIbelievethattherearemanywhointheirmindsdesirethedeed,nopunishmentordangerattendingthemerewish,thoughtherebebutfewwhodaredoit.Forsincefewornonewhoventure,escapedeath,fewarewillingtogoforwardtocertaindestruction.

Buttopassfromthesesolitaryattemptstothoseinwhichseveralareengaged,Iaffirmittobeshownbyhistorythatallsuchplotshavebeencontrivedbymenofgreatstation,or

bythosewhohavebeenontermsofcloseintimacywiththeprince,sincenoothers,notbeingdownrightmadmen,wouldeverthinkofconspiring.Formenofhumblerank,andsuchasarenottheintimatesoftheirprince,areneitherfedbythehopesnorpossessedoftheopportunitiesessentialforsuchattempts.Because,inthefirstplace,menoflowdegreewillneverfindanytokeepfaithwiththem,nonebeingmovedtojoinintheirschemesbythoseexpectationswhichencouragementorungreatrisks;wherefore,sosoonastheirdesignhasbeenimpartedtotwoorthree,theyarebetrayedandruined.Or,assumingthemfortunateenoughtohavenotraitoroftheirnumber,theywillbesohamperedintheexecutionoftheirplotbythewantofeasyaccesstotheprince,thattheyaresuretoperishinthemereattempt.Forifevenmenofgreatposition,whohavereadyaccesstotheprince,succumbtothedifficultieswhichIshallpresentlynotice,thosedifficultiesmustbeinfinitelyincreasedinthecaseofmenwhoarewithouttheseadvantages.Andbecausewhenlifeandpropertyareatstakemenarenotutterlyreckless,onperceivingthemselvestobeweaktheygrowcautious,andthoughcursingthetyrantintheirhearts,arecontenttoendurehim,andtowaituntilsomeoneofhigherstationthanthey,comesforwardtoredresstheirwrongs.Sothatshouldweeverfindtheseweaklingsattemptinganything,wemaycommendtheircourageratherthantheirprudence.

Wesee,however,thatthegreatmajorityofconspiratorshavebeenpersonsofpositionandthefamiliarsoftheirprince,andthattheirplotshavebeenasoftentheconsequenceofexcessiveindulgenceasofexcessiveinjury;aswhenPerenniusconspiredagainstCommodus,PlautianusagainstSeverus,andSejanusagainstTiberius;allofwhomhadbeenraisedbytheirmasterstosuchwealth,honours,anddignities,thatnothingseemedwantingtotheirauthoritysavetheimperialname.Thattheymightnotlackthisalso,theyfelltoconspiringagainsttheirprince;butineveryinstancetheirconspiracieshadtheendwhichtheiringratitudedeserved.

Theonlyinstanceinrecenttimesofsuchattemptssucceeding,istheconspiracyofJacopoIV.d’AppianoagainstMesserPieroGambacorti,lordofPisa.ForJacopo,whohadbeenbredandbroughtupbyPiero,andloadedbyhimwithhonours,deprivedhimofhisState.Similartothis,inourowndays,wastheconspiracyofCoppolaagainstKingFerdinandofAragon.ForCoppolahadreachedsuchapitchofpowerthatheseemedtohimselftohaveeverythingbutsovereignty;inseekingtoobtainwhichhelosthislife;thoughifanyplotenteredintobyamanofgreatpositioncouldbeexpectedtosucceed,thiscertainlymight,beingcontrived,aswemaysay,byanotherking,andbyonewhohadtheamplestopportunitiesforitsaccomplishment.Butthatlustofpowerwhichblindsmentodangersdarkenedthemindsofthosetowhomtheexecutionoftheschemewascommitted;who,hadtheyonlyknownhowtoaddprudencetotheirvillainy,couldhardlyhavemissedtheiraim.

Theprince,therefore,whowouldguardhimselfagainstplots,oughtmoretofearthosementowhomhehasbeentooindulgent,thanthosetowhomhehasdonegreatwrongs.Forthelatterlackopportunitieswhichtheformerhaveinabundance;andthemovingcauseisequallystronginboth,lustofpowerbeingatleastasstrongapassionaslustofrevenge.Wherefore,aprinceshouldentrusthisfriendswithsomuchauthorityonlyasleavesacertainintervalbetweenhispositionandtheirs;thatbetweenthetwosomethingbestillleftthemtodesire.Otherwiseitwillbestrangeifhedonotfarelikethoseprinceswhohavebeennamedabove.

Buttoreturnfromthisdigression,Isay,thathavingshownittobenecessarythatconspiratorsshouldbemenofgreatstation,andsuchashavereadyaccesstotheprince,wehavenexttoconsiderwhathavebeentheresultsoftheirplots,andtotracethecauseswhichhavemadethemsucceedorfail.Now,asIhavesaidalready,wefindthatconspiraciesareattendedbydangeratthreestages:beforeduring,andaftertheirexecution;forwhichreasonveryfewofthemhavehadahappyissue;itbeingnexttoimpossibletosurmountallthesedifferentdangerssuccessfully.Andtobeginwiththosewhichareincurredbeforehand,andwhicharegraverthanalltherest,Isaythathemustbebothveryprudentandveryfortunatewho,whencontrivingaconspiracy,doesnotsufferhissecrettobediscovered.

Conspiraciesarediscoveredeitherbydisclosuresmade,orbyconjecture.Disclosuresaremadethroughthetreacheryorfollyofthosetowhomyoucommunicateyourdesign.Treacheryistobelookedfor,becauseyoucanimpartyourplansonlytosuchpersonsasyoubelievereadytofacedeathonyourbehalf,ortothosewhoarediscontentedwiththeprince.Ofmenwhomyoucantrustthusimplicitly,oneortwomaybefound;butwhenyouhavetoopenyourdesignstomany,theycannotallbeofthisnature;andtheirgoodwilltowardsyoumustbeextremeiftheyarenotdauntedbythedangerandbyfearofpunishment.Moreovermencommonlydeceivethemselvesinrespectofthelovewhichtheyimagineothersbearthem,norcaneverbesureofituntiltheyhaveputittotheproof.Buttomakeproofofitinamatterlikethisisveryperilous;andevenifyouhaveproveditalready,andfoundittrueinsomeotherdangeroustrial,youcannotassumethattherewillbethesamefidelityhere,sincethisfartranscendseveryotherkindofdanger.Again,ifyougaugeaman’sfidelitybyhisdiscontentwiththeprince,youmayeasilydeceiveyourself;forsosoonasyouhavetakenthisdiscontentedmanintoyourconfidence,youhavesuppliedhimwiththemeanswherebyhemaybecomecontented;sothateitherhishatredoftheprincemustbegreatindeed,oryourinfluenceoverhimextraordinary,ifitkeephimfaithful.Henceitcomesthatsomanyconspiracieshavebeendiscoveredandcrushedintheirearlieststage,andthatwhenthesecretispreservedamongmanyaccomplicesforanylengthoftime,itislookedonasamiracle;asinthecaseoftheconspiracyofPisoagainstNero,and,inourowndays,inthatofthePazziagainstLorenzoandGiulianode’Medici;whichlast,thoughmorethanfiftypersonswereprivytoit,wasnotdiscovereduntilitcametobecarriedout.

Conspiraciesaredisclosedthroughtheimprudenceofaconspiratorwhenhetalkssoindiscreetlythatsomeservant,orotherpersonnotintheplot,overhearshim;ashappenedwiththesonsofBrutus,who,whentreatingwiththeenvoysofTarquin,wereoverheardbyaslave,whobecametheiraccuser;orelsethroughyourownweaknessinimpartingyoursecrettosomewomanorboywhomyoulove,ortosomeothersuchlightperson;aswhenDymnus,whowasoneofthosewhoconspiredwithPhilotasagainstAlexandertheGreat,revealedtheplottoNicomachus,ayouthwhomheloved,whoatoncetoldCebalinus,andCebalinustheking.

OfdiscoveriesbyconjecturewehaveaninstanceintheconspiracyofPisoagainstNero;forScaevinus,oneoftheconspirators,thedaybeforehewastokillNero,madehiswill,liberatedallhisslavesandgavethemmoney,andbadeMilichus,hisfreedman,sharpenhisoldrustydagger,andhavebandagesreadyforbindingupwounds.FromallwhichpreparationsMilichusconjecturingwhatworkwasinhand,accusedScaevinusbefore

Nero;whereuponScaevinuswasarrested,andwithhimNatalis,anotheroftheconspirators,whothedaybeforehadbeenseentospeakwithhimforalongtimeinprivate;andwhenthetwodifferedintheiraccountofwhatthenpassedbetweenthem,theywereputtothetortureandforcedtoconfessthetruth.Inthiswaytheconspiracywasbroughttolight,totheruinofallconcerned.

Againstthesecausesofthediscoveryofconspiraciesitisimpossiblesotoguardasthateitherthroughtreachery,wantofcaution,orlevity,thesecretshallnotbefoundout,whenevermorethanthreeorfourpersonsareprivytoit.Andwhenevermorethanoneconspiratorisarrested,theplotiscertaintobedetected,becausenotwopersonscanperfectlyagreeinafalseaccountofwhathaspassedbetweenthem.Ifonlyonebetaken,shouldhebeamanofresolutecourage,hemayrefusetoimplicatehiscomrades;buttheyontheirpartmusthavenolesscourage,tostayquietwheretheyare,andnotbetraythemselvesbyflight;forifcouragebeabsentanywhere,whetherinhimwhoistakenorinthosestillatlarge,theconspiracyisrevealed.AndwhatisrelatedbyTitusLiviusashavinghappenedintheconspiracyagainstHieronymus,tyrantofSyracuse,ismostextraordinary,namely,thatonthecaptureofoneoftheconspirators,namedTheodorus,he,withgreatfortitude,withheldthenamesofallhisaccomplices,andaccusedfriendsofthetyrant;whilehiscompanions,ontheirpart,trustedsocompletelyinhiscourage,thatnotoneofthemquittedSyracuseorshowedanysignoffear.

Allthesedangers,therefore,whichattendthecontrivanceofaplot,mustbepassedthroughbeforeyoucometoitsexecution;orifyouwouldescapethem,youmustobservethefollowingprecautions:Yourfirstandsurest,nay,tosaytruth,youronlysafeguard,istoleaveyouraccomplicesnotimetoaccuseyou;forwhichreasonyoumustimparttheaffairtothem,onlyatthemomentwhenyoumeanittobecarriedout,andnotbefore.Thosewhohavefollowedthiscoursehavewhollyescapedthepreliminarydangersofconspiracies,and,generallyspeaking,theothersalso;indeed,Imaysaythattheyhaveallsucceeded,andthatitisopentoeveryprudentmantoactastheydid.Itwillbeenoughtogivetwoinstancesofplotseffectedinthisway.Nelematus,unabletoendurethetyrannyofAristotimus,despotofEpirus,assemblingmanyofhisfriendsandkinsmeninhishouse,exhortedthemtofreetheircountry;andwhensomeofthemaskedfortimetoconsiderandmaturetheirplans,hebadehisslavesclosethedoors,andtoldthoseassembledthatunlesstheysworetogoatonceanddoashedirectedhewouldmakethemovertoAristotimusasprisoners.Alarmedbyhisthreats,theyboundthemselvesbyasolemnoath,andgoingforthatonceandwithoutdelay,successfullycarriedouthisbidding.AcertainMagushavingfraudulentlyusurpedthethroneofPersia;Ortanes,agrandeeofthatrealm,discoveringthefraud,disclosedittosixothersofthechiefnobility,tellingthemthatitbehovedthemtofreethekingdomfromthetyrannyofthisimpostor.Andwhensomeamongthemaskedfortime,Darius,whowasoneofthesixsummonedbyOrtanes,stoodupandsaid,“Eitherwegoatoncetodothisdeed,orIgototheMagustoaccuseyouall.”Whereupon,allrisingtogether,withouttimegiventoanytochangehismind,theywentforthandsucceededineffectingtheirend.NotunliketheseinstanceswastheplantakenbytheEtolianstoridthemselvesofNabis,theSpartantyrant,towhom,underpretenceofsuccouringhim,theysentAlasamenes,theirfellow–citizen,withtwohundredfootsoldiersandthirtyhorsemen.FortheyimpartedtheirrealdesigntoAlasamenesonly,chargingtherest,underpainofexile,toobeyhiminwhateverhe

commanded.AlasamenesrepairedtoSparta,andneverdivulgedhiscommissiontillthetimecameforexecutingit;andsosucceededinputtingNabistodeath.

Itwas,therefore,bytheprecautionstheyobserved,thatthepersonsofwhomIhavejustnowspokenescapedallthoseperilsthatattendthecontrivanceofconspiracies;andanyfollowingtheirexamplemayexpectthelikegoodfortune.AndthatallmaylearntodoastheydidIshallnoticethecaseofPiso,ofwhichmentionhasbeforebeenmade.Byreasonofhisrank,hisreputation,andtheintimatetermsonwhichhelivedwithNero,whotrustedhimwithoutreserve,andwouldoftencometohisgardentosupwithhim,Pisowasabletogainthefriendshipofmanypersonsofspiritandcourage,andwellfittedineverywaytotakepartinhisplotagainsttheemperor,which,underthesecircumstances,mighteasilyhavebeencarriedout.ForwhenNerocametohisgarden,Pisocouldreadilyhavecommunicatedhisdesigntothosefriendsofhis,andwithsuitablewordshaveencouragedthemtodowhat,infact,theywouldnothavehadtimetowithdrawfrom,andwascertaintosucceed.Andwerewetoexamineallsimilarattempts,itwouldbeseenthattherearefewwhichmightnothavebeeneffectedinthemannershown.Butsincemostmenareveryignorantofpracticalaffairs,theycommitthegravestblunders,especiallyinmatterswhichlie,asthisdoes,alittlewayoutofthebeatentrack.

Wherefore,thecontriverofaplotoughtnever,ifhecanhelpit,tocommunicatehisdesignuntilthemomentwhenitistobeexecuted;orifhemustcommunicateit,thentosomeonemanonly,withwhomhehaslongbeenintimate,andwhomheknowstobemovedbythesamefeelingsashimself.Tofindonesuchpersonisfareasierthantofindseveral,and,atthesametime,involveslessrisk;forthoughthisonemanplayyoufalse,youarenotleftaltogetherwithoutresource,asyouarewhenyouraccomplicesarenumerous.ForIhavehearditshrewdlysaidthattoonemanyoumayimpartanything,since,unlessyouhavebeenledtocommityourselfbywriting,yourdenialwillgoasfarashisassertion.Shunwriting,therefore,asyouwouldarock,forthereisnothingsodamningasaletterunderyourownhand.

Plautianus,desiringtoprocurethedeathsoftheEmperorSeverusandhissonCaracalla,intrustedthebusinesstothetribuneSaturninus,who,beingmoredisposedtobetraythanobeyPlautianus,butatthesametimeafraidthat,ifitcametolayingacharge,Plautianusmightbebelievedsoonerthanhe,askedhimforawrittenauthority,thathiscommissionmightbecredited.Blindedbyambition,Plautianuscomplied,andforthwithwasaccusedbySaturninusandfoundguilty;whereas,butforthatwrittenwarrant,togetherwithothercorroboratingproofs,hemusthaveescapedbyhisbolddenialofthecharge.Againstthetestimonyofasinglewitness,youhavethussomedefence,unlessconvictedbyyourownhandwriting,orbyothercircumstantialproofagainstwhichyoumustguard.Awoman,namedEpicharis,whohadformerlybeenamistressofNero,wasprivytoPiso’sconspiracy,andthinkingitmightbeusefultohavethehelpofacertaincaptainoftriremeswhomNerohadamonghisbody–guards,sheacquaintedhimwiththeplot,butnotwiththenamesoftheplotters.Thisfellow,turningtraitor,andaccusingEpicharistoNero,sostoutlydidshedenythecharge,thatNero,confoundedbyhereffrontery,lethergo.

Inimpartingaplottoasinglepersonthereare,therefore,tworisks:one,thathemaycomeforwardofhisownaccordtoaccuseyou;theother,thatifarrestedonsuspicion,oronsomeproofofhisguilt,hemay,onbeingconvicted,inthehopetoescapepunishment,

betrayyou.Butinneitherofthesedangersareyouleftwithoutadefence;sinceyoumaymeettheonebyascribingthechargetothemaliceofyouraccuser,andtheotherbyallegingthatthewitnesshisbeenforcedbytorturetosaywhatisuntrue.Thewisestcourse,however,istoimpartyourdesigntonone,buttoactlikethosewhohavebeenmentionedabove;orifyouimpartit,thentooneonly:foralthougheveninthiscoursetherebeacertaindegreeofdanger,itisfarlessthanwhenmanyareadmittedtoyourconfidence.

Acasenearlyresemblingthatjustnownoticed,iswhereanemergency,sourgentastoleaveyounotimetoprovideotherwiseforyoursafety,constrainsyoutodotoaprincewhatyouseehimmindedtodotoyou.Anecessityofthissortleadsalmostalwaystotheenddesired,astwoinstancesmaysufficetoshow.AmongtheclosestfriendsandintimatesoftheEmperorCommodus,weretwocaptainsofthepretorianguards,LetusandElectus,whileamongthemostfavouredofhisdistresseswasacertainMartia.Butbecausethesethreeoftenreprovedhimforhismannerofliving,asdisgracefultohimselfandtohisstation,heresolvedtoridhimselfofthem;andsowrotetheirnames,alongwiththoseofcertainotherswhomhemeantshouldbeputtodeaththenextnight,inalistwhichheplacedunderthepillowofhisbed.Butonhisgoingtobathe,aboy,whowasafavouriteofhis,whileplayingabouthisroomandonhisbed,foundthelist,andcomingoutofthechamberwithitinhishand,wasmetbyMartia,whotookitfromhim,andonreadingitandfindingwhatitcontained,sentforLetusandElectus.Andallthreerecognizingthedangerinwhichtheystood,resolvedtobebeforehandwiththetyrant,andlosingnotime,murderedhimthatverynight.

TheEmperorCaracalla,beingwithhisarmiesinMesopotamia,hadwithhimMacrinus,whowasmoreofastatesmanthanasoldier,ashisprefect.Butbecauseprinceswhoarenotthemselvesgoodarealwaysafraidlestotherstreatthemastheydeserve,CaracallawrotetohisfriendMaternianusinRometolearnfromtheastrologerswhetheranymanhadambitiousdesignsupontheempire,andtosendhimword.Maternianus,accordingly,wrotebackthatsuchdesignswereentertainedbyMacrinus.Butthisletter,ereitreachedtheemperor,fellintothehandsofMacrinus,who,seeingwhenhereaditthathemusteitherputCaracallatodeathbeforefurtherlettersarrivedfromRome,orelsediehimself,committedthebusinesstoacenturion,namedMartialis,whomhetrusted,andwhosebrotherhadbeenslainbyCaracallaafewdaysbefore,whosucceededinkillingtheemperor.

Wesee,therefore,thatanurgencywhichleavesnoroomfordelayhasalmostthesameresultsasthemethodalreadynoticedasfollowedbyNelematusofEpirus.Wesee,too,whatIremarkedalmostattheoutsetofthisDiscourse,thatthethreatsofprincesexposethemtogreaterdangerthanthewrongstheyactuallyinflict,andleadtomoreactiveconspiracies:and,therefore,thataprinceshouldbecarefulnottothreaten;sincemenareeithertobetreatedkindlyorelsegotridof,butneverbroughttosuchapassthattheyhavetochoosebetweenslayingandbeingslain.

Astothedangersattendingtheexecutionofplots,theseresulteitherfromsomechangemadeintheplan,orfromafailureincourageonthepartofhimwhoistocarryitout;orelsefromsomemistakehefallsintothroughwantofforesight,orfromhisnotgivingtheaffairitsfinishingstroke,aswhensomeareleftalivewhomitwasmeanttoputtodeath.

Now,nothingcausessomuchdisturbanceandhindranceinhumanaffairs,astobeforced,atamoment’snoticeandwithouttimeallowedforreflection,tovaryyourplanofactionandadoptadifferentonefromthatfixedonatthefirst.Andifsuchchangescauseconfusionanywhere,itisinmattersappertainingtowar,andinenterprisesofthekindwearenowspeakingof;forinsuchaffairsasthese,thereisnothingsoessentialasthatmenbepreparedtodotheexactthingintrustedtothem.Butwhenmenhaveformanydaystogetherturnedtheirwholethoughtstodoingathinginacertainwayandinacertainorder,andthewayandorderaresuddenlyaltered,itisimpossiblebutthattheyshouldbedisconcertedandthewholeschemeruined.Forwhichreason,itisfarbettertodoeverythinginaccordancewiththepreconcertedplan,thoughitbeseentobeattendedwithsomedisadvantages,than,inordertoescapethese,toinvolveyourselfinaninfinityofdangers.Andthiswillhappenwhenyoudepartfromyouroriginaldesignwithouttimegiventoformanewone.Forwhentimeisgivenyoumaymanageasyouplease.

TheconspiracyofthePazziagainstLorenzoandGiulianode’Mediciiswellknown.TheschemeagreedonwastogiveabanquettotheCardinalS.Giorgio,atwhichthebrothersshouldbeputtodeath.Toeachoftheconspiratorsapartwasassigned:toonethemurder,toanothertheseizureofthepalace,whileathirdwastoridethroughthestreetsandcallonthepeopletofreethemselves.ButitsochancedthatatatimewhenthePazzi,theMedici,andtheCardinalwereallassembledinthecathedralchurchofFlorencetohearHighMass,itbecameknownthatGiulianowouldnotbepresentatthebanquet;whereupontheconspirators,layingtheirheadstogether,resolvedtodoinchurchwhattheyweretohavedoneelsewhere.This,however,derangedthewholescheme.ForGiovambattistaofMontesecco,wouldhavenohandinthemurderifitwastobedoneinachurch;andthewholedistributionofpartshadinconsequencetobechanged;when,asthosetowhomthenewpartswereassignedhadnotimeallowedthemtonervetheirmindstotheirnewtasks,theymanagedmatterssobadlythattheywereoverpoweredintheirattempt.

Couragefailsaconspiratoreitherfromhisownpoornessofspirit,orfromhisbeingovercomebysomefeelingofreverence.Forsuchmajestyandaweattendthepersonofaprince,thatitmaywellhappenthathesoftensordismayshisexecutioners.WhenCaiusMariuswastakenbythepeopleofMinturnum,theslavesentintoslayhim,overawedbythebearingoftheman,andbythememorieswhichhisnamecalledup,becameunnerved,andpowerlesstoperformhisoffice.Andifthisinfluencewasexercisedbyonewhowasaprisoner,andinchains,andoverwhelmedbyadversefortune,howmuchmoremustreverencebeinspiredbyaprincewhoisfreeanduncontrolled,surroundedbyhisretinueandbyallthepompandsplendourofhisstation;whosedignityconfounds,andwhosegraciousnessconciliates.

CertainpersonsconspiringagainstSitalces,kingofThrace,fixedadayforhismurder,andassembledattheplaceappointed,whitherthekinghadalreadycome.Yetnoneofthemraisedahandtoharmhim,andalldepartedwithoutattemptinganythingagainsthimorknowingwhytheyrefrained;eachblamingtheothers.Andmorethanoncethesamefollywasrepeated,untiltheplotgettingwind,theyweretakenandpunishedforwhattheymighthavedone,yetdurstnotdo.

TwobrothersofAlfonso,DukeofFerrara,conspiredagainsthim,employingastheirtool

acertainpriestnamedGiennes,asinging–manintheserviceoftheDuke.He,attheirrequest,repeatedlybroughttheDukeintotheircompany,sothattheyhadfullopportunitytomakeawaywithhim.Yetneitherofthemeverventuredtostriketheblow;tillatlast,theirschemebeingdiscovered,theypaidthepenaltyoftheircombinedcowardiceandtemerity.Suchirresolutioncanonlyhavearisenfromtheirbeingoverawedbythemajestyoftheprince,ortouchedbyhisgraciousness.

Intheexecutionofconspiracies,therefore,errorsandmishapsarisefromafailureofprudenceorcouragetowhichallaresubject,when,losingself–control,theyareledintheirbewildermenttodoandsaywhattheyoughtnot.Thatmenarethusconfounded,andthrownofftheirbalance,couldnotbebettershownthaninthewordsofTitusLivius,wherehedescribesthebehaviourofAlasamenestheEtolian,atthetimewhenheresolvedonthedeathofNabistheSpartan,ofwhomIhavespokenbefore.Forwhenthetimetoactcame,andhehaddisclosedtohisfollowerswhattheyhadtodo,Liviusrepresentshimas“collectinghisthoughtswhichhadgrownconfusedbydwellingonsodesperateanenterprise.”Foritisimpossibleforanyone,thoughofthemoststeadfasttemperandusedtothesightofdeathandtohandledeadlyweapons,nottobeperturbedatsuchamoment.Forwhichreasonweshouldonsuchoccasionschooseforourtoolsthosewhohavehadexperienceinsimilaraffairs,andtrustnoothersthoughreputedofthetruestcourage.Forinthesegraveundertakings,noonewhoiswithoutsuchexperience,howeverboldandresolute,istobetrusted.

TheconfusionofwhichIspeakmayeithercauseyoutodropyourweaponfromyourhand,ortousewordswhichwillhavethesameresults.QuintianusbeingcommandedbyLucilla,sisterofCommodus,toslayhim,layinwaitforhimattheentranceoftheamphitheatre,andrushinguponhimwithadrawndagger,criedout,“Thesenatesendsyouthis;”whichwordscausedhimtobeseizedbeforehisblowdescended.InlikemannerMesserAntonioofVolterra,whoaswehaveelsewhereseenwastoldofftokillLorenzode’Medici,exclaimedasheapproachedhim,“Ahtraitor!”andthisexclamationprovedthesalvationofLorenzoandtheruinofthatconspiracy.

Forthereasonsnowgiven,aconspiracyagainstasinglerulermayreadilybreakdowninitsexecution;butaconspiracyagainsttworulersisnotonlydifficult,butsohazardousthatitssuccessisalmosthopeless.Fortoeffectlikeactions,atthesametime,indifferentplaces,iswell–nighimpossible;norcantheybeeffectedatdifferenttimes,ifyouwouldnothaveonecounteractanother.Sothatifconspiracyagainstasinglerulerbeimprudentanddangerous,toconspireagainsttwo,isinthelastdegreefool–hardyanddesperate.AndwereitnotfortherespectinwhichIholdthehistorian,IcouldnotcreditaspossiblewhatHerodianrelatesofPlautianus,namely,thathecommittedtothecenturionSaturninusthetaskofslayingsingle–handedbothSeverusandCaracalla,theydwellingindifferentplaces;forthethingissoopposedtoreasonthatonnootherauthoritycouldIbeinducedtoacceptitastrue.

CertainyoungAtheniansconspiredagainstDioclesandHippias,tyrantsofAthens.Dioclestheyslew;butHippias,makinghisescape,avengedhim.ChionandLeonidasofHeraclea,disciplesofPlato,conspiredagainstthedespotsClearchusandSatirus.Clearchusfell,butSatirussurvivedandavengedhim.ThePazzi,ofwhomwehavespokensooften,succeededinmurderingGiulianoonly.Fromsuchconspiracies,therefore,asare

directedagainstmoreheadsthanone,allshouldabstain;fornogoodistobegotfromthem,whetherforourselves,forourcountry,orforanyoneelse.Onthecontrary,whenthoseconspiredagainstescape,theybecomeharsherandmoreunsufferablethanbefore,as,intheexamplesgiven,Florence,Athens,andHeracleahadcausetoknow.TrueitisthattheconspiracycontrivedbyPelopidasfortheliberationofhiscountry,hadtoencountereveryconceivablehindrance,andyethadthehappiestend.ForPelopidashadtodeal,notwithtwotyrantsonly,butwithten;andsofarfromhavingtheirconfidence,couldnot,beinganoutlaw,evenapproachthem.AndyethesucceededincomingtoThebes,inputtingthetyrantstodeath,andinfreeinghiscountry.Butwhateverhedidwasdonewiththeaidofoneofthecounsellorsofthetyrants,acertainCharon,throughwhomhehadallfacilitiesforexecutinghisdesign.Letnone,however,takethiscaseasapattern;forthatitwasintruthadesperateattempt,anditssuccessamarvel,wasandistheopinionofallhistorians,whospeakofitasathingaltogetherextraordinaryandunexampled.

Theexecutionofaplotmaybefrustratedbysomegroundlessalarmorunforeseenmischanceoccurringattheverymomentwhentheschemeistobecarriedout.OnthemorningonwhichBrutusandhisconfederatesweretoslayCæsar,itsohappenedthatCæsartalkedforagreatwhilewithCneusPompiliusLenas,oneoftheconspirators;whichsomeoftheothersobserving,wereinterrorthatPompiliuswasdivulgingtheconspiracytoCæsar;whoselifetheywouldthereforehaveattemptedthenandthere,withoutwaitinghisarrivalinthesenatehouse,hadtheynotbeenreassuredbyseeingthatwhentheconferenceendedheshowednosignofunusualemotion.Falsealarmsofthissortaretobetakenintoaccountandallowedfor,allthemorethattheyareeasilyraised.Forhewhohasnotaclearconscienceisapttoassumethatothersarespeakingofhim.Awordusedwithawhollydifferentpurpose,maythrowhismindoffitsbalanceandleadhimtofancythatreferenceisintendedtothematterheisengagedon,andcausehimeithertobetraytheconspiracybyflight,ortoderangeitsexecutionbyanticipatingthetimefixed.Andthemorethereareprivytotheconspiracy,thelikelieristhistohappen.

Astothemischanceswhichmaybefall,sincetheseareunforeseen,theycanonlybeinstancedbyexampleswhichmaymakemenmorecautious.GiulioBelantiofSiena,ofwhomIhavespokenbefore,fromthehateheborePandolfoPetrucci,whohadgivenhimhisdaughtertowifeandafterwardstakenherfromhim,resolvedtomurderhim,andthuschosehistime.AlmosteverydayPandolfowenttovisitasickkinsman,passingthehouseofGiulioontheway,who,remarkingthis,tookmeasurestohavehisaccomplicesreadyinhishousetokillPandolfoashepassed.Wherefore,placingtherestarmedwithinthedoorway,onehestationedatawindowtogivethesignalofPandolfo’sapproach.Itsohappenedhowever,thatashecamenighthehouse,andafterthelook–outhadgiventhesignal,Pandolfofellinwithafriendwhostoppedhimtoconverse;whensomeofthosewithhim,goingoninadvance,sawandheardthegleamandclashofweapons,andsodiscoveredtheambuscade;wherebyPandolfowassaved,whileGiuliowithhiscompanionshadtoflyfromSiena.Thisplotaccordinglywasmarred,andGiulio’sschemesbaulked,inconsequenceofachancemeeting.Againstsuchaccidents,sincetheyareoutofthecommoncourseofthings,noprovisioncanbemade.Stillitisverynecessarytotakeintoaccountallthatmayhappen,anddevisewhatremediesyoucan.

Itnowonlyremainsforustoconsiderthosedangerswhichfollowaftertheexecutionofaplot.Theseinfactresolvethemselvesintoone,namely,thatsomeshouldsurvivewhowill

avengethedeathofthemurderedprince.Thepartofavengerislikelytobeassumedbyason,abrother,orotherkinsmanofthedeceased,whointheordinarycourseofeventsmighthavelookedtosucceedtotheprincedom.Andsuchpersonsaresufferedtolive,eitherfrominadvertence,orfromsomeofthecausesnotedalready,aswhenGiovann’AndreaofLampognano,withthehelpofhiscompanions,puttodeaththeDukeofMilan.ForthesonandtwobrothersoftheDuke,whosurvivedhim,wereabletoavengehisdeath.Incaseslikethis,indeed,theconspiratorsmaybeheldexcused,sincethereisnothingtheycandotohelpthemselves.Butwhenfromcarelessnessandwantofduecautionsomeoneisallowedtolivewhosedeathoughttohavebeensecured,thereisnoexcuse.Certainconspirators,aftermurderingthelord,CountGirolamoofForli,madeprisonersofhiswifeandofhischildrenwhowerestillveryyoung.Bythinkingtheycouldnotbesafeunlesstheygotpossessionofthecitadel,whichthegovernorrefusedtosurrender,theyobtainedapromisefromMadonnaCaterina,forsotheCountesswasnamed,thatontheirpermittinghertoenterthecitadelshewouldcauseittobegivenuptothem,herchildreninthemeantimeremainingwiththemashostages.Onwhichundertakingtheysufferedhertoenterthecitadel.Butnosoonerhadshegotinsidethanshefelltoupbraidthemfromthewallswiththemurderofherhusband,andtothreatenthemwitheverykindofvengeance;andtoshowthemhowlittlestoreshesetuponherchildren,toldthemscoffinglythatsheknewhowotherscouldbegot.Intheend,therebelshavingnoleadertoadvisethem,andperceivingtoolatetheerrorintowhichtheyhadbeenbetrayed,hadtopaythepenaltyoftheirrashnessbyperpetualbanishment.

Butofallthedangerswhichmayfollowontheexecutionofaplot,noneissomuchorsojustlytobefearedasthatthepeopleshouldbewellaffectedtotheprincewhomyouhaveputtodeath.Foragainstthisdangerconspiratorshavenoresourcewhichcanensuretheirsafety.OfthiswehaveexampleinthecaseofCæsar,whoashehadtheloveoftheRomanpeoplewasbythemavenged;fortheyitwaswho,bydrivingouttheconspiratorsfromRome,werethecausethatallofthem,atdifferenttimesandindifferentplaces,cametoviolentends.

Conspiraciesagainsttheircountryarelessdangerforthosewhotakepartinthemthanconspiraciesagainstprinces;sincethereislessriskbeforehand,andthoughtherebethesamedangerintheirexecution,thereisnoneafterwards.Beforehand,therisksarefew,becauseacitizenmayusemeansforobtainingpowerwithoutbetrayinghiswishesordesignstoany;andunlesshiscoursebearrested,hisdesignsarelikelyenoughtosucceed;nay,thoughlawsbepassedtorestrainhim,hemaystrikeoutanewpath.Thisistobeunderstoodofacommonwealthwhichhastosomedegreebecomecorrupted;forinonewhereinthereisnotaintofcorruption,therebeingnosoilinwhichevilseedcangrow,suchdesignswillneversuggestthemselvestoanycitizen.

Inacommonwealth,therefore,acitizenmaybymanymeansandinmanywaysaspiretotheprincedomwithoutriskingdestruction,bothbecauserepublicsareslowerthanprincesaretotakealarm,arelesssuspiciousandconsequentlylesscautious,andbecausetheylookwithgreaterreverenceupontheirgreatcitizens,whoareinthiswayrenderedbolderandmorerecklessinattackingthem.AnyonewhohasreadSallust’saccountoftheconspiracyofCatiline,mustrememberhow,whenthatconspiracywasdiscovered,CatilinenotonlyremainedinRome,butevenmadehisappearanceinthesenatehouse,wherehewassufferedtoaddressthesenateinthemostinsultingterms,—soscrupulous

wasthatcityinprotectingthelibertyofallitscitizens.Nay,evenafterhehadleftRomeandplacedhimselfattheheadofhisarmy,Lentulusandhisotheraccompliceswouldnothavebeenimprisoned,hadnotlettersbeenfounduponthemclearlyestablishingtheirguilt.Hanno,theforemostcitizenofCarthage,aspiringtoabsolutepower,ontheoccasionofthemarriageofadaughtercontrivedaplotforadministeringpoisontothewholesenateandsomakinghimselfprince.Theschemebeingdiscovered,thesenatetooknostepsagainsthimbeyondpassingalawtolimittheexpenseofbanquetsandmarriageceremonies.Sogreatwastherespecttheypaidtohisquality.

True,theexecutionofaplotagainstyourcountryisattendedwithgreaterdifficultyanddanger,sinceitseldomhappensthat,inconspiringagainstsomany,yourownresourcesaresufficientbythemselves;foritisnoteveryonewho,likeCæsar,Agathocles,orCleomenes,isattheheadofanarmy,soastobeableatastroke,andbyopenforcetomakehimselfmasterofhiscountry.Tosuchasthese,doubtless,thepathissafeandeasyenough;butotherswhohavenotsuchanassembledforcereadyattheircommand,musteffecttheirendseitherbystratagemandfraud,orwiththehelpofforeigntroops.OfsuchstratagemsandfraudswehaveaninstanceinthecaseofPisistratustheAthenian,whoafterdefeatingtheMegariansandtherebygainingthefavourofhisfellow–citizens,showedhimselftothemonemorningcoveredwithwoundsandblood,declaringthathehadbeenthusoutragedthroughthejealousyofthenobles,andaskingthathemighthaveanarmedguardassignedforhisprotection.Withtheauthoritywhichthislenthim,heeasilyrosetosuchapitchofpowerastobecometyrantofAthens.InlikemannerPandolfoPetrucci,onhisreturnwiththeotherexilestoSiena,wasappointedthecommandofthepublicguard,asamereofficeofroutinewhichothershaddeclined.Verysoon,however,thisarmedforcegavehimsomuchimportancethathebecamethesupremeruleroftheState.Andmanyothershavefollowedotherplansandmethods,andinthecourseoftime,andwithoutincurringdanger,haveachievedtheiraim.

Conspiratorsagainsttheircountry,whethertrustingtotheirownforcesortoforeignaid,havehadmoreorlesssuccessinproportionastheyhavebeenfavouredbyFortune.Catiline,ofwhomwespokejustnow,wasoverthrown.Hanno,whohasalsobeenmentioned,failingtoaccomplishhisobjectbypoison,armedhispartisanstothenumberofmanythousands;butbothheandtheycametoanillend.Ontheotherhand,certaincitizensofThebesconspiringtobecomeitstyrants,summonedaSpartanarmytotheirassistance,andusurpedtheabsolutecontrolofthecity.Inshort,ifweexaminealltheconspiracieswhichmenhaveengagedinagainsttheircountry,weshallfindthatfewornonehavebeenquelledintheirinception,butthatallhaveeithersucceeded,orhavebrokendownintheirexecution.Onceexecuted,theyentailnofurtherrisksbeyondthoseimpliedinthenatureofaprincedom.Forthemanwhobecomesatyrantincursallthenaturalandordinarydangersinwhichatyrannyinvolveshim,andhasnoremediesagainstthemsavethoseofwhichIhavealreadyspoken.

Thisisallthatoccurstometosayonthesubjectofconspiracies.IfIhavenoticedthosewhichhavebeencarriedoutwiththeswordratherthanthosewhereinpoisonhasbeentheinstrument,itisbecause,generallyspeaking,themethodofproceedingisthesameinboth.Itistrue,nevertheless,thatconspiracieswhicharetobecarriedoutbypoisonare,byreasonoftheiruncertainty,attendedbygreaterdanger.Forsincefeweropportunitiesofferfortheirexecution,youmusthaveanunderstandingwithpersonswhocancommand

opportunities.Butitisdangeroustohavetodependonothers.Again,manycausesmayhinderapoisoneddraughtfromprovingmortal;aswhenthemurderersofCommodus,onhisvomitingthepoisongivenhim,hadtostranglehim.

Princes,then,havenoworseenemythanconspiracy,forwhenaconspiracyisformedagainstthem,iteithercarriesthemoff,ordiscreditsthem:since,ifitsucceeds,theydie;while,ifitbediscovered,andtheconspiratorsbeputtodeaththemselves,itwillalwaysbebelievedthatthewholeaffairhasbeentrumpedupbytheprincethathemightgluthisgreedandcrueltywiththegoodsandbloodofthosewhomhehasmadeawaywith.Letmenot,however,forgettowarntheprinceorcommonwealthagainstwhomaconspiracyisdirected,thatongettingwordofit,andbeforetakinganystepstopunishit,theyendeavour,asfarastheycan,toascertainitscharacter,andaftercarefullyweighingthestrengthoftheconspiratorswiththeirown,onfindingitpreponderate,neversuffertheirknowledgeoftheplottoappearuntiltheyarereadywithaforcesufficienttocrushit.Forotherwise,todisclosetheirknowledgewillonlygivethesignalfortheirdestruction.Theymuststrivethereforetoseemunconsciousofwhatisgoingon;forconspiratorswhoseethemselvesdetectedaredrivenforwardbynecessityandwillstickatnothing.OfthisprecautionwehaveanexampleinRomanhistory,whentheofficersofthetwolegions,who,ashasalreadybeenmentioned,wereleftbehindtodefendtheCapuansfromtheSamnites,conspiredtogetheragainsttheCapuans.ForonrumoursofthisconspiracyreachingRome,Rutiliusthenewconsulwaschargedtoseetoit;who,nottoexcitethesuspicionsoftheconspirators,publiclygaveoutthatbyorderofthesenatetheCapuanlegionswerecontinuedintheirstation.Theconspiratorsbelievingthis,andthinkingtheywouldhaveampletimetoexecutetheirplans,madenoefforttohastenmatters,butremainedattheirease,untiltheyfoundthattheconsulwasmovingoneofthetwolegionstoadistancefromtheother.Thisarousingtheirsuspicion,ledthemtodisclosetheirdesignsandendeavourtocarrythemout.

Now,wecouldhavenomoreinstructiveexamplethanthisinwhateverwaywelookatit.Foritshowshowslowmenaretomoveinthosematterswhereintimeseemsoflittleimportance,andhowactivetheybecomewhennecessityurgesthem.Norcanaprinceorcommonwealthdesiringfortheirownendstoretardtheexecutionofaconspiracy,useanymoreeffectualmeanstodoso,thanbyartfullyholdingouttotheconspiratorssomespecialopportunityaslikelysoontopresentitself;awaitingwhich,andbelievingtheyhavetimeandtospareforwhattheyhavetodo,theywillaffordthatprinceorcommonwealthalltheleisureneededtopreparefortheirpunishment.Whosoeverneglectstheseprecautionshastenshisowndestruction,ashappenedwiththeDukeofAthens,andwithGuglielmode’Pazzi.FortheDuke,whohadmadehimselftyrantofFlorence,onlearningthathewasbeingconspiredagainst,withoutfurtherinquiryintothematter,causedoneoftheconspiratorstobeseized;whereupontherestatoncearmedthemselvesanddeprivedhimofhisgovernment.Guglielmo,again,beingcommissaryintheValdiChianaintheyear1501,andlearningthataconspiracywasbeinghatchedinArezzototakethetownfromtheFlorentinesandgiveitovertotheVitelli,repairedthitherwithallhaste;andwithoutprovidinghimselfwiththenecessaryforcesorgivingathoughttothestrengthoftheconspirators,ontheadviceofthebishop,hisson,hadoneofthemarrested.Whichbecomingknowntotheothers,theyforthwithrushedtoarms,andtakingthetownfromtheFlorentines,madeGuglielmotheirprisoner.Where,however,conspiraciesare

weak,theymayandshouldbeputdownwithoutscrupleorhesitation.

Twomethods,somewhatopposedtooneanother,whichhaveoccasionallybeenfollowedindealingwithconspiracies,areinnowaytobecommended.OneofthesewasthatadoptedbytheDukeofAthens,ofwhomIhavejustnowspoken,whotohaveitthoughtthatheconfidedinthegoodwilloftheFlorentines,causedacertainmanwhogaveinformationofaplotagainsthim,tobeputtodeath.TheotherwasthatfollowedbyDiontheSyracusan,who,tosoundtheintentionsofonewhomhesuspected,arrangedwithCalippus,whomhetrusted,topretendtogetupaconspiracyagainsthim.Neitherofthesetyrantsreapedanyadvantagefromthecoursehefollowed.Fortheonediscouragedinformersandgavehearttothosewhoweredisposedtoconspire,theotherpreparedaneasyroadtohisowndeath,orratherwasprimemoverinaconspiracyagainsthimself.Astheeventshowed.ForCalippushavingfreeleavetoplotagainstDion,plottedtosucheffect,thathedeprivedhimatonceofhisStateandlife.

[11]Tac.Hist.iv.8.[12]AdgenerumCererissinecaedeetvulnerepauciDescenduntreges,etsiccamortetiranni.Juv.Sat.x.112.

CHAPTERVII

WhyItisThatChangesFromFreedomtoServitude,andFromServitudetoFreedom,AreSometimesMadeWithoutBloodshed,butatOtherTimes

ReekWithBlood

Sincewefindfromhistorythatinthecountlesschangeswhichhavebeenmadefromfreedomtoservitudeandfromservitudetofreedom,sometimesaninfinitemultitudehaveperished,whileatothersnotasoulhassuffered(aswhenRomemadeherchangefromkingstoconsuls,onwhichoccasionnonewasbanishedsaveTarquin,andnoharmwasdonetoanyother),itmayperhapsbeasked,howithappensthatoftheserevolutions,somehavebeenattendedbybloodshedandothersnot.

TheanswerItaketobethis.Thegovernmentwhichsufferschangeeitherhasorhasnothaditsbeginninginviolence.Andsincethegovernmentwhichhasitsbeginninginviolencemuststartbyinflictinginjuriesonmany,itmustneedshappenthatonitsdownfallthosewhowereinjuredwilldesiretoavengethemselves;fromwhichdesireforvengeancetheslaughteranddeathofmanywillresult.Butwhenagovernmentoriginateswith,andderivesitsauthorityfromthewholecommunity,thereisnoreasonwhythecommunity,ifitwithdrawthatauthority,shouldseektoinjureanyexcepttheprincefromwhomitwithdrawsit.NowthegovernmentofRomewasofthisnature,andtheexpulsionoftheTarquinstookplaceinthisway.OfalikecharacterwasthegovernmentoftheMediciinFlorence,and,accordingly,upontheiroverthrowintheyear1494,noinjurywasdonetoanysavethemselves.

Insuchcases,therefore,thechangesIspeakofdonotoccasionanyverygreatdanger.Butthechangeswroughtbymenwhohavewrongstorevenge,arealwaysofamostdangerouskind,andsuch,tosaytheleast,asmaywellcausedismayinthemindsofthosewhoreadofthem.ButsincehistoryaboundswithinstancesofsuchchangesIneedsaynomoreaboutthem.

CHAPTERVIII

ThatHeWhoWouldEffectChangesinaCommonwealth,MustGiveHeedtoItsCharacterandCondition

Ihavesaidbeforethatabadcitizencannotworkgravemischiefinacommonwealthwhichhasnotbecomecorrupted.Thisopinionisnotonlysupportedbytheargumentsalreadyadvanced,butisfurtherconfirmedbytheexamplesofSpuriusCassiusandManliusCapitolinus.ForSpurius,beingambitious,anddesiringtoobtainextraordinaryauthorityinRome,andtowinoverthepeoplebyloadingthemwithbenefits(as,forinstance,bysellingthemthoselandswhichtheRomanshadtakenfromtheHernici,)hisdesignswereseenthroughbythesenate,andlaidhimundersuchsuspicion,thatwheninharanguingthepeopleheofferedthemthemoneyrealizedbythesaleofthegrainbroughtfromSicilyatthepublicexpense,theywouldhavenoneofit,believingthatheoffereditasthepriceoftheirfreedom.Now,hadthepeoplebeencorrupted,theywouldnothaverefusedthisbribe,butwouldhaveopenedratherthanclosedthewaytothetyranny.

TheexampleofManliusisstillmorestriking.Forinhiscaseweseewhatexcellentgiftsbothofmindandbody,andwhatsplendidservicestohiscountrywereafterwardscancelledbythatshamefuleagernesstoreignwhichwefindbredinhimbyhisjealousyofthehonourspaidCamillus.Forsodarkeneddidhismindbecome,thatwithoutreflectingwhatweretheinstitutionstowhichRomewasaccustomed,ortestingthematerialhehadtoworkon,whenhewouldhaveseenthatitwasstillunfittobemouldedtoevilends,hesethimselftostiruptumultsagainstthesenateandagainstthelawsofhiscountry.

AndhereinwerecognizetheexcellenceofthiscityofRome,andofthematerialswhereofitwascomposed.Foralthoughthenobleswerewonttostandupstoutlyforoneanother,notoneofthemstirredtosuccourManlius,andnotoneofhiskinsfolkmadeanyeffortonhisbehalf,sothatalthoughitwascustomary,inthecaseofotheraccusedpersons,fortheirfriendstoputonblackandsordidraiment,withalltheotheroutwardsignsofgrief,inordertoexcitepityfortheaccused,nonewasseentodoanyofthesethingsforManlius.Eventhetribunesofthepeople,thoughconstantlyreadytopromotewhatevercoursesseemedtofavourthepopularcause,andthemorevehementlythemoretheyseemedtomakeagainstthenobles,inthisinstancesidedwiththenoblestoputdownthecommonenemy.Naytheverypeoplethemselves,keenlyalivetotheirowninterests,andwelldisposedtowardsanyattempttodamagethenobles,thoughtheyshowedManliusmanyproofsoftheirregard,nevertheless,whenhewascitedbythetribunestoappearbeforethemandsubmithiscausefortheirdecision,assumedthepartofjudgesandnotofdefenders,andwithoutscrupleorhesitationsentencedhimtodie.Wherefore,Ithink,thatthereisnoexampleinthewholeRomanhistorywhichservessowellasthistodemonstratethevirtuesofallranksinthatrepublic.Fornotamaninthewholecitybestirredhimselftoshieldacitizenendowedwitheverygreatquality,andwho,bothpubliclyandprivately,haddonesomuchthatdeservedpraise.Butinall,theloveofcountryoutweighedeveryotherthought,andalllookedlesstohispastdesertsthantothedangerswhichhispresentconductthreatened;fromwhichtorelievethemselvestheyput

himtodeath.“Such,”saysLivius,“wasthefateofamanworthyouradmirationhadhenotbeenborninafreeState.”

Andheretwopointsshouldbenoted.Thefirst,thatgloryistobesoughtbydifferentmethodsinacorruptcity,andinonewhichstillpreservesitsfreedom.Thesecond,whichhardlydiffersfromthefirst,thatintheiractions,andespeciallyinmattersofmoment,menmusthaveregardtotimesandcircumstancesandadaptthemselvesthereto.Forthosepersonswhofromanunwisechoice,orfromnaturalinclination,runcountertothetimeswillforthemostpartliveunhappily,andfindalltheyundertakeissueinfailure;whereasthosewhoaccommodatethemselvestothetimesarefortunateandsuccessful.Andfromthepassagecitedwemayplainlyinfer,thathadManliuslivedinthedaysofMariusandSylla,whenthebodyoftheStatehadbecomecorrupted,sothathecouldhaveimpresseditwiththestampofhisambition,hemighthavehadthesamesuccessastheyhad,andasthoseothershadwhoafterthemaspiredtoabsolutepower;and,conversely,thatifSyllaandMariushadlivedinthedaysofManlius,theymusthavebrokendownattheverybeginningoftheirattempts.

Foroneman,bymischievousartsandmeasures,mayeasilypreparethegroundfortheuniversalcorruptionofacity;butnoonemaninhislifetimecancarrythatcorruptionsofar,ashimselftoreaptheharvest;orgrantingthatoneman’slifemightbelongenoughforthispurpose,itwouldbeimpossibleforhim,havingregardtotheordinaryhabitsofmen,whogrowimpatientandcannotlongforegothegratificationoftheirdesires,towaituntilthecorruptionwascomplete.Moreover,mendeceivethemselvesinrespectoftheirownaffairs,andmostofallinrespectofthoseonwhichtheyaremostbent;sothateitherfromimpatienceorfromself–deception,theyrushuponundertakingsforwhichthetimeisnotripe,andsocometoanillend.Whereforetoobtainabsoluteauthorityinacommonwealthandtodestroyitsliberties,youmustfindthebodyoftheStatealreadycorrupted,andcorruptedbyagradualwastingcontinuedfromgenerationtogeneration;which,indeed,takesplacenecessarily,unless,ashasbeenalreadyexplained,theStatebeoftenreinforcedbygoodexamples,orbroughtbacktoitsfirstbeginningsbywiselaws.

Manlius,therefore,wouldhavebeenarareandrenownedmanhadhebeenborninacorruptcity;andfromhisexampleweseethatcitizensseekingtointroducechangesintheformoftheirgovernment,whetherinfavouroflibertyordespotism,oughttoconsiderwhatmaterialstheyhavetodealwith,andthenjudgeofthedifficultyoftheirtask.Foritisnolessarduousanddangeroustoattempttofreeapeopledisposedtoliveinservitude,thantoenslaveapeoplewhodesiretolivefree.

Andbecauseithasbeensaidabove,thatintheiractionsmenmusttakeintoaccountthecharacterofthetimesinwhichtheylive,andguidethemselvesaccordingly,IshalltreatthispointmorefullyinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERIX

ThattoEnjoyConstantGoodFortuneWeMustChangeWiththeTimes.

Ihaverepeatedlynotedthatthegoodorbadfortuneofmendependsonwhethertheirmethodsofactingaccordwiththecharacterofthetimes.Forweseethatinwhattheydosomemenactimpulsively,otherswarilyandwithcaution.Andbecause,frominabilitytopreservethejustmean,theyinbothofthesewaysoverstepthetruelimit,theycommitmistakesinonedirectionortheother.He,however,willmakefewestmistakes,andmayexpecttoprospermost,who,whilefollowingthecoursetowhichnatureinclineshim,finds,asIhavesaid,hismethodofactinginaccordancewiththetimesinwhichhelives.

AllknowthatinhiscommandoftheRomanarmies,FabiusMaximusdisplayedaprudenceandcautionverydifferentfromtheaudacityandhardihoodnaturaltohiscountrymen;anditwashisgoodfortunethathismethodssuitedwiththetimes.ForHannibalcomingintoItalyinalltheflushofyouthandrecentsuccess,havingalreadybytwodefeatsstrippedRomeofherbestsoldiersandfilledherwithdismay,nothingcouldhavebeenmorefortunateforthatrepublicthantofindageneralable,byhisdeliberatenessandcaution,tokeeptheenemyatbay.Nor,ontheotherhand,couldFabiushavefallenupontimesbettersuitedtothemethodswhichheused,andbywhichhecrownedhimselfwithglory.Thatheactedinaccordancewithhisnaturalbent,andnotfromareasonedchoice,wemaygatherfromthis,thatwhenScipio,tobringthewartoanend,proposedtopasswithhisarmyintoAfrica,Fabius,unabletodepartfromhischaracteristicmethodsandhabits,strenuouslyopposedhim;sothathaditrestedwithhim,HannibalmightneverhaveleftItaly.Forheperceivednotthatthetimeshadchanged,andthatwiththemitwasnecessarytochangethemethodsofprosecutingthewar.HadFabius,therefore,beenKingofRome,hemightwellhavecausedthewartoendunhappily,notknowinghowtoaccommodatehismethodstothechangeinthetimes.Asitwas,helivedinacommonwealthinwhichthereweremanycitizens,andmanydifferentdispositions;andwhichasitproducedaFabius,excellentatatimewhenitwasnecessarytoprotracthostilities,soalso,afterwardsgavebirthtoaScipio,atatimesuitedtobringthemtoasuccessfulclose.

Andhenceitcomesthatacommonwealthendureslonger,andhasamoresustainedgoodfortunethanaprincedom,becausefromthediversityinthecharactersofitscitizens,itcanadaptitselfbetterthanaprincecantothediversityoftimes.For,asIhavesaidbefore,amanaccustomedtofollowonemethod,willneveralterit;whenceitmustneedshappenthatwhentimeschangesoasnolongertoaccordwithhismethod,hewillberuined.PieroSoderini,ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken,wasguidedinallhisactionsbypatienceandgentleness,andheandhiscountryprosperedwhilethetimeswereinharmonywiththesemethods.But,afterwards,whenatimecamewhenitbehovedhimtohavedonewithpatienceandgentleness,heknewnothowtodropthem,andwasruinedtogetherwithhiscountry.PopeJuliusII.,throughoutthewholeofhispontificate,wasgovernedbyimpulseandpassion,andbecausethetimeswereinperfectaccord,allhisundertakingsprospered.Buthadothertimescomerequiringotherqualities,hecouldnothaveescapeddestruction,sincehecouldnothavechangedhismethodsnorhishabituallineofconduct.

Astowhysuchchangesareimpossible,tworeasonsmaybegiven.Oneisthatwecannotactinoppositiontothebentofournature.Theother,thatwhenamanhasbeenverysuccessfulwhilefollowingaparticularmethod,hecanneverbeconvincedthatitisforhisadvantagetotrysomeother.Andhenceitresultsthataman’sfortunesvary,becausetimeschangeandhedoesnotchangewiththem.So,too,withcommonwealths,which,aswehavealreadyshownatlength,areruinedfromnotalteringtheirinstitutionstosuitthetimes.Andcommonwealthsareslowertochangethanprincesare,changescostingthemmoreeffort;becauseoccasionsmustbewaitedforwhichshallstirthewholecommunity,anditisnotenoughthatasinglecitizenaltershismethodofacting.

ButsinceIhavemadementionofFabiusMaximuswhoworeoutHannibalbykeepinghimatbay,IthinkitopportunetoconsiderinthefollowingChapterwhetherageneralwhodesirestoengagehisenemyatallrisks,canbepreventedbythatenemyfromdoingso.

CHAPTERX

ThataCaptainCannotEscapeBattleWhenHisEnemyForcesItonHimatAllRisks.

”CneiusSulpitiuswhenappointeddictatoragainsttheGauls,beingunwillingtotemptFortunebyattackinganenemywhomdelayandadisadvantageouspositionwouldeverydayrenderweaker,protractedthewar.”

Whenamistakeismadeofasortthatallormostmenarelikelytofallinto,Ithinkitnotamisstomarkitagainandagainwithdisapproval.Wherefore,althoughIhavealreadyshownrepeatedlyhowinaffairsofmomenttheactionsofthemodernsconformnottothoseofantiquity,stillitseemstomenotsuperfluous,inthisplace,tosaythesamethingoncemore.Forifinanyparticularthemodernshavedeviatedfromthemethodsoftheancients,itisespeciallyintheirmethodsofwarfare,whereinnotoneofthoserulesformerlysomuchesteemedisnowattendedto.Andthisbecausebothprincesandcommonwealthshavedevolvedthechargeofsuchmattersuponothers,and,toescapedanger,havekeptalooffromallmilitaryservice;sothatalthoughoneoranotheroftheprincesofourtimesmayoccasionallybeseenpresentinpersonwithhisarmy,wearenotthereforetoexpectfromhimanyfurtherpraiseworthybehaviour.Forevenwheresuchpersonagestakepartinanywarlikeenterprise,theydosooutofostentationandfromnonoblermotive;thoughdoubtlessfromsometimesseeingtheirsoldiersfacetoface,andfromretainingtothemselvesthetitleofcommand,theyarelikelytomakefewerblundersthanwefindmadebyrepublics,andmostofallbytherepublicsofItaly,whichthoughaltogetherdependentuponothers,andthemselvesutterlyignorantofeverythingrelatingtowarfare,doyet,thattheymayfigureasthecommandersoftheirarmies,takeuponthemtodirecttheirmovements,andindoingsocommitcountlessmistakes;someofwhichhavebeenconsideredelsewherebutoneisofsuchimportanceastodeservenoticehere.

WhenthesesluggardprincesoreffeminaterepublicssendforthanyoftheirCaptains,itseemstothemthatthewisestinstructiontheycangivehimistochargehimonnoaccounttogivebattle,but,onthecontrary,todowhathecantoavoidfighting.WhereintheyimaginethemselvestoimitatetheprudenceofFabiusMaximus,whobyprotractingthewarwithHannibal,savedtheRomancommonwealth;notperceivingthatinmostinstancessuchadvicetoacaptainiseitheruselessorhurtful.Forthetruthofthematteris,thatacaptainwhowouldkeepthefield,cannotdeclinebattlewhenhisadversaryforcesitonhimatallhazards.Sothattheinstructiontoavoidbattleisbuttantamounttosaying,“Youshallengagewhenitpleasesyourenemy,andnotwhenitsuitsyourself.”Forifyouwouldkeepthefieldandyetavoidbattle,theonlysafecourseistointerposeadistanceofatleastfiftymilesbetweenyouandyourenemy,andafterwardstomaintainsovigilantalook–out,thatshouldheadvanceyouwillhavetimetomakeyourretreat.Anothermethodistoshutyourselfupinsometown.Butbothofthesemethodsareextremelydisadvantageous.Forbyfollowingtheformer,youleaveyourcountryapreytotheenemy,andavaliantprincewouldfarsoonerriskthechancesofbattlethanprolongawarinamannersodisastroustohissubjects;whilebyadoptingthelattermethod,andshutting

yourselfupinatownwithyourarmy,thereismanifestdangerofyourbeingbesieged,andpresentlyreducedbyfamineandforcedtosurrender.Whereforeitismostmischievoustoseektoavoidbattleineitherofthesetwoways.

Tointrenchyourselfinastrongposition,asFabiuswaswonttodo,isagoodmethodwhenyourarmyissoformidablethattheenemydarenotadvancetoattackyouinyourintrenchments;yetitcannottrulybesaidthatFabiusavoidedbattle,butratherthathesoughttogivebattlewherehecoulddosowithadvantage.ForhadHannibaldesiredtofight,Fabiuswouldhavewaitedforhimandfoughthim.ButHannibalneverdaredtoengagehimonhisownground.SothatanengagementwasavoidedasmuchbyHannibalasbyFabius,sinceifeitherhadbeenmindedtofightatallhazardstheotherwouldhavebeenconstrainedtotakeoneofthreecourses,thatistosay,oneorotherofthetwojustnowmentioned,orelsetoretreat.Thetruthofthisisconfirmedbynumberlessexamples,andmoreparticularlybywhathappenedinthewarwagedbytheRomansagainstPhilipofMacedon,thefatherofPerseus.ForPhilipbeinginvadedbytheRomans,resolvednottogivethembattle;andtoavoidbattle,soughtatfirsttodoasFabiushaddoneinItaly,postinghimselfonthesummitofahill,whereheintrenchedhimselfstrongly,thinkingthattheRomanswouldnotventuretoattackhimthere.Buttheyadvancingandattackinghiminhisintrenchments,drovehimfromhisposition;when,unabletomakefurtherresistance,hefledwiththegreaterpartofhisarmy,andwasonlysavedfromutterdestructionbythedifficultyoftheground,whichmadeitimpossiblefortheRomanstopursuehim.

Philip,therefore,whohadnomindtofight,encampingtooneartheRomans,wasforcedtofly;andlearningfromthisexperiencethattoescapefightingitwasnotenoughforhimtointrenchhimselfonahill,yetnotchoosingtoshuthimselfupinawalledtown,hewasconstrainedtotaketheotheralternativeofkeepingatadistanceofmanymilesfromtheRomanlegions.Accordingly,whentheRomansenteredoneprovince,hebetookhimselftoanother,andwhentheyleftaprovinceheenteredit.Butperceivingthatbyprotractingthewarinthisway,hisconditiongrewconstantlyworse,whilehissubjectssufferedgrievously,nowfromhisowntroops,atanothertimefromthoseoftheenemy,heatlastresolvedtohazardbattle,andsocametoaregularengagementwiththeRomans.

Itisforyourinterest,therefore,nottofight,whenyoupossessthesameadvantagesasFabius,orasCneiusSulpitiushad;inotherwords,whenyourarmyissoformidableinitselfthattheenemydarenotattackyouinyourintrenchments,andalthoughhehasgotwithinyourterritoryhasyetgainednofootingthere,andsuffersinconsequencefromthewantofnecessarysupplies.Insuchcircumstancesdelayisuseful,forthereasonsassignedbyTitusLiviuswhenspeakingofSulpitius.Innoothercircumstances,however,cananengagementbeavoidedwithoutdishonourordanger.FortoretireasPhilipdid,isnothingelsethandefeat;andthedisgraceisgreaterinproportionasyourvalourhasbeenlessputtotheproof.AndifPhilipwasluckyenoughtoescape,another,notsimilarlyfavouredbythenatureoftheground,mightnothavethesamegoodfortune.

ThatHannibalwasnotamasterintheartsofwarfarethereisnonewillventuretomaintain.Wherefore,whenhehadtoencounterScipioinAfrica,itmaybeassumedthathadheseenanyadvantageinprolongingthewarhewouldhavedoneso;and,possibly,beingaskilfulcaptainandincommandofavaliantarmy,hemighthavebeenabletodo

whatFabiusdidinItaly.Butsincehetooknotthatcourse,wemayinferthathewasmovedbysufficientreasons.Forthecaptainwhohasgotanarmytogether,andperceivesthatfromwantofmoneyorfriendshecannotmaintainitlong,mustbeameremadmanifhedonotatonce,andbeforehisarmymeltsaway,trythefortunesofbattle;sinceheiscertaintolosebydelay,whilebyfightinghemaychancetosucceed.Andthereisthisalsotobekeptinview,thatwemuststrive,evenifwebedefeated,togainglory;andthatmoregloryistobewoninbeingbeatenbyforce,thaninadefeatfromanyothercause.AndthiswemaysupposetohaveweighedwithHannibal.Ontheotherhand,supposingHannibaltohavedeclinedbattle,Scipio,evenifhehadlackedcouragetofollowhimupandattackhiminhisintrenchedcamp,wouldnothavesufferedthereby;forashehaddefeatedSyphax,andgotpossessionofmanyoftheAfricantowns,hecouldhaverestedwherehewasinthesamesecurityandwiththesameconvenienceasifhehadbeeninItaly.ButthiswasnotthecasewithHannibalwhenhehadtoencounterFabius,norwiththeGaulswhentheywereopposedtoSulpitius.

Leastofallcanhedeclinebattlewhoinvadeswithhisarmythecountryofanother;forseekingtoenterhisenemy’scountry,hemustfightwhenevertheenemycomesforwardtomeethim;andisunderstillgreaternecessitytofight,ifheundertakethesiegeofanytown.AshappenedinourowndaywithDukeCharlesofBurgundy,who,whenbeleagueringMorat,atownoftheSwiss,wasbythemattackedandrouted;orashappenedwiththeFrencharmyencampedagainstNovara,whichwasinlikemannerdefeatedbytheSwiss.

CHAPTERXI

ThatOneWhoHastoContendWithMany,ThoughHebeWeakerThanThey,WillPrevailifHeCanWithstandTheirFirstOnset.

ThepowerexercisedinRomebythetribunesofthepeoplewasgreat,and,asIhaverepeatedlyexplained,wasnecessary,sinceotherwisetherewouldhavebeennocheckontheambitionofthenobles,andthecommonwealthmusthavegrowncorruptedfarsoonerthanitdid.Butbecause,asIhavesaidelsewhere,thereisineverythingalatentevilpeculiartoit,givingrisetonewmischances,itbecomesnecessarytoprovideagainstthesebynewordinances.Theauthorityofthetribunes,therefore,beinginsolentlyassertedsoastobecomeformidabletothenobilityandtotheentirecity,disordersdangeroustothelibertyoftheStatemustthencehaveresulted,hadnotamethodbeendevisedbyAppiusClaudiusforcontrollingtheambitionofthetribunes.Thiswas,tosecurethatthereshouldalwaysbeoneoftheirnumbertimid,orvenal,orelsealoverofthegeneralgood,whocouldbeinfluencedtoopposetherestwheneverthesesoughttopassanymeasurecontrarytothewishesofthesenate.Thisremedywasagreatrestraintontheexcessiveauthorityofthetribunes,andonmanyoccasionsprovedserviceabletoRome.

Iamledbythiscircumstancetoremark,thatwhenmanypowerfulpersonsareunitedagainstone,who,althoughnomatchfortheotherscollectively,isalsopowerful,thechancesaremoreinfavourofthissingleandlessIpowerfulperson,thanofthemanywhotogetheraremuchstronger.Forsettingasideaninfinityofaccidentswhichcanbeturnedtobetteraccountbyonethanbymany,itwillalwayshappenthat,byexercisingalittledexterity,theonewillbeabletodividethemany,andweakentheforcewhichwasstrongwhileitwasunited.Inproofwhereof,Ishallnotrefertoancientexamples,thoughmanysuchmightbecited,butcontentmyselfwithcertainmoderninstancestakenfromtheeventsofourowntimes.

Intheyear1484,allItalycombinedagainsttheVenetians,whofindingtheirpositiondesperate,andbeingunabletokeeptheirarmyanylongerinthefield,bribedSignerLodovico,whothengovernedMilan,andsosucceededineffectingasettlement,wherebytheynotonlyrecoveredthetownstheyhadlost,butalsoobtainedforthemselvesapartoftheterritoriesofFerrara;sothatthosewerebypeacethegainers,whoinwarhadbeenthelosers.NotmanyyearsagothewholeworldwasbandedtogetheragainstFrance;butbeforethewarcametoaclose,SpainbreakingwiththeconfederatesandenteringintoaseparatetreatywithFrance,theothermembersoftheleaguealso,werepresentlyforcedtomaketerms.

Whereforewemayalwaysassumewhenweseeawarsetonfootbymanyagainstone,thatthisone,ifhehavestrengthtowithstandthefirstshock,andcantemporizeandwaithisopportunity,iscertaintoprevail.Butunlesshecandothisherunsathousanddangers:asdidtheVenetiansintheyear1508,who,couldtheyhavetemporizedwiththeFrench,andsogottimetoconciliatesomeofthosewhohadcombinedagainstthem,mighthaveescapedtheruinwhichthenovertookthem.Butnotpossessingsuchastrongarmyaswouldhaveenabledthemtotemporizewiththeirenemies,andconsequentlynothaving

thetimeneededforgaininganytotheirside,theywereundone.YetweknowthatthePope,assoonashehadobtainedwhathewanted,madefriendswiththem,andthatSpaindidthelike;andthatboththeoneandtheotherofthesepowerswouldgladlyhavesavedtheLombardterritoryforthemselves,norwould,iftheycouldhavehelpedit,haveleftittoFrance,soastoaugmentherinfluenceinItaly.

TheVenetians,therefore,shouldhavegivenupaparttosavetherest;andhadtheydonesoatatimewhenthesurrenderwouldnothaveseemedtobemadeundercompulsion,andbeforeanystephadbeentakeninthedirectionofwar,itwouldhavebeenamostprudentcourse;althoughdiscreditableandprobablyoflittleavailafterwarhadbeenbegun.Butuntilthewarbrokeout,fewoftheVenetiancitizensrecognizedthedanger,fewerstilltheremedy,andnoneventuredtoprescribeit.

Buttoreturntothepointwhencewestarted,IsaythatthesamesafeguardfortheircountrywhichtheRomansenatefoundagainsttheambitionofthetribunesintheirnumber,iswithinthereachoftheprincewhoisattackedbymanyadversaries,ifheonlyknowtouseprudentlythosemethodswhichpromotedivision.

CHAPTERXII

APrudentCaptainWillDoWhatHeCantoMakeItNecessaryforHisOwnSoldierstoFight,andtoRelieveHisEnemyFromThatNecessity.

ElsewhereIhavenotedhowgreatlymenaregovernedinwhattheydobyNecessity,andhowmuchoftheirrenownisduetoherguidance,sothatithasevenbeensaidbysomephilosophers,thatthehandsandtonguesofmen,thetwonoblestinstrumentsoftheirfame,wouldneverhaveworkedtoperfection,norhavebroughttheirlabourstothatpitchofexcellenceweseethemtohavereached,hadtheynotbeenimpelledbythiscause.Thecaptainsofantiquity,therefore,knowingthevirtuesofthisnecessity,andseeingthesteadfastcouragewhichitgavetheirsoldiersinbattle,sparednoefforttobringtheirarmiesunderitsinfluence,whileusingalltheiraddresstoloosenitsholdupontheirenemies.Forwhichreason,theywouldoftenleaveopentoanadversarysomewaywhichtheymighthaveclosed,andcloseagainsttheirownmensomewaytheymighthaveleftopen.

Whosoever,therefore,wouldhaveacitydefenditselfstubbornly,oranarmyfightresolutelyinthefield,mustbeforeallthingsendeavourtoimpressthemindsofthosewhomhecommandswiththebeliefthatnoothercourseisopentothem.Inlikemanneraprudentcaptainwhoundertakestheattackofacity,willmeasuretheeaseordifficultyofhisenterprise,byknowingandconsideringthenatureofthenecessitywhichcompelstheinhabitantstodefendit;andwherehefindsthatnecessitytobestrong,hemayinferthathistaskwillbedifficult,butifotherwise,thatitwillbeeasy.

Andhenceithappensthatcitiesarehardertoberecoveredafterarevoltthantobetakenforthefirsttime.Becauseonafirstattack,havingnooccasiontofearpunishment,sincetheyhavegivennogroundofoffence,theyreadilysurrender;butwhentheyhaverevolted,theyknowthattheyhavegivengroundofoffence,and,fearingpunishment,arenotsoeasilybroughtunder.Alikestubbornnessgrowsfromthenaturalhostilitywithwhichprincesorrepublicswhoareneighboursregardoneanother;whichagainiscausedbythedesiretodominateoverthosewholivenear,orfromjealousyoftheirpower.Thisismoreparticularlythecasewithrepublics,asinTuscanyforexample;forcontentionandrivalryhavealwaysmade,andalwayswillmakeitextremelyhardforonerepublictobringanotherintosubjection.AndforthisreasonanyonewhoconsidersattentivelywhoaretheneighboursofFlorence,andwhoofVenice,willnotmarvelsomuchassomehavedone,thatFlorenceshouldhavespentmorethanVeniceonherwarsandgainedless;sincethisresultsentirelyfromtheVenetiansfindingtheirneighbouringtownslessobstinateintheirresistancethantheFlorentinestheirs.ForallthetownsintheneighbourhoodofVenicehavebeenusedtoliveunderprincesandnotinfreedom;andthosewhoareusedtoservitudecommonlythinklittleofchangingmasters,nayareofteneagerforthechange.InthiswayVenice,thoughshehashadmorepowerfulneighboursthanFlorence,hasbeenable,fromfindingtheirtownslessstubborn,tosubduethemmoreeasilythanthelatter,surroundedexclusivelybyfreecities,hashaditinherpowertodo.

But,toreturntothematterinhand,thecaptainwhoattacksatownshouldusewhatcare

hecan,nottodrivethedefenderstoextremities,lestherenderthemstubborn;butwhentheyfearpunishmentshouldpromisethempardon,andwhentheyfearfortheirfreedomshouldassurethemthathehasnodesignsagainstthecommonwelfare,butonlyagainstafewambitiousmenintheircity;forsuchassuranceshaveoftensmoothedthewaytothesurrenderoftowns.Andalthoughpretextsofthissortareeasilyseenthrough,especiallybythewise,themassofthepeopleareoftenbeguiledbythem,becausedesiringpresenttranquillity,theyshuttheireyestothesnareshiddenbehindthesespeciouspromises.Bymeanssuchasthese,therefore,citiesinnumerablehavebeenbroughtintosubjection,asrecentlywasthecasewithFlorence.TheruinofCrassusandhisarmywassimilarlycaused:foralthoughhehimselfsawthroughtheemptypromisesoftheParthians,asmeantonlytoblindtheRomansoldierstothenecessityofdefendingthemselves,yethecouldnotkeephismensteadfast,they,asweclearlygatherinreadingthelifeofthiscaptain,beingdeceivedbytheoffersofpeaceheldouttothembytheirenemies.

Ontheotherhand,whentheSamnites,who,attheinstanceofafewambitiousmen,andinviolationofthetermsofthetrucemadewiththem,hadoverrunandpillagedlandsbelongingtothealliesofRome,afterwardssentenvoystoRometoimplorepeace,offeringtorestorewhatevertheyhadtaken,andtosurrendertheauthorsoftheseinjuriesandoutragesasprisoners,andtheseofferswererejectedbytheRomans,andtheenvoysreturnedtoSamniumbringingwiththemnohopeofanadjustment,ClaudiusPontius,whothencommandedthearmyoftheSamnites,showedtheminaremarkablespeech,thattheRomansdesiredwaratallhazards,anddeclaredthat,althoughforthesakeofhiscountryhewishedforpeace,necessityconstrainedhimtoprepareforwar;tellingthem“thatwasajustwarwhichcouldnotbeescaped,andthosearmssacredinwhichlaytheironlyhopes.”Andbuildingonthisnecessity,heraisedinthemindsofhissoldiersaconfidentexpectationofsuccess.ThatImaynothavetoreverttothismatteragain,itwillbeconvenienttonoticeherethoseexamplesfromRomanhistorywhichmostmeritattention.WhenCaiusManiliuswasincommandofthelegionsencampedagainstVeii,adivisionoftheVeientinearmyhavinggotwithintheRomanintrenchments,Maniliusranforwardwithacompanyofhismentodefendthem,and,topreventtheescapeoftheVeientines,guardedalltheapproachestothecamp.TheVeientinesfindingthemselvesthusshutin,begantofightwithsuchfurythattheyslewManilius,andwouldhavedestroyedalltherestoftheRomanarmy,hadnottheprudenceofoneofthetribunesopenedawayfortheVeientinestoretreat.Hereweseethatsolongasnecessitycompelled,theVeientinesfoughtmostfiercely,butonfindingapathopenedforescape,preferredflighttocombat.OnanotheroccasionwhentheVolsciansandEquianspassedwiththeirarmiesacrosstheRomanfrontier,theconsulsweresentouttoopposethem,andanengagementensued.Itsohappenedthatwhenthecombatwasatitsheight,thearmyoftheVolscians,commandedbyVectiusMescius,suddenlyfoundthemselvesshutinbetweentheirowncamp,whichadivisionoftheRomanshadoccupied,andthebodyoftheRomanarmy;whenseeingthattheymusteitherperishorcutawayforthemselveswiththeirswords,Vectiussaidtothem,“Comeon,mymen,hereisnowallorramparttobescaled:wefightmanwithman;invalourwearetheirequals,andnecessity,thatlastandmightiestweapon,givesustheadvantage.”Here,then,necessityisspokenofbyTitusLiviusasthelastandmightiestweapon.

Camillus,thewisestandmostprudentofalltheRomancommanders,whenhehadgot

withinthetownofVeiiwithhisarmy,tomakeitssurrendereasierandnottodriveitsinhabitantstodesperation,calledouttohismen,sothattheVeientinesmighthear,tospareallwhomtheyfoundunarmed.Whereuponthedefendersthrowingawaytheirweapons,thetownwastakenalmostwithoutbloodshed.Andthisdevicewasafterwardsfollowedbymanyothercaptains.

CHAPTERXIII

WhetherWeMayTrustMoretoaValiantCaptainWithaWeakArmy,ortoaValiantArmyWithaWeakCaptain.

CoriolanusbeingbanishedfromRomebetookhimselftotheVolscians,andwhenhehadgottogetheranarmywherewithtoavengehimselfonhiscountrymen,camebacktoRome;yet,againwithdrew,notconstrainedtoretirebythemightoftheRomanarms,butoutofreverenceforhismother.Fromthisincident,saysTitusLivius,wemaylearnthatthespreadoftheRomanpowerwasduemoretothevalourofhercaptainsthanofhersoldiers.ForbeforethistheVolscianshadalwaysbeenrouted,andonlygrewsuccessfulwhenCoriolanusbecametheircaptain.

ButthoughLiviusbeofthisopinion,therearemanypassagesinhishistorytoshowthattheRomansoldiers,evenwhenleftwithoutleaders,oftenperformedastonishingfeatsofvalour,nay,sometimesmaintainedbetterdisciplineandfoughtwithgreaterspiritaftertheirconsulswereslainthantheyhadbefore.Forexample,thearmyundertheScipiosinSpain,afteritstwoleadershadfallen,wasablebyitsvalournotmerelytosecureitsownsafety,buttoovercometheenemyandpreservetheprovincefortheRomanRepublic.Sothattostatethecasefairly,wefindmanyinstancesinwhichthevalourofthesoldiersalonegainedtheday,aswellasmanyinwhichsuccesswaswhollyduetotheexcellenceofthecaptain.Fromwhichitmaybeinferredthattheonestandsinneedoftheother.

Andherethequestionsuggestsitself:whichisthemoreformidable,agoodarmybadlyled,oragoodcaptaincommandinganindifferentarmy;though,werewetoadopttheopinionofCæsaronthishead,weoughtlightlytoesteemboth.ForwhenCæsarwenttoSpainagainstAfraniusandPetreius,whowerethereincommandofastrongarmy,hemadelittleaccountofthem,saying,“thathewenttofightanarmywithoutacaptain,”indicatingtherebytheweaknessofthesegenerals.And,conversely,whenhewenttoencounterPompeiusinThessaly,hesaid,“Igoagainstacaptainwithoutanarmy.”[13]

Afurtherquestionmayalsoberaised,whetheritiseasierforagoodcaptaintomakeagoodarmy,orforagoodarmytomakeagoodcaptain.Astothisitmightbethoughttherewasbarelyroomfordoubt,sinceitoughttobefareasierformanywhoaregoodtofindonewhoisgoodorteachhimtobecomeso,thanforonewhoisgoodtofindormakemanygood.LuculluswhensentagainstMithridateswaswhollywithoutexperienceinwar:buthisbravearmy,whichwasprovidedwithmanyexcellentofficers,speedilytaughthimtobeagoodcaptain.Ontheotherhand,whentheRomans,beingbadlyoffforsoldiers,armedanumberofslavesandgavethemovertobedrilledbySemproniusGracchus,heinashorttimemadethemintoaserviceablearmy.Sotoo,asIhavealreadymentioned,PelopidasandEpaminondasafterrescuingThebes,theirnativecity,fromSpartanthraldom,inashorttimemadesuchvaliantsoldiersoftheThebanpeasantry,astobeablewiththeiraidnotonlytowithstand,buteventodefeattheSpartanarmies.Sothatthequestionmayseemtobeequallybalanced,excellenceononesidegenerallyfindingexcellenceontheother.

Agoodarmy,however,whenleftwithoutagoodleader,astheMacedonianarmywasonthedeathofAlexander,orasthoseveteranswerewhohadfoughtinthecivilwars,isapttogrowrestlessandturbulent.WhereforeIamconvincedthatitisbettertotrusttothecaptainwhohastimeallowedhimtodisciplinehismen,andmeanswherewithtoequipthem,thantoatumultuaryhostwithachanceleaderofitsownchoosing.Buttwofoldisthemeritandtwofoldthegloryofthosecaptainswhonotonlyhavehadtosubduetheirenemies,butalsobeforeencounteringthemtoorganizeanddisciplinetheirforces.This,however,isataskrequiringqualitiessoseldomcombined,thatweremanyofthosecaptainswhonowenjoyagreatnamewiththeworld,calledontoperformit,theywouldbemuchlessthoughtofthantheyare.

[13]Professusanteintersuos,ireseadexercitumsineduce,etindereversurumadducemsineexercitu.(Suet.inVitaJ.Caes.)

CHAPTERXIV

OftheEffectProducedinBattlebyStrangeandUnexpectedSightsorSounds.

Thatthedisorderoccasionedbystrangeandunexpectedsightsorsoundsmayhavemomentousconsequencesincombat,mightbeshownbymanyinstances,butbynonebetterthanbywhatbefellinthebattlefoughtbetweentheRomansandtheVolscians,whenQuintius,theRomangeneral,seeingonewingofhisarmybegintowaver,shoutedaloudtohismentostandfirm,fortheotherwingwasalreadyvictorious.Whichwordsofhisgivingconfidencetohisowntroopsandstrikingtheenemywithdismaywonhimthebattle.Butifacrylikethis,producegreateffectonawelldisciplinedarmy,fargreatermustbeitseffectononewhichisilldisciplinedanddisorderly.Forbysuchawindthewholemasswillbemoved,asIshallshowbyawell–knowninstancehappeninginourowntimes.

AfewyearsagothecityofPerugiawassplitintothetwofactionsoftheBaglioniandtheOddi,theformerholdingthegovernment,thelatterbeinginexile.TheOddeschi,however,withthehelpoffriends,havinggottogetheranarmedforcewhichtheylodgedinvillagesoftheirownnearPerugia,obtained,bythefavourofsomeoftheirparty,anentranceintothecitybynight,andmovingforwardwithoutdiscovery,cameasfarasthepublicsquare.AndasallthestreetsofPerugiaarebarredwithchainsdrawnacrossthemattheircorners,theOddeschihadinfrontofthemamanwhocarriedanironhammerwherewithtobreakthefasteningsofthechainssothathorsemenmightpass.Whentheonlychainremainingunbrokenwasthatwhichclosedthepublicsquare,thealarmhavingnowbeengiven,thehammermanwassoimpededbythecrowdpressingbehindhimthathecouldnotraisehisarmtostrikefreely.Whereupon,togetmoreroomforhiswork,hecalledaloudtotheotherstostandback;andthewordbackpassingfromranktorankthosefurthestoffbegantorun,and,presently,theothersalso,withsuchprecipitancy,thattheyfellintoutterdisorder.Inthisway,andfromthistriflingcircumstance,theattemptoftheOddeschicametonothing.

Herewemaynotethatdisciplineisneededinanarmy,notsomuchtoenableittofightaccordingtoasettledorder,asthatitmaynotbethrownintoconfusionbyeveryinsignificantaccident.Foratumultuaryhostisuselessinwar,simplybecauseeveryword,orcry,orsound,maythrowitintoapanicandcauseittofly.Whereforeitbehovesagoodcaptaintoprovidethatcertainfixedpersonsshallreceivehisordersandpassthemontotherest,andtoaccustomhissoldierstolooktothesepersons,andtothemonly,tobeinformedwhathisordersare.Forwheneverthisprecautionisneglectedthegravestmishapsareconstantlyseentoensue.

Asregardsstrangeandunexpectedsights,everycaptainshouldendeavourwhilehisarmyisactuallyengagedwiththeenemy,toeffectsomesuchfeintordiversionaswillencouragehisownmenanddismayhisadversarysincethisofallthingsthatcanhappenisthelikeliesttoensurevictory.InevidencewhereofwemaycitetheexampleofCneiusSulpitius,theRomandictator,who,whenabouttogivebattletotheGauls,afterarming

hissutlersandcampfollowers,mountedthemonmulesandotherbeastsofburden,furnishedthemwithspearsandbannerstolooklikecavalry,andplacingthembehindahill,orderedthemonagivensignal,whenthefightwasatthehottest,toappearandshowthemselvestotheenemy.Allwhichbeingcarriedoutashehadarranged,threwtheGaulsintosuchalarm,thattheylostthebattle.

Agoodcaptain,therefore,hastwothingstoseeto:first,tocontrivehowbysomesuddensurprisehemaythrowhisenemyintoconfusion;andnext,tobepreparedshouldtheenemyusealikestratagemagainsthimtodiscoveranddefeatit;asthestratagemofSemiramiswasdefeatedbytheKingofIndia.ForSemiramisseeingthatthiskinghadelephantsingreatnumbers,todismayhimbyshowingthatshe,too,waswellsupplied,causedtheskinsofmanyoxenandbuffaloestobesewntogetherintheshapeofelephantsandplaceduponcamelsandsenttothefront.Butthetrickbeingdetectedbytheking,turnedoutnotonlyuselessbuthurtfultoitscontriver.InabattlewhichtheDictatorMamercusfoughtagainstthepeopleofFidenae,thelatter,tostriketerrorintothemindsoftheRomans,contrivedthatwhilethecombatragedanumberofsoldiersshouldissuefromFidenaebearinglancestippedwithfire,thinkingthattheRomans,disturbedbysostrangeasight,wouldbethrownintoconfusion.

Wearetonote,however,withregardtosuchcontrivances,thatiftheyaretoserveanyusefulend,theyshouldbeformidableaswellasseemso;forwhentheymenacearealdanger,theirweakpointsarenotsosoondiscerned.Whentheyhavemoreofpretencethanreality,itwillbewelleithertodispensewiththemaltogether,orresortingtothem,tokeepthem,likethemuleteersofSulpitius,inthebackground,sothattheybenottooreadilyfoundout.Foranyweaknessinherentinthemissoondiscoverediftheybebroughtnear,when,ashappenedwiththeelephantsofSemiramisandthefieryspearsofthemenofFidenae,theydoharmratherthangood.Foralthoughbythislast–mentioneddevicetheRomansatthefirstweresomewhatdisconcerted,sosoonasthedictatorcameupandbegantochidethem,askingiftheywerenotashamedtoflylikebeesfromsmoke,andcallingonthemtoturnontheirenemy,and“withherownflameseffacethatFidenaewhomtheirbenefitscouldnotconciliate,”theytookcourage;sothatthedeviceprovedofnoservicetoitscontrivers,whowerevanquishedinthebattle.

CHAPTERXV

ThatOneandNotManyShouldHeadanArmy:AndWhyItisHarmfultoHaveMoreLeadersThanOne.

ThemenofFidenaerisingagainstthecolonistswhomtheRomanshadsettledamongthem,andputtingthemtothesword,theRomanstoavengetheinsultappointedfourtribuneswithconsularpowers:oneofwhomtheyretainedtoseetothedefenceofRome,whiletheotherthreeweresentagainsttheFidenatiandtheVeientines.Butthesethreefallingoutamongthemselves,andbeingdividedintheircounsels,returnedfromtheirmissionwithdiscreditthoughnotwithloss.Ofwhichdiscredittheywerethemselvesthecause.ThattheysustainednolosswasduetothevalouroftheirsoldiersButthesenateperceivingthesourceofthemischief,totheendthatonemanmightputtorightswhatthreehadthrownintoconfusion,resortedtotheappointmentofadictator.

Hereweseethedisadvantageofhavingseveralleadersinonearmyorinatownwhichhastodefenditself.AndthecasecouldnotbeputinclearerwordsthanbyTitusLivius,wherehesays,“Thethreetribuneswithconsularauthoritygaveproofhowhurtfulitisinwartohavemanyleaders;foreachformingadifferentopinion,andeachabidingbyhisown,theythrewopportunitiesinthewayoftheirenemies.”Andthoughthisexamplesufficebyitselftoshowthedisadvantageinwarofdividedcommands,tomakethematterstillplainerIshallcitetwofurtherinstances,oneancientandonemodern.

Intheyear1500,LouisXII.ofFrance,afterrecoveringMilan,senttroopstorestorePisatotheFlorentines,GiovambattistaRidolfiandLucad’AntonioAlbizzigoingwiththemascommissaries.Now,becauseGiovambattistahadagreatname,andwasolderthanLuca,thelatterleftthewholemanagementofeverythingtohim;andalthoughhedidnotshowhisjealousyofhimbyopposinghim,hebetrayeditbyhissilence,andbybeingsocarelessandindifferentabouteverything,thathegavenohelpinthebusinessofthesiegeeitherbywordordeed,justasthoughhehadbeenapersonofnoaccount.Butwhen,inconsequenceofanaccident,GiovambattistahadtoreturntoFlorence,allthiswaschanged;forLuca,remaininginsolecharge,behavedwiththegreatestcourage,prudence,andzeal,allwhichqualitieshadbeenhiddenwhileheheldajointcommand.FurthertobearmeoutIshallagainborrowthewordsofTitusLivius,who,inrelatinghowwhenQuintiusandAgrippahiscolleagueweresentbytheRomansagainsttheEquians,AgrippacontrivedthattheconductofthewarshouldrestwithQuintius,observes,“Mostwholesomeisitthatinaffairsofgreatmoment,supremeauthoritybevestedinoneman.”Verydifferent,however,isthecoursefollowedbytherepublicsandprincesofourowndays,who,thinkingtobebetterserved,areusedtoappointseveralcaptainsorcommissionerstofillonecommand;apracticegivingrisetosomuchconfusion,thatwereweseekingforthecausesoftheoverthrowoftheFrenchandItalianarmiesinrecenttimes,weshouldfindthistobethemostactiveofany.

Rightly,therefore,mayweconcludethatinsendingforthanarmyuponservice,itiswisertoentrustittoonemanofordinaryprudence,thantotwoofgreatpartsbutwithadividedcommand.

CHAPTERXVI

ThatinTimesofDifficultyTrueWorthisSoughtAfter;WhereasinQuietTimesItisNottheMostDeserving,butThoseWhoAreRecommendedby

WealthorConnectionWhoAreMostinFavour.

Italwayshashappenedandalwayswill,thatthegreatandadmirablemenofarepublicareneglectedinpeacefultimes;becauseatsuchseasonsmanycitizensarefound,who,envyingthereputationthesemenhavejustlyearned,seektoberegardednotmerelyastheirequalsbutastheirsuperiors.TouchingthisthereisanotablepassageinThucydides,theGreekhistorian,wherehetellshowtherepublicofAthenscomingvictoriousoutofthePeloponessianwar,whereinshehadbridledtheprideofSparta,andbroughtalmostthewholeofGreeceunderherauthority,wasencouragedbythegreatnessofherrenowntoproposetoherselftheconquestofSicily.InAthensthisschemewasmuchdebated,Alcibiadesandcertainotherswhohadthepublicwelfareverylittleintheirthoughts,butwhohopedthattheenterprise,weretheyplacedincommand,mightministertotheirfame,recommendingthatitshouldbeundertaken.Nicias,ontheotherhand,oneofthebestesteemedoftheAtheniancitizens,wasagainstit,andinaddressingthepeople,gaveitasthestrongestreasonfortrustinghisadvice,thatinadvisingthemnottoengageinthiswar,heurgedwhatwasnotforhisownadvantage;forheknewthatwhileAthensremainedatpeacenumberlesscitizenswerereadytotakeprecedenceofhim:whereas,werewardeclared,hewascertainthatnonewouldrankbeforehimorevenbelookeduponashisequal.

Hereweseethatintranquiltimesrepublicsaresubjecttotheinfirmityoflightlyesteemingtheirworthiestcitizens.Andthisoffendsthesepersonsfortworeasons:first,becausetheyarenotgiventheplacetheydeserve;andsecond,becausetheyseeunworthymenandofabilitiesinferiortotheirown,asmuchormoreconsideredthanthey.Injusticesuchasthishascausedtheruinofmanyrepublics.Forcitizenswhofindthemselvesundeservedlyslighted,andperceivethecausetobethatthetimesaretranquilandnottroubled,willstrivetochangethetimesbystirringupwarshurtfultothepublicwelfare.WhenIlookforremediesforthisstateofthings,Ifindtwo:first,tokeepthecitizenspoor,sothatwealthwithoutworthshallcorruptneitherthemnorothers;second,tobesopreparedforwarasalwaystobereadytomakewar;forthentherewillalwaysbeaneedforworthycitizens,aswasthecaseinRomeinearlytimes.ForasRomeconstantlykeptherarmiesinthefield,therewasconstantopportunityformentodisplaytheirvalour,norwasitpossibletodepriveadeservingmanofhispostandgiveittoanotherwhowasnotdeserving.Orifeverthisweredonebyinadvertency,orbywayofexperiment,thereforthwithresultedsuchdisorderanddanger,thatthecityatonceretraceditsstepsandrevertedtothetruepath.Butotherrepublicswhicharenotregulatedonthesameplan,andmakewaronlywhendriventoitbynecessity,cannothelpcommittingthisinjustice,nay,willconstantlyrunintoit,when,ifthegreatcitizenwhofindshimselfslightedbevindictive,andhavesomecreditandfollowinginthecity,disorderwillalwaysensue.AndthoughRomeescapedthisdangerforatime,shetoo,ashaselsewherebeensaid,havingnolonger,aftershehadconqueredCarthageandAntiochus,anyfearofwar,cametothink

shemightcommitherarmiestowhomshewould,makinglessaccountofthevalourofhercaptainsthanofthoseotherqualitieswhichgainfavourwiththepeople.AccordinglywefindPaulusEmiliusrejectedoftenerthanoncewhenhesoughttheconsulship;nor,infact,obtainingituntiltheMacedonianwarbrokeout,which,beingjudgedaformidablebusiness,wasbythevoiceofthewholecitycommittedtohismanagement.Aftertheyear1494ourcityofFlorencewasinvolvedinaseriesofwars,inconductingwhichnoneofourcitizenshadanysuccessuntilchancethrewthecommandintothehandsofonewhoshowedushowanarmyshouldbeled.ThiswasAntonioGiacomini,andsolongasthereweredangerouswarsonfoot,allrivalryonthepartofothercitizenswassuspended;andwheneveracaptainorcommissaryhadtobeappointedhewasunopposed.Butwhenawarcametobeundertaken,astotheissueofwhichnomisgivingswerefelt,andwhichpromisedbothhonourandpreferment,sonumerouswerethecompetitorsforcommand,thatthreecommissarieshavingtobechosentoconductthesiegeofPisa,Antoniowasleftout;andthoughitcannotwithcertaintybeshownthatanyharmresultedtoourrepublicfromhisnothavingbeensentonthisenterprise,wemayreasonablyconjecturethatsuchwasindeedthecase.ForasthepeopleofPisawerethenwithoutmeanseitherforsubsistenceordefence,itmaybebelievedthathadAntoniobeentherehewouldhavereducedthemtosuchextremitiesaswouldhaveforcedthemtosurrenderatdiscretiontotheFlorentines.ButPisabeingbesiegedbycaptainswhoknewneitherhowtoblockadenorhowtostormit,heldoutsolong,thattheFlorentines,whoshouldhavereduceditbyforce,wereobligedtobuyitssubmission.NeglectlikethismightwellmoveAntoniotoresentment;andhemustneedshavebeenbothverypatientandveryforgivingifhefeltnodesiretorevengehimselfwhenhecould,bytheruinofthecityorbyinjuriestoindividualcitizens.Butarepublicshouldbewarenottorousesuchfeelings,asIshallshowinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXVII

ThatWeAreNottoOffendaMan,andThenSendHimtoFillanImportantOfficeorCommand.

Arepublicshouldthinktwicebeforeappointingtoanimportantcommandacitizenwhohassustainednotablewrongatthehandsofhisfellow–citizens.ClaudiusNero,quittingthearmywithwhichhewasopposingHannibal,wentwithapartofhisforcesintotheMarchofAncona,designingtojointheotherconsulthere,andafterjoininghimtoattackHasdrubalbeforehecameupwithhisbrother.NowClaudiushadpreviouslycommandedagainstHasdrubalinSpain,andafterdrivinghimwithhisarmyintosuchapositionthatitseemedhemusteitherfightatadisadvantageorperishbyfamine,hadbeenoutwittedbyhisadversary,who,whiledivertinghisattentionwithproposalsofterms,contrivedtoslipthroughhishandsandrobhimoftheopportunityforeffectinghisdestruction.ThisbecomingknowninRomebroughtClaudiusintosomuchdiscreditbothwiththesenateandpeople,thattohisgreatmortificationanddispleasure,hewasslightinglyspokenofbythewholecity.ButbeingafterwardsmadeconsulandsenttoopposeHannibal,hetookthecoursementionedabove,whichwasinitselfsohazardousthatallRomewasfilledwithdoubtandanxietyuntiltidingscameofHasdrubal’sdefeat.Whensubsequentlyaskedwhyhehadplayedsodangerousagame,whereinwithouturgentnecessityhehadstakedtheveryexistenceofRome,Claudiusanswered,hehaddonesobecauseheknewthatwerehetosucceedhewouldrecoverwhatevercredithehadlostinSpain;whileifhefailed,andhisattempthadanuntowardissue,hewouldberevengedonthatcityandOnthosecitizenswhohadsoungratefullyandindiscreetlywrongedhim.

ButifresentmentforanoffencelikethissodeeplymovedaRomancitizenatatimewhenRomewasstilluncorrupted,weshouldconsiderhowitmayactonthecitizenofaStatenotconstitutedasRomethenwas.Andbecausethereisnocertainremedywecanapplytosuchdisorderswhentheyariseinrepublics,itfollowsthatitisimpossibletoestablisharepublicwhichshallendurealways;sinceinathousandunforeseenwaysruinmayovertakeit.

CHAPTERXVIII

ThatItistheHighestQualityofaCaptaintobeAbletoForestalltheDesignsofHisAdversary.

ItwasasayingofEpaminondastheThebanthatnothingwassousefulandnecessaryforacommanderastobeabletoseethroughtheintentionsanddesignsofhisadversary.Andbecauseitishardtocomeatthisknowledgedirectly,themorecreditisduetohimwhoreachesitbyconjecture.Yetsometimesitiseasiertofathomanenemy’sdesignsthantoconstruehisactions;andnotsomuchthoseactionswhicharedoneatadistancefromus,asthosedoneinourpresenceandunderourveryeyes.Forinstance,ithasoftenhappenedthatwhenabattlehaslastedtillnightfall,thewinnerhasbelievedhimselftheloser,andtheloserhasbelievedhimselfthewinnerandthatthismistakehasledhimwhomadeittofollowacoursehurtfultohimself.Itwasfromamistakeofthissort,thatBrutusandCassiuslostthebattleofPhilippi.ForthoughBrutuswasvictoriouswithhiswingofthearmyCassius,whosewingwasbeaten,believedtheentirearmytobedefeated,andunderthisbeliefgavewaytodespairandslewhimself.Sotoo,inourowndays,inthebattlefoughtbyFrancis,kingofFrance,withtheSwissatSantaCeciliainLombardy,whennightfell,thoseoftheSwisswhoremainedunbroken,notknowingthattheresthadbeenroutedandslain,thoughttheyhadthevictory;andsobelievingwouldnotretreat,but,remainingonthefield,renewedthecombatthefollowingmorningtotheirgreatdisadvantage.Norweretheytheonlysufferersfromtheirmistake,sincethearmiesofthePopeandofSpainwerealsomisledbyit,andwell–nighbroughttodestruction.ForonthefalsereportofavictorytheycrossedthePo,andhadtheyonlyadvancedalittlefurthermusthavebeenmadeprisonersbythevictoriousFrench.

AninstanceisrecordedofalikemistakehavingbeenmadeinthecampsbothoftheRomansandoftheEquians.FortheConsulSemproniusbeingincommandagainsttheEquians,andgivingtheenemybattle,theengagementlastedwithvaryingsuccesstillnightfall,whenasbotharmieshadsufferedwhatwasalmostadefeat,neitherreturnedtotheircamp,buteachdrewofftotheneighboringhillswheretheythoughttheywouldbesafer.TheRomansseparatedintotwodivisions,oneofwhichwiththeconsul,theotherwiththecenturionTempaniusbywhosevalourthearmyhadthatdaybeensavedfromutterrout.Atdaybreaktheconsul,withoutwaitingforfurthertidingsoftheenemy,madestraightforRome;andtheEquians,inlikemanner,withdrewtotheirowncountry.Foraseachsupposedtheothertobevictorious,neitherthoughtmuchofleavingtheircamptobeplunderedbytheenemy.Itsochanced,however,thatTempanius,whowashimselfretreatingwiththeseconddivisionoftheRomanarmy,fellinwithcertainwoundedEquians,fromwhomhelearnedthattheircommandershadfled,abandoningtheircamp;onhearingwhich,heatoncereturnedtotheRomancampandsecuredit,andthen,aftersackingthecampoftheEquians,wentbackvictorioustoRome.Hissuccess,aswesee,turnedentirelyonhisbeingthefirsttobeinformedoftheenemy’scondition.Andherewearetonotethatitmayoftenhappenthatboththeoneandtheotheroftwoopposedarmiesshallfallintothesamedisorder,andbereducedtothesamestraits;inwhichcase,thatwhichsoonestdetectstheother’sdistressissuretocomeoffbest.

Ishallgiveaninstanceofthiswhichoccurredrecentlyinourowncountry.Intheyear1498,whentheFlorentineshadagreatarmyintheterritoryofPisaandhadcloselyinvestedthetown,theVenetians,whohadundertakenitsprotection,seeingnootherwaytosaveit,resolvedtomakeadiversioninitsfavourbyattackingtheterritoriesoftheFlorentinesinanotherquarter.Wherefore,havingassembledastrongforce,theyenteredTuscanybytheValdiLamona,andseizingonthevillageofMarradi,besiegedthestrongholdofCastiglionewhichstandsontheheightaboveit.Gettingwordofthis,theFlorentinessoughttorelieveMarradi,withoutweakeningthearmywhichlayroundPisa.Theyaccordinglyraisedanewlevyoffoot–soldiers,andequippedafreshsquadronofhorse,whichtheydespatchedtoMarradiunderthejointcommandofJacopoIV.d’Appiano,lordofPiombino,andCountRinuccioofMarciano.ThesetroopstakinguptheirpositiononthehillaboveMarradi,theVenetianswithdrewfromtheinvestmentofCastiglioneandlodgedthemselvesinthevillage.Butwhenthetwoarmieshadconfrontedoneanotherforseveraldays,bothbegantosuffersorelyfromwantofvictualsandothernecessaries,andneitherofthemdaringtoattacktheother,orknowingtowhatextremitiestheotherwasreduced,bothsimultaneouslyresolvedtostriketheircampsthefollowingmorning,andtoretreat,theVenetianstowardsBerzighellaandFaenza,theFlorentinestowardsCasagliaandtheMugello.Butatdaybreak,whenbotharmieshadbeguntoremovetheirbaggage,itsohappenedthatanoldwoman,whoseyearsandpovertypermittedhertopassunnoticed,leavingthevillageofMarradi,cametotheFlorentinecamp,wherewerecertainofherkinsfolkwhomshedesiredtovisit.LearningfromherthattheVenetianswereinretreat,theFlorentinecommanderstookcourage,andchangingtheirplan,wentinpursuitoftheenemyasthoughtheyhaddislodgedthem,sendingwordtoFlorencethattheyhadrepulsedtheVenetiansandgainedavictory.Butintruththisvictorywaswhollyduetotheirhavingnoticeoftheenemy’smovementsbeforethelatterhadnoticeoftheirs.ForhadthatnoticebeengiventotheVenetiansfirst,itwouldhavewroughtagainstusthesameresultsasitactuallywroughtforus.

CHAPTERXIX

WhetherIndulgenceorSeveritybeMoreNecessaryforControllingaMultitude.

TheRomanRepublicwasdistractedbythefeudsofthenoblesandcommons.Nevertheless,onwarbreakingout,QuintiusandAppiusClaudiusweresentforthincommandofRomanarmies.Fromhisharshnessandseveritytohissoldiers,Appiuswassoillobeyedbythem,thataftersustainingwhatalmostamountedtoadefeat,hehadtoresignhiscommand.Quintius,onthecontrary,bykindlyandhumanetreatment,kepthismenobedientandreturnedvictorioustoRome.Fromthisitmightseemthattogovernalargebodyofmen,itisbettertobehumanethanhaughty,andkindlyratherthansevere.

AndyetCorneliusTacitus,withwhommanyotherauthorsareagreed,pronouncesacontraryopinionwherehesays,“Ingoverningamultitudeitavailsmoretopunishthantobecompliant.”[14]Ifitbeaskedhowtheseoppositeviewscanbereconciled,Ianswerthatyouexerciseauthorityeitherovermenusedtoregardyouastheirequal,orovermenwhohavealwaysbeensubjecttoyou.Whenthoseoverwhomyouexerciseauthorityareyourequals,youcannottrustwhollytopunishmentortothatseverityofwhichTacitusspeaks.AndsinceinRomeitselfthecommonshadequalweightwiththenobles,noneappointedtheircaptainforatimeonly,couldcontrolthembyusingharshnessandseverity.AccordinglywefindthatthoseRomancaptainswhogainedtheloveoftheirsoldiersandwereconsiderateofthem,oftenachievedgreaterresultsthanthosewhomadethemselvesfearedbytheminanunusualdegree,unless,likeManliusTorquatus,theselastwereendowedwithconsummatevalour.ButhewhohastogovernsubjectssuchasthoseofwhomTacitusspeaks,topreventtheirgrowinginsolentandtramplinguponhimbyreasonofhistoogreateasiness,mustresorttopunishmentratherthantocompliance.Still,toescapehatred,punishmentshouldbemoderateindegree,fortomakehimselfhatedisneverfortheinterestofanyprince.Andtoescapehatred,aprincehaschieflytoguardagainsttamperingwiththepropertyofanyofhissubjects;forwherenothingistobegainedbyit,noprincewilldesiretoshedblood,unless,asseldomhappens,constrainedtodosobynecessity.Butwhereadvantageistobegainedthereby,bloodwillalwaysflow,andneitherthedesiretoshedit,norcausesforsheddingitwilleverbewanting,asIhavefullyshownwhendiscussingthissubjectinanothertreatise.

QuintiusthereforewasmoredeservingofpraisethanAppius.NeverthelesstheopinionofTacitus,dulyrestrictedandnotunderstoodasapplyingtoacaselikethatofAppius,meritsapproval.ButsinceIhavespokenofpunishmentandindulgence,itseemsnotoutofplacetoshowhowasingleactofhumanityavailedmorethanarmswiththecitizensofFalerii.

[14]“Inmultitudineregendapluspoenaquamobsequiumvalet.”ButcompareAnnals,III.55,“Obsequiumindeinprincipemetæmulandiamoivalidioiquampoenaexlegibusetmetus.”

CHAPTERXX

HowOneHumaneActAvailedMoreWiththeMenofFalerii,ThanAlltheMightoftheRomanArms.

WhenthebesiegingarmyoftheRomanslayroundFalerii,themasterofaschoolwhereinthebest–bornyouthsofthecityweretaught,thinkingtocurryfavourwithCamillusandtheRomans,cameforthfromthetownwiththeseboys,onpretenceofgivingthemexercise,andbringingthemintothecampwhereCamilluswas,presentedthemtohim,saying,“Toransomthesethatcitywouldyielditselfintoyourhands.”Camillus,however,notonlyrejectedthisoffer,butcausingtheschoolmastertobestrippedandhishandstiedbehindhim,gaveeachoftheboysascourge,andbadethemleadthefellowbacktothetownscourginghimastheywent.WhenthecitizensofFaleriiheardofthis,somuchweretheypleasedwiththehumanityandintegrityofCamillus,thattheyresolvedtosurrendertheirtowntohimwithoutfurtherdefence.

Thisauthenticinstancemayleadustobelievethatahumaneandkindlyactionmaysometimestouchmen’smindsmorenearlythanaharshandcruelone;andthatthosecitiesandprovincesintowhichtheinstrumentsandenginesofwar,witheveryotherviolencetowhichmenresort,havefailedtoforceaway,maybethrownopentoasingleactoftenderness,mercy,chastity,orgenerosity.WhereofhistorysuppliesuswithmanyexamplesbesidestheonewhichIhavejustnownoticed.ForwefindthatwhenthearmsofRomewerepowerlesstodrivePyrrhusoutofItaly,hewasmovedtodepartbythegenerosityofFabritiusindisclosingtohimtheproposalwhichhisslavehadmadetheRomanstopoisonhim.Again,wereadhowScipiogainedlessreputationinSpainbythecaptureofNewCarthage,thanbyhisvirtueinrestoringayoungandbeautifulwifeunviolatedtoherhusband;thefameofwhichactionwonhimtheloveofthewholeprovince.Wesee,too,howmuchthisgeneroustemperisesteemedbyapeopleinitsgreatmen;andhowmuchitispraisedbyhistoriansandbythosewhowritethelivesofprinces,aswellasbythosewholaydownrulesofhumanconduct.AmongwhomXenophonhastakengreatpainstoshowwhathonours,andvictories,andhowfairafameaccruedtoCyrusfromhisbeingkindlyandgracious,withouttaintofpride,orcruelty,orluxury,oranyotherofthoseviceswhichcastastainuponmen’slives.

AndyetwhenwenotethatHannibal,bymethodswhollyoppositetothese,achievedsplendidvictoriesandagreatrenown,IthinkIamboundtosaysomethinginmynextChapterastohowthishappened.

CHAPTERXXI

HowItHappenedThatHannibalPursuingaCourseContrarytoThatTakenbyScipio,WroughttheSameResultsinItalyWhichtheOther

AchievedinSpain.

Some,Isuspect,maymarveltofindacaptain,takingacontrarycourse,neverthelessarriveatthesameendsasthosewhohavepursuedthemethodsabovespokenof;sinceitmustseemasthoughsuccessdidnotdependonthecausesIhavenamed;nay,thatifgloryandfamearetobewoninotherways,thesecausesneitheraddtoourstrengthnoradvanceourfortunes.Wherefore,tomakemymeaningplain,andnottopartcompanywiththemenofwhomIhavebeenspeaking,Isay,thatas,ontheonehand,weseeScipioenterSpain,andbyhishumaneandgenerousconductatoncesecurethegood–willoftheprovince,andtheadmirationandreverenceofitsinhabitants,soontheotherhand,weseeHannibalenterItaly,andbymethodswhollyopposite,towit,byviolenceandrapine,bycrueltyandtreacheryofeverykind,effectinthatcountrytheverysameresults.ForalltheStatesofItalyrevoltedinhisfavour,andalltheItaliannationsrangedthemselvesonhisside.

Whenweseektoknowwhythiswas,severalreasonspresentthemselves,thefirstbeingthatmensopassionatelylovechange,that,commonlyspeaking,thosewhoarewelloffareaseagerforitasthosewhoarebadlyoff:forasalreadyhasbeensaidwithtruth,menarepamperedbyprosperity,souredbyadversity.Thisloveofchange,therefore,makesthemopenthedoortoanyonewhoputshimselfattheheadofnewmovementsintheircountry,andifhebeaforeignertheyadopthiscause,ifafellow–countrymantheygatherroundhimandbecomehispartisansandsupporters;sothatwhatevermethodshemaythereuse,hewillsucceedinmakinggreatprogress.Moreover,menbeingmovedbytwochiefpassions,loveandfear,hewhomakeshimselffearedcommandswithnolessauthoritythanhewhomakeshimselfloved;nay,asarule,isfollowedandobeyedmoreimplicitlythantheother.Itmatterslittle,however,whichofthesetwowaysacaptainchoosestofollow,providedhebeoftranscendentvalour,andhastherebywonforhimselfagreatnameForwhen,likeHannibalorScipio,amanisveryvaliant,thisqualitywillcloakanyerrorhemaycommitinseekingeithertobetoomuchlovedortoomuchfeared.Yetfromeachofthesetwotendencies,gravemischiefs,andsuchasleadtotheruinofaprince,mayarise.Forhewhowouldbegreatlyloved,ifheswerveeversolittlefromtherightroad,becomescontemptible;whilehewhowouldbegreatlyfeared,ifhegoajottoofar,incurshatred.Andsinceitisimpossible,ournaturenotallowingit,toadheretotheexactmean,itisessentialthatanyexcessshouldbebalancedbyanexceedingvalour,asitwasinHannibalandScipio.Andyetwefindthateventhey,whiletheywereexaltedbythemethodstheyfollowed,werealsoinjuredbythem.Howtheywereexaltedhasbeenshown.TheinjurywhichScipiosufferedwas,thatinSpainhissoldiers,inconcertwithcertainofhisallies,roseagainsthim,fornootherreasonthanthattheystoodinnofearofhim.Formenaresorestless,thatifeversosmalladoorbeopenedtotheirambition,theyforthwithforgetallthelovetheyhavebornetheirprinceinreturnforhisgraciousnessandgoodness,asdidthesesoldiersandalliesofScipio;when,tocorrectthemischief,hewas

forcedtousesomethingofacrueltyforeigntohisnature.

AstoHannibal,wecannotpointtoanyparticularinstancewhereinhiscrueltyorwantoffaithareseentohavebeendirectlyhurtfultohim;butwemaywellbelievethatNaplesandothertownswhichremainedloyaltotheRomanpeople,didsobyreasonofthedreadwhichhischaracterinspired.This,however,isabundantlyclear,thathisinhumanitymadehimmoredetestedbytheRomansthananyotherenemytheyeverhad;sothatwhiletoPyrrhus,inItalywithhisarmy,theygaveupthetraitorwhoofferedtopoisonhim,Hannibal,evenwhendisarmedandafugitive,theyneverforgave,untiltheyhadcompassedhisdeath.

ToHannibal,therefore,fromhisbeingaccountedimpious,perfidious,andcruel,thesedisadvantagesresulted;but,ontheotherhand,thereaccruedtohimonegreatgain,noticedwithadmirationbyallhistorians,namely,thatinhisarmy,althoughmadeupofmenofeveryraceandcountry,nodissensionseverbrokeoutamongthesoldiersthemselves,noranymutinyagainsttheirleader.Thiswecanonlyascribetotheawewhichhischaracterinspired,whichtogetherwiththegreatnamehisvalourhadwonforhim,hadtheeffectofkeepinghissoldiersquietandunited.Irepeat,therefore,thatitisoflittlemomentwhichmethodacaptainmayfollowifhebeendowedwithsuchvalouraswillbearhimoutinthecoursewhichheadopts.For,asIhavesaid,therearedisadvantagesincidenttobothmethodsunlesscorrectedbyextraordinaryvalour.

Andnow,sinceIhavespokenofScipioandHannibal,theformerofwhombypraiseworthy,thelatterbyodiousqualities,effectedthesameresults,Imustnot,Ithink,omittonoticethecharactersoftwoRomancitizens,whobydifferent,yetbothbyhonourablemethods,obtainedalikeglory.

CHAPTERXXII

ThattheSeverityofManliusTorquatusandtheGentlenessofValeriusCorvinusWonforBoththeSameGlory.

TherelivedinRome,atthesametime,twoexcellentcaptains,ManliusTorquatusandValeriusCorvinus,equalintheirtriumphsandintheirrenown,andinthevalourwhichinobtainingthesetheyhaddisplayedagainsttheenemy;butwhointheconductoftheirarmiesandtreatmentoftheirsoldiers,followedverydifferentmethods.ForManlius,inhiscommand,resortedtoeverykindofseverity,neversparinghismenfatigue,norremittingpunishment;whileValerius,onthecontrary,treatedthemwithallkindnessandconsideration,andwaseasyandfamiliarinhisintercoursewiththem.Sothatwhiletheone,tosecuretheobedienceofhissoldiers,puthisownsontodeath,theotherneverdealtharshlywithanyman.Yet,forallthisdiversityintheirmodesofacting,eachhadthesamesuccessagainsttheenemy,andeachobtainedthesameadvantagesbothfortherepublicandforhimself.Fornosoldieroftheirseverflinchedinbattle,orroseinmutinyagainstthem,orinanyparticularopposedtheirwill;thoughthecommandsofManliuswereofsuchseveritythatanyorderofexcessiverigourcametobespokenofasaManlianorder.

Here,then,wehavetoconsiderfirstofallwhyManliuswasobligedtousesuchseverity;next,whyValeriuscouldbehavesohumanely;thirdly,howitwasthattheseoppositemethodshadthesameresults;andlastly,whichofthetwomethodsitisbetterandmoreusefulforustofollow.Now,ifwewellexaminethecharacterofManliusfromthemomentwhenTitusLiviusfirstbeginstomakementionofhim,weshallfindhimtohavebeenendowedwithararevigourbothofmindandbody,dutifulinhisbehaviourtohisfatherandtohiscountry,andmostreverenttohissuperiors.AllwhichweseeinhisslayingtheGaul,inhisdefenceofhisfatheragainstthetribune,andinthewordsinwhich,beforegoingforthtofighttheGaul,headdressedtheconsul,whenhesaid,“Althoughassuredofvictory,neverwillIwithoutthybiddingengageanenemy.”Butwhensuchamanasthisattainstocommand,helookstofindallotherslikehimself;hisdauntlessspiritpromptshimtoengageindaringenterprises,andtoinsistontheirbeingcarriedout.Andthisiscertain,thatwherethingshardtoexecuteareorderedtobedone,theordermustbeenforcedwithsternness,since,otherwise,itwillbedisobeyed.

Andherebeitnotedthatifyouwouldbeobeyedyoumustknowhowtocommand,andthattheyalonehavethisknowledgewhohavemeasuredtheirpowertoenforce,withthewillingnessofotherstoyieldobedience;andwhoissuetheirorderswhentheyfindtheseconditionscombining,but,otherwise,abstain.Wherefore,awisemanwaswonttosaythattoholdarepublicbyforce,theremustbeaproportionbetweenhimwhousestheforceandhimagainstwhomitisused;andthatwhilethisproportionobtainstheforcewilloperate;butthatwhenhewhosuffersisstrongerthanhewhousestheforce,wemayexpecttoseeitbroughttoanendatanymoment.

Butreturningtothematterinhand,Isaythattocommandthingshardofexecution,requireshardnessinhimwhogivesthecommand,andthatamanofthistemperandwho

issuessuchcommands,cannotlooktoenforcethembygentleness.Hewhoisnotofsuchatempermustbecarefulnottoimposetasksofextraordinarydifficulty,butmayusehisnaturalgentlenessinimposingsuchasareordinary.Forcommonpunishmentsarenotimputedtotheprince,buttothelawsandordinanceswhichhehastoadminister.

Wemustbelieve,therefore,thatManliuswasconstrainedtoactwithseveritybytheunusualcharacterofthecommandswhichhisnaturaldispositionpromptedhimtoissue.Suchcommandsareusefulinarepublic,asrestoringitsordinancestotheiroriginalefficacyandexcellence.Andwerearepublic,asIhavebeforeobserved,fortunateenoughtocomefrequentlyundertheinfluenceofmenwho,bytheirexample,reinforceitslaws,andnotonlyretarditsprogresstowardscorruption,butbringitbacktoitsfirstperfection,itmightendureforever.

Manlius,therefore,wasofthosewhobytheseverityoftheircommandsmaintainedthemilitarydisciplineofRome;urgedthereto,inthefirstplace,byhisnaturaltemper,andnextbythedesirethatwhateverhewasmindedtocommandshouldbedone.Valerius,ontheotherhand,couldaffordtoacthumanely,becauseforhimitwasenoughifallweredonewhichinaRomanarmyitwascustomarytodo.And,sincethecustomsofthatarmyweregoodcustoms,theysufficedtogainhimhonour,whileatthesametimetheirmaintenancecosthimnoeffort,northrewonhimtheburthenofpunishingtransgressors;aswellbecausetherewerenonewhotrangressed,asbecausehadtherebeenany,theywould,asIhavesaid,haveimputedtheirpunishmenttotheordinaryrulesofdiscipline,andnottotheseverityoftheircommander.InthiswayValeriushadroomtoexercisethathumanedispositionwhichenabledhimatoncetogaininfluenceoverhissoldiersandtocontentthem.Henceitwasthatboththesecaptainsobtainingthesameobedience,could,whilefollowingdifferentmethods,arriveatthesameends.Those,however,whoseektoimitatethemmaychancetofallintotheerrorsofwhichIhavealreadyspoken,inconnectionwithHannibalandScipio,asbreedingcontemptorhatred,andwhichareonlytobecorrectedbythepresenceofextraordinaryvalour,andnototherwise.

Itrestsnowtodeterminewhichofthesetwomethodsisthemoretobecommended.This,Itakeit,ismatterofdispute,sincebothmethodshavetheiradvocates.Thosewriters,however,whohavelaiddownrulesfortheconductofprinces,describeacharacterapproachingmorenearlytothatofValeriusthantothatofManlius;andXenophon,whomIhavealreadycited,whilegivingmanyinstancesofthehumanityofCyrus,conformscloselytowhatLiviustellsusofValerius.ForValeriusbeingmadeconsulagainsttheSamnites,ontheeveofbattlespoketohismenwiththesamekindlinesswithwhichhealwaystreatedthem;andLivius,aftertellinguswhathesaid,remarksofhim:“Neverwastherealeadermorefamiliarwithhismen;cheerfullysharingwiththemeanestamongthemeveryhardshipandfatigue.Eveninthemilitarygames,whereinthoseofthesamerankwerewonttomaketrialoftheirstrengthorswiftness,hewouldgood–naturedlytakeapart,nordisdainanyadversarywhooffered;meetingvictoryordefeatwithanunruffledtemperandanunchangedcountenance.Whencalledontoact,hisbountyandgenerosityneverfellshort.Whenhehadtospeak,hewasasmindfulofthefeelingsofothersasofhisowndignity.And,whatmorethananythingelsesecuresthepopularfavour,hemaintainedwhenexercisinghismagistraciesthesamebearinghehadworninseekingthem.”

OfManliusalso,TitusLiviusspeaksinlikehonourableterms,pointingoutthathis

severityinputtinghissontodeathbroughttheRomanarmytothatpitchofdisciplinewhichenabledittoprevailagainsttheLatins,nay,hegoessofarinhispraisesthatafterdescribingthewholeorderofthebattle,comparingthestrengthofbotharmies,andshowingallthedangerstheRomansran,andthedifficultiestheyhadtosurmount,hewindsupbysaying,thatitwasthevalourofManliuswhichalonegainedforthemthisgreatvictory,andthatwhicheversidehadManliusforitsleadermusthavewontheday.Sothatweighingallthatthehistorianstellusofthesetwocaptains,itmightbedifficulttodecidebetweenthem.

Nevertheless,nottoleavethequestionentirelyopen,Isay,thatforacitizenlivingunderarepublic,IthinktheconductofManliusmoredeservingofpraiseandlessdangerousinitsconsequences.Formethodslikehistendonlytothepublicgoodandinnowaysubserveprivateends.Hewhoshowshimselfharshandsternatalltimesandtoallmenalike,andisseentocareonlyforthecommonwelfare,willnevergainhimselfpartisans,sincethisisnotthewaytowinpersonalfriends,towhom,asIsaidbefore,thenameofpartisansisgiven.Forarepublic,therefore,nolineofconductcouldbemoreusefulormoretobedesiredthanthis,becauseinfollowingitthepublicinterestisnotneglected,andnoroomisgiventosuspectpersonalambition.

ButthecontraryholdsastothemethodsfollowedbyValerius.Forthoughthepublicservicetheyrenderbethesame,misgivingsmustneedsarisethatthepersonalgood–willwhich,inthecourseofaprolongedcommand,acaptainobtainsfromhissoldiers,mayleadtoconsequencesfataltothepublicliberty.AndifthiswasnotfoundtohappeninthecaseofValerius,itwasbecausethemindsoftheRomanpeoplewerenotyetcorrupted,andbecausetheyhadneverremainedforalongtimeandcontinuouslyunderhiscommand.

Hadwe,however,likeXenophon,toconsiderwhatismostfortheinterestofaprince,weshouldhavetogiveupManliusandholdbyValerius;for,undoubtedly,aprinceshouldstrivetogaintheloveofhissoldiersandsubjects,aswellastheirobedience.Thelatterhecansecurebydisciplineandbyhisreputationforvalour.Butfortheformerhewillbeindebtedtohisaffability,kindliness,gentleness,andallthoseotherlikequalitieswhichwerepossessedbyValerius,andwhicharedescribedbyXenophonasexistinginCyrus.Thataprinceshouldbepersonallylovedandhavehisarmywhollydevotedtohimisconsistentwiththecharacterofhisgovernment;butthatthisshouldhappentoapersonofprivatestationdoesnotconsistwithhispositionasacitizenwhohastoliveinconformitywiththelawsandinsubordinationtothemagistrates.WereadintheearlyannalsoftheVenetianRepublic,thatonce,onthereturnofthefleet,adisputebrokeoutbetweenthesailorsandthepeople,resultingintumultsandarmedviolencewhichneithertheeffortsofthepublicofficers,therespectfeltforparticularcitizens,northeauthorityofthemagistratescouldquell.Butonacertaingentleman,whotheyearbeforehadbeenincommandofthesesailors,showinghimselfamongthem,straightway,fromthelovetheyborehim,theysubmittedtohisauthorityandwithdrewfromthefray.WhichdeferenceontheirpartarousedsuchjealousyandsuspicioninthemindsoftheVenetiansenatorsthatverysoonaftertheygotridofthisgentleman,eitherbydeathorexile.

Thesumofthematter,therefore,is,thatthemethodsfollowedbyValeriusareusefulinaprince,butperniciousinaprivatecitizen,bothforhiscountryandforhimself,forhis

country,becausesuchmethodspavethewaytoatyranny;forhimself,becausehisfellow–citizens,growingsuspiciousofhisconduct,areconstrainedtoprotectthemselvestohishurt.Andconversely,Imaintain,thatthemethodsofManlius,whilehurtfulinaprinceareusefulinacitizen,andinthehighestdegreeforhiscountry;and,moreover,seldomgiveoffence,unlessthehatredcausedbyhisseveritybeaugmentedbythejealousywhichthefameofhisothervirtuesinspires:amatternowtobeconsideredinconnectionwiththebanishmentofCamillas.

CHAPTERXXIII

WhyCamillusWasBanishedFromRome.

IthasbeenshownabovehowmethodslikethoseofValeriusarehurtfultothecitizenwhoemploysthemandtohiscountry,whilemethodslikethoseofManliusareadvantageousforaman’scountry,thoughsometimestheybehurtfultothemanhimself.ThisiswellseenintheexampleofCamillus,whosebearingmorenearlyresembledthatofManliusthanthatofValerius,sothatTitusLivius,inspeakingofhim,says,“Hisvirtueswereatoncehatedandadmiredbyhissoldiers.”Whatgainedhimtheiradmirationwashiscarefortheirsafety,hisprudence,hismagnanimity,andthegoodorderhemaintainedinconductingandcommandingthem.Whatmadehimhatedwashisbeingmoresterntopunishthanbountifultoreward;andLiviusinstancesthefollowingcircumstancesasgivingrisetothishatred.First,hishavingappliedthemoneygotbythesaleofthegoodsoftheVeientinestopublicpurposes,andnotdivideditalongwiththerestofthespoils.Second,hishaving,ontheoccasionofhistriumph,causedhischariottobedrawnbyfourwhitehorses,seekinginhispride,mensaid,tomakehimselftheequalofthesungod.And,third,hishavingvowedtoApolloatenthoftheVeientineplunder,which,ifhewastofulfilhisvow,hehadtorecoverfromhissoldiers,intowhosehandsithadalreadycome.

Hereinwemaywellandreadilydiscernwhatcausestendtomakeaprincehatefultohispeople;thechiefwhereofisthedeprivingthemofsomeadvantage.Andthisisamatterofmuchimportance.Forwhenamanisdeprivedofwhatisinitselfuseful,heneverforgetsit,andeverytriflingoccasionrecallsittohismind;andbecausesuchoccasionsrecurdaily,heiseverydayremindedofhisloss.Anothererrorwhichweareheretaughttoguardagainst,istheappearinghaughtyandproud,thanwhichnothingismoredistastefultoapeople,andmostofalltoafreepeople;foralthoughsuchprideandhaughtinessdothemnohurt,theyneverthelessholdindetestationanywhodisplaythesequalities.Everyshowofpride,therefore,aprinceshouldshunashewouldarock,sincetoinvitehatredwithoutresultingadvantagewereutterlyrashandfutile.

CHAPTERXXIV

ThatProlongedCommandsBroughtRometoServitude

IfwewellexaminethecourseofRomanhistory,weshallfindtwocausesleadingtothebreak–upofthatrepublic:one,thedissensionswhicharoseinconnectionwiththeagrarianlaws;theother,theprolongationofcommands.Forhadthesemattersbeenrightlyunderstoodfromthefirst,anddueremediesapplied,thefreedomofRomehadbeenfarmorelasting,and,possibly,lessdisturbed.Andalthough,astouchingtheprolongationofcommands,weneverfindanytumultbreakingoutinRomeonthataccount,wedoinfactdiscernhowmuchharmwasdonetothecitybytheascendencywhichcertainofitscitizenstherebygained.Thismischiefindeedwouldnothavearisen,ifothercitizenswhoseperiodofofficewasextendedhadbeenasgoodandwiseasLuciusQuintius,whosevirtueaffordsanotableexample.FortermsofaccordhavingbeensettledbetweenthesenateandcommonsofRome,thelatter,thinkingtheirtribuneswellabletowithstandtheambitionofthenobles,prolongedtheirauthorityforayear.Whereupon,thesenate,nottobeoutdonebythecommons,proposed,outofrivalry,toextendtheconsulshipofQuintius.He,however,refusedabsolutelytolendhimselftotheirdesigns,andinsistedontheirappointingnewconsuls,tellingthemthattheyshouldseektodiscreditevilexamples,notaddtothembysettingworse.HadthisprudenceandvirtueofhisbeensharedbyallthecitizensofRome,thepracticeofprolongingthetermsofcivilofficeswouldnothavebeensufferedtoestablishitself,norhaveledtothekindredpracticeofextendingthetermofmilitarycommands,whichinprogressoftimeeffectedtheruinoftheirrepublic.

Thefirstmilitarycommanderwhosetermwasextended,wasPubliusPhilo;forwhenhisconsulshipwasabouttoexpire,hebeingthenengagedinthesiegeofPalæopolis,thesenate,seeinghehadthevictoryinhishands,wouldnotdisplacehimbyasuccessor,butappointedhimProconsul,whichofficehewasthefirsttohold.Now,althoughinthusactingthesenatedidwhattheythoughtbestforthepublicgood,neverthelessitwasthisactoftheirsthatintimebroughtRometoslavery.ForthefurthertheRomanscarriedtheirarms,themorenecessaryitseemedtothemtograntsimilarextensionsofcommand,andtheoftenerthey,infact,didso.Thisgaverisetotwodisadvantages:firstthatasmallernumberofmenweretrainedtocommand;second,thatbythelongcontinuanceofhiscommandacaptaingainedsomuchinfluenceandascendencyoverhissoldiersthatintimetheycametoholdthesenateofnoaccount,andlookedonlytohim.Thisitwas,thatenabledSyllaandMariustofindadherentsreadytofollowthemeventothepublicdetriment,andenabledCæsartooverthrowthelibertiesofhiscountry;whereas,hadtheRomansneverprolongedtheperiodofauthority,whethercivilormilitary,thoughtheymighthavetakenlongertobuilduptheirempire,theycertainlyhadbeenlaterinincurringservitude.

CHAPTERXXV

OfthePovertyofCincinnatusandofManyOtherRomanCitizens

ElsewhereIhaveshownthatnoordinanceisofsuchadvantagetoacommonwealth,asonewhichenforcespovertyonitscitizens.AndalthoughitdoesnotappearwhatparticularlawitwasthathadthisoperationinRome(especiallysinceweknowtheagrarianlawtohavebeenstubbornlyresisted),wefind,asafact,thatfourhundredyearsafterthecitywasfounded,greatpovertystillprevailedthere;andmayassumethatnothinghelpedsomuchtoproducethisresultastheknowledgethatthepathtohonoursandprefermentwasclosedtonone,andthatmeritwassoughtafterwheresoeveritwastobefound;forthismannerofconferringhonoursmaderichesthelesscourted.InproofwhereofIshallciteoneinstanceonly.

WhentheconsulMinutiuswasbesetinhiscampbytheEquians,theRomanpeoplewerefilledwithsuchalarmlesttheirarmyshouldbedestroyed,thattheyappointedadictator,alwaystheirlaststayinseasonsofperil.TheirchoicefellonLuciusQuintiusCincinnatus,whoatthetimewaslivingonhissmallfarmoflittlemorethanfouracres,whichhetilledwithhisownhand.ThestoryisnoblytoldbyTitusLiviuswherehesays:“Thisisworthlisteningtobythosewhocontemnallthingshumanascomparedwithriches,andthinkthatgloryandexcellencecanhavenoplaceunlessaccompaniedbylavishwealth.”Cincinnatus,then,wasploughinginhislittlefield,whentherearrivedfromRomethemessengerssentbythesenatetotellhimhehadbeenmadedictator,andinformhimofthedangerswhichthreatenedtheRepublic.Puttingonhisgown,hehastenedtoRome,andgettingtogetheranarmy,marchedtodeliverMinutius.Butwhenhehaddefeatedandspoiledtheenemy,andreleasedMinutius,hewouldnotsufferthearmyhehadrescuedtoparticipateinthespoils,saying,“Iwillnothaveyoushareintheplunderofthosetowhomyouhadsonearlyfallenaprey.”Minutiushedeprivedofhisconsulship,andreducedtobeasubaltern,inwhichrankhebadehimremaintillhehadlearnedhowtocommand.AndbeforethishehadmadeLuciusTarquininus,althoughforcedbyhispovertytoserveonfoot,hismasteroftheknights.

Here,then,weseewhathonourwaspaidinRometopoverty,andhowfouracresoflandsufficedtosupportsogoodandgreatamanasCincinnatus.WefindthesamePovertystillprevailinginthetimeofMarcusRegulus,whowhenservingwiththearmyinAfricasoughtleaveofsenatetoreturnhomethathemightlookafterhisfarmwhichhislabourershadsufferedtoruntowaste.Hereagainwelearntwothingsworthyourattention:first,thepovertyofthesemenandtheircontentmentunderit,andhowtheirsolestudywastogainrenownfromwar,leavingallitsadvantagestotheState.Forhadtheythoughtofenrichingthemselvesbywar,ithadgiventhemlittleconcernthattheirfieldswererunningtowasteFurther,wehavetoremarkthemagnanimityofthesecitizens,whowhenplacedattheheadofarmiessurpassedallprincesintheloftinessoftheirspirit,whocaredneitherforkingnorforcommonwealth,andwhomnothingcoulddauntordismay;butwho,onreturningtoprivatelife,becameoncemoresohumble,sofrugal,socarefuloftheirslendermeans,andsosubmissivetothemagistratesandreverentialtotheirsuperiors,thatitmightseemimpossibleforthehumanmindtoundergosoviolentachange.

ThispovertyprevaileddowntothedaysofPaulusEmilius,almostthelasthappydaysforthisrepublicwhereinacitizen,whileenrichingRomebyhistriumphs,himselfremainedpoor.Andyetsogreatlywaspovertystillesteemedatthistime,thatwhenPaulus,inconferringrewardsonthosewhohadbehavedwellinthewar,presentedhisownson–in–lawwithasilvercup,itwasthefirstvesselofsilvereverseeninhishouse.

Imightrunontoagreatlengthpointingouthowmuchbetterarethefruitsofpovertythanthoseofriches,andhowpovertyhasbroughtcities,provinces,andnationstohonour,whilericheshavewroughttheirruin,hadnotthissubjectbeenoftentreatedbyothers.

CHAPTERXXVI

HowWomenAreaCauseoftheRuinofStates.

AfeudbrokeoutinArdeatouchingthemarriageofanheiress,whosehandwassoughtatthesametimebytwosuitors,theoneofplebeian,theotherofnoblebirth.Forherfatherbeingdead,herguardianwishedhertowedtheplebeian,hermotherthenoble.Andsohotgrewthedisputethatresortwashadtoarms,thewholenobilitysidingwiththeirfellow–noble,andalltheplebeianswiththeplebeian.Thelatterfactionbeingworsted,leftthetown,andsenttotheVolsciansforhelp;whereupon,thenoblessoughthelpfromRome.TheVolscianswerefirstinthefield,andontheirarrivalencampedroundArdea.TheRomans,cominguplater,shutintheVolsciansbetweenthemselvesandthetown,and,reducingthembyfamine,forcedthemtosurrenderatdiscretion.TheythenenteredArdea,andputtingalltheringleadersinthisdisputetothesword,composedthedisordersofthecity.

Inconnectionwiththisaffairthereareseveralpointstobenoted.AndinthefirstplaceweseehowwomenhavebeentheoccasionofmanydivisionsandcalamitiesinStates,andhavewroughtgreatharmtorulers;aswhen,accordingtoourhistorian,theviolencedonetoLucretiadrovetheTarquinsfromtheirkingdom,andthatdonetoVirginiabrokethepowerofthedecemvirs.AndamongthechiefcauseswhichAristotleassignsforthedownfalloftyrantsarethewrongsdonebythemtotheirsubjectsinrespectoftheirwomen,whetherbyadultery,rape,orotherlikeinjurytotheirhonour,ashasbeensufficientlynoticedintheChapterwhereinwetreated“ofConspiracies”

Isay,then,thatneitherabsoluteprincesnortherulersoffreeStatesshouldunderratetheimportanceofmatter,buttakeheedtothedisorderswhichitmaybreedandprovideagainstthemwhileremediescanstillbeusedwithoutdiscredittothemselvesortotheirgovernmentsAndthisshouldhavebeendonebytherulersofArdeawhobysufferingtherivalrybetweentheircitizenstocometoahead,promotedtheirdivisions,andwhentheysoughttoreunitethemhadtosummonforeignhelp,thanwhichnothingsoonerleadstoservitude.

Butnowletusturntoanothersubjectwhichmeritsattention,namely,themeanswherebydividedcitiesmaybereunited;andofthisIproposetospeakinthefollowingChapter.

CHAPTERXXVII

HowadividedCitymaybereunited,andhowitisafalseopinionthattoholdCitiesinsubjectiontheymustbekeptdivided.

FromtheexampleoftheRomanconsulswhoreconciledthecitizensofArdea,wearetaughtthemethodwherebythefeudsofadividedcitymaybecomposed,namely,byputtingtheringleadersofthedisturbancestodeath;andthatnootherremedyshouldbeused.Threecourses,indeed,areopentoyou,sinceyoumayeitherputtodeath,astheseconsulsdid,orbanish,orbindthecitizenstoliveatpeacewithoneanother,takingsecurityfortheirgoodbehaviour.Ofwhichthreewaysthelastisthemosthurtful,themostuncertain,andtheleasteffectual;becausewhenmuchbloodhasbeenshed,orotherlikeoutragedone,itcannotbethatapeaceimposedoncompulsionshouldendurebetweenmenwhoareeverydaybroughtfacetofacewithoneanother;forsincefreshcauseofcontentionmayatanymomentresultfromtheirmeeting,itwillbeimpossibleforthemtorefrainfrommutualinjury.OfthiswecouldhavenobetterinstancethaninthecityofPistoja.

FifteenyearsagothiscitywasdividedbetweenthePanciatichiandCancellieri,asindeeditstillcontinues,theonlydifferencebeingthatthentheywereinarms,whereas,now,theyhavelaidthemaside.Aftermuchcontroversyandwrangling,thesefactionswouldpresentlyproceedtobloodshed,topullingdownhouses,plunderingproperty,andalltheotherviolentcoursesusualindividedcities.TheFlorentines,withwhomitlaytocomposethesefeuds,stroveforalongtimetodosobyusingthethirdofthemethodsmentioned;butwhenthisonlyledtoincreasedtumultanddisorder,losingpatience,theydecidedtotrythesecondmethodandgetridoftheringleadersofbothfactionsbyimprisoningsomeandbanishingothers.Inthiswayasortofsettlementwasarrivedat,whichcontinuesinoperationuptothepresenthour.Therecanbenoquestion,however,thatthefirstofthemethodsnamedwouldhavebeenthesurest.Butbecauseextrememeasureshaveinthemanelementofgreatnessandnobility,aweakrepublic,sofarfromknowinghowtousethisfirstmethod,canwithdifficultybebroughttoemployeventhesecond.This,asIsaidatthebeginning,isthekindofblundermadebytheprincesofourtimeswhentheyhavetodecideonmattersofmoment,fromtheirnotconsideringhowthosemenactedwhoinancientdayshadtodetermineunderlikeconditions.Fortheweaknessofthepresentraceofmen(theresultoftheirenfeeblingeducationandtheirignoranceofaffairs),makesthemregardthemethodsfollowedbytheancientsaspartlyinhumanandpartlyimpracticable.Accordingly,theyhavetheirownnewfangledwaysoflookingatthings,whollyatvariancewiththetrue,aswhenthesagesofourcity,sometimesince,pronouncedthatPistojawastobeheldbyfeudsandPisabyfortresses,notperceivinghowuselesseachofthesemethodsisinitself.

Havingspokenoffortressesalreadyatsomelength,Ishallnotfurtherrefertothemhere,butshallconsiderthefutilityoftryingtoholdsubjectcitiesbykeepingthemdivided.Inthefirstplace,itisimpossiblefortherulingpower,whetherprinceorrepublic,tobefriendswithbothfactions.Forwhereverthereisdivision,itishumannaturetotakeaside,andtofavouronepartymorethananother.Butifonepartyinasubjectcitybeunfriendly

toyou,theconsequencewillbethatyouwilllosethatcitysosoonasyouareinvolvedinwar,sinceitisimpossibleforyoutoholdacitywhereyouhaveenemiesbothwithinandwithout.Shouldtherulingpowerbearepublic,thereisnothingsolikelytocorruptitscitizensandsowdissensionamongthem,ashavingtocontroladividedcity.Foraseachfactioninthatcitywillseeksupportandendeavourtomakefriendsinavarietyofcorruptways,twoveryseriousevilswillresult:first,thatthegovernedcitywillneverbecontentedwithitsgovernors,sincetherecanbenogoodgovernmentwhereyouoftenchangeitsform,adaptingyourselftothehumoursnowofonepartyandnowofanother;andnext,thatthefactiousspiritofthesubjectcityiscertaintoinfectyourownrepublic.TowhichBiondotestifies,when,inspeakingofthecitizensofFlorenceandPistoja,hesays,“InseekingtounitePistojatheFlorentinesthemselvesfellout.”[15]Itiseasy,therefore,tounderstandhowmuchmischiefattendsonsuchdivisions.Intheyear1501,whenwelostArezzo,andwhenalltheValdiTevereandValdiChianawereoccupiedbytheVitelliandbyDukeValentino,acertainM.deLantwassentbytheKingofFrancetocausethewholeofthelosttownstoberestoredtotheFlorentines;whofindinginallthesetownsmenwhocametohimclaimingtobeofthepartyoftheMarnocco[16],greatlyblamedthisdistinction,observing,thatifinFranceanyoftheking’ssubjectsweretosaythathewasoftheking’sparty,hewouldbepunished;sincetheexpressionwouldimplythattherewasapartyhostiletotheking,whereasitwashismajesty’sdesirethatallhissubjectsshouldbehisfriendsandliveunitedwithoutanydistinctionofparty.Butallthesemistakenmethodsandopinionsoriginateintheweaknessofrulers,who,seeingthattheycannotholdtheirStatesbytheirownstrengthandvalour,haverecoursetolikedevices;which,ifnowandthenintranquiltimestheyproveofsomeslightassistancetothem,intimesofdangerareshowntobeworthless.

[15]Flav.BlondriHist.,dec.ii.lib.9.Basleed.1559,p.337[16]TheheraldicLionofFlorence.

CHAPTERXXVIII

ThataRepublicmustkeepaneyeonwhatitsCitizensareabout;sinceoftentheseedsofaTyrannyliehiddenunderasemblanceofgenerousdeeds.

ThegranariesofRomenotsufficingtomeetafaminewithwhichthecitywasvisited,acertainSpuriusMelius,averywealthycitizenforthesedays,privatelylaidinasupplyofcornwherewithtofeedthepeopleathisownexpense;gainingtherebysuchgeneralfavourwiththecommons,thatthesenate,apprehendingthathisbountymighthavedangerousconsequences,inordertocrushhimbeforehegrewtoopowerful,appointedadictatortodealwithhimandcausedhimtobeputtodeath.

Herewehavetonotethatactionswhichseemgoodinthemselvesandunlikelytooccasionharmtoanyone,veryoftenbecomehurtful,nay,unlesscorrectedintime,mostdangerousforarepublic.Andtotreatthematterwithgreaterfulness,Isay,thatwhilearepubliccannevermaintainitselflong,ormanageitsaffairstoadvantage,withoutcitizensofgoodreputation,ontheotherhandthecreditenjoyedbyparticularcitizensoftenleadstotheestablishmentofatyranny.Forwhichreasons,andthatthingsmaytakeasafecourse,itshouldbesoarrangedthatacitizenshallhavecreditonlyforsuchbehaviourasbenefits,andnotforsuchasinjurestheStateanditsliberties.Wemustthereforeexaminebywhatwayscreditisacquired.These,briefly,aretwo,publicorsecret.Public,whenacitizengainsagreatnamebyadvisingwellorbyactingstillbetterforthecommonadvantage.Tocreditofthissortweshouldopenawidedoor,holdingoutrewardsbothforgoodcounselsandforgoodactions,sothathewhorenderssuchservicesmaybeatoncehonouredandsatisfied.Reputationacquiredhonestlyandopenlybysuchmeansasthesecanneverbedangerous.Butcreditacquiredbysecretpractices,whichistheothermethodspokenof,ismostperilousandprejudicial.Ofsuchsecretpracticesmaybeinstanced,actsofkindnessdonetothisortheothercitizeninlendinghimmoney,inassistinghimtomarryhisdaughters,indefendinghimagainstthemagistrates,andinconferringsuchotherprivatefavoursasgainmendevotedadherents,andencouragethemaftertheyhaveobtainedsuchsupport,tocorrupttheinstitutionsoftheStateandtoviolateitslaws.

Awell–governedrepublic,therefore,ought,asIhavesaid,tothrowwidethedoortoallwhoseekpublicfavourbyopencourses,andtocloseitagainstanywhowouldingratiatethemselvesbyunderhandmeans.AndthiswefindwasdoneinRome.FortheRomanrepublic,asarewardtoanycitizenwhoserveditwell,ordainedtriumphsandalltheotherhonourswhichithadtobestow;whileagainstthosewhosoughttoaggrandizethemselvesbysecretintrigues,itordainedaccusationsandimpeachment;andwhen,fromthepeoplebeingblindedbyafalseshowofbenevolence,theseprovedinsufficient,itprovidedforadictator,whowithregalauthoritymightbringtoboundsanywhohadstrayedbeyondthem,asinstancedinthecaseofSpuriusMelius.Andifconductlikehisbeeversufferedtopassunchastised,itmaywellbetheruinofarepublic,formenwhentheyhavesuchexamplessetthemarenoteasilyledbackintotherightpath.

CHAPTERXXIX

ThattheFaultsofaPeopleAreDuetoItsPrince.

Letnoprincecomplainofthefaultscommittedbyapeopleunderhiscontrol;sincethesemustbeascribedeithertohisnegligence,ortohisbeinghimselfblemishedbysimilardefects.Andwereanyonetoconsiderwhatpeoplesinourowntimeshavebeenmostgiventorobberyandotherlikeoffences,hewouldfindthattheyhaveonlycopiedtheirrulers,whohavethemselvesbeenofalikenature.Romagna,beforethoselordswhoruleditweredrivenoutbyPopeAlexanderVI.,wasanurseryofalltheworstcrimes,theslightestoccasiongivingrisetowholesalerapineandmurder.Thisresultedfromthewickednessoftheselords,andnot,astheyasserted,fromtheevildispositionoftheirsubjects.Fortheseprincesbeingpoor,yetchoosingtoliveasthoughtheywererich,wereforcedtoresorttocrueltiesinnumerableandpractisedindiversways;andamongothershamefuldevicescontrivedbythemtoextortmoney,theywouldpasslawsprohibitingcertainacts,andthenbethefirsttogiveoccasionforbreakingthem;norwouldtheychastiseoffendersuntiltheysawmanyinvolvedinthesameoffence;whentheyfelltopunishing,notfromanyzealforthelawswhichtheyhadmade,butoutofgreedtorealizethepenalty.Whenceflowedmanymischiefs,andmoreparticularlythis,thatthepeoplebeingimpoverished,butnotcorrected,soughttomakegoodtheirinjuriesattheexpenseofothersweakerthanthemselves.Andthustheresprangupallthoseevilsspokenofabove,whereoftheprinceisthetruecause.

ThetruthofwhatIsayisconfirmedbyTitusLiviuswhereherelateshowtheRomanenvoys,whowereconveyingthespoilsoftheVeientinesasanofferingtoApollo,wereseizedandbroughtonshorebythecorsairsoftheLipariislandsinSicily;whenTimasitheus,theprinceoftheseislands,onlearningthenatureoftheoffering,itsdestination,andbywhomsent,thoughhimselfofLipari,behavedasaRomanmight,showinghispeoplewhatsacrilegeitwouldbetointerceptsuchagift,andspeakingtosuchpurposethatbygeneralconsenttheenvoysweresufferedtoproceedupontheirvoyage,takingalltheirpossessionswiththem.Withreferencetowhichincidentthehistorianobserves:“Themultitude,whoalwaystaketheircolourfromtheirruler,werefilledbyTimasitheuswithareligiousawe.”AndtolikepurportwefinditsaidbyLorenzode’Medici:—

“Aprince’sactshispeopleimitate;Forontheirlordtheeyesofallmenwait.”[17]

[17]Equelchefailsigner,fannopoimolti;Chènelsignersontuttigliocchivolti.(LaRappresentazionediSanGiovanniePaolo.)

CHAPTERXXX

ThataCitizenWhoSeeksbyHisPersonalInfluencetoRenderSignalServicetoHisCountry,MustFirstStandClearofEnvy.HowaCityShould

PrepareforItsDefenceontheApproachofanEnemy.

WhentheRomansenatelearnedthatallEtruriawasassembledinarmstomarchagainstRome,andthattheLatinsandHernicians,whobeforehadbeenthefriendsoftheRomans,hadrangedthemselveswiththeVolscianstheancientenemiesoftheRomanname,theyforesawthataperilouscontestawaitedthem.ButbecauseCamilluswasatthattimetribunewithconsularauthoritytheythoughtallmightbemanagedwithouttheappointmentofadictator,providedtheothertribunes,hiscolleagueswouldagreetohisassumingthesoledirectionofaffairs.Thistheywillinglydid;“nor,”saysTitusLivius,“didtheyaccountanythingastakenfromtheirowndignitywhichwasaddedtohis.”

Onreceivingtheirpromiseofobedience,Camillusgaveordersthatthreearmiesshouldbeenrolled.Ofthefirst,whichwastobedirectedagainsttheEtruscans,hehimselfassumedcommand.Thecommandofthesecond,whichhemeanttoremainnearRomeandmeetanymovementoftheLatinsandHernicians,hegavetoQuintiusServilius.Thethirdarmy,whichhedesignedfortheprotectionofthecity,andthedefenceofthegatesandCuria,heentrustedtoLuciusQuintius.Andhefurtherdirected,thatHoratius,oneofhiscolleagues,shouldfurnishsuppliesofarms,andcorn,andofallelseneedfulintimeofwar.FinallyheputforwardhiscolleagueCorneliustopresideinthesenateandpubliccouncil,thatfromdaytodayhemightadvisewhatshouldbedone.Forinthosetimesthesetribuneswerereadyeithertocommandorobeyasthewelfareoftheircountrymightrequire.

Wemaygatherfromthispassagehowabraveandprudentmanshouldact,howmuchgoodhemayeffect,andhowserviceablehemaybetohiscountry,whenbytheforceofhischaracterandworthhesucceedsinextinguishingenvy.Forthisoftendisablesmenfromactingtothebestadvantage,notpermittingthemtoobtainthatauthoritywhichitisessentialtheyshouldhaveinmattersofimportance.Now,envymaybeextinguishedinoneorotheroftwoways:first,bytheapproachofsomeflagrantdanger,wherebyseeingthemselvesliketobeoverwhelmed,allforegotheirownprivateambitionandlendawillingobediencetohimwhocountsonhisvalourtorescuethem.AsinthecaseofCamillas,whofromhavinggivenmanyproofsofsurpassingability,andfromhavingbeenthreetimesdictatorandalwaysexercisedtheofficeforthepublicgoodandnotforhisprivateadvantage,hadbroughtmentofearnothingfromhisadvancement;whilehisfameandreputationmadeitnoshameforthemtorecognizehimastheirsuperior.Wisely,therefore,doesTitusLiviususeconcerninghimthewordswhichIhavecited.

Theotherwayinwhichenvymaybeextinguished,isbythedeath,whetherbyviolenceorintheordinarycourseofnature,ofthosewhohavebeenyourrivalsinthepursuitoffameorpower,andwhoseeingyoubetteresteemedthanthemselves,couldneveracquiesceinyoursuperiorityorputupwithitinpatience.Forwhenthesemenhavebeenbroughtupinacorruptcity,wheretheirtrainingislittlelikelytoimprovethem,nothingthatcanhappenwillinducethemtowithdrawtheirpretensions;nay,tohavetheirownwayandsatisfy

theirperversehumour,theywillbecontenttolookonwhiletheircountryisruined.Forenvysuchasthisthereisnocuresavebythedeathofthoseofwhomithastakenpossession.Andwhenfortunesobefriendsagreatmanthathisrivalsareremovedfromhispathbyanaturaldeath,hisgloryisestablishedwithoutscandaloroffence,sinceheisthenabletodisplayhisgreatqualitiesunhindered.Butwhenfortuneisnotthuspropitioustohim,hemustcontriveothermeanstoridhimselfofrivals,andmustdososuccessfullybeforehecanaccomplishanything.AnyonewhoreadswithintelligencethelessonsofHolyWrit,willrememberhowMoses,togiveeffecttohislawsandordinances,wasconstrainedtoputtodeathanendlessnumberofthosewhooutofmereenvywithstoodhisdesigns.ThenecessityofthiscoursewaswellunderstoodbytheFriarGirolamoSavonarola,andbytheGonfalonierPieroSoderini.Buttheformercouldnotcomplywithit,because,asafriar,hehimselflackedtheneedfulauthority;whilethoseofhisfollowerswhomighthaveexercisedthatauthority,didnotrightlycomprehendhisteaching.This,however,wasnofaultofhis;forhissermonsarefullofinvectivesandattacksagainst“thewiseofthisworld,”thatbeingthenamehegavetoenviousrivalsandtoallwhoopposedhisreforms.AsforPieroSoderini,hewaspossessedbythebeliefthatintimeandwithfavourablefortunehecouldallayenvybygentleness–andbybenefitsconferredonparticularmen;forashewasstillintheprimeoflife,andinthefreshenjoymentofthatgood–willwhichhischaracterandopinionshadgainedforhim,hethoughttogetthebetterofallwhooutofjealousyopposedhim,withoutgivingoccasionfortumult,violence,ordisorder;notknowinghowtimestaysnot,worthsufficesnot,fortuneshifts,andmalicewillnotbewonoverbyanybenefitWherefore,becausetheycouldnotorknewnothowtovanquishthisenvy,thetwowhomIhavenamedcametotheirdownfall.

Anotherpointtobenotedinthepassageweareconsidering,isthecarefulprovisionmadebyCamillusforthesafetyofRomebothwithinandwithoutthecity.And,truly,notwithoutreasondowisehistorians,likeourauthor,setforthcertaineventswithmuchminutenessanddetail,totheendthatthosewhocomeaftermaylearnhowtoprotectthemselvesinlikedangers.Further,wehavetonotethatthereisnomorehazardousorlessusefuldefencethanoneconductedwithoutmethodorsystem.ThisisshowninCamilluscausingathirdarmytobeenrolledthatitmightbeleftinRomefortheprotectionofthecity.Manypersons,doubtless,boththenandnow,wouldesteemthisprecautionsuperfluous,thinkingthatastheRomanswereawarlikepeopleandconstantlyunderarms,therecouldbenooccasionforaspeciallevy,andthatitwastimeenoughtoarmwhentheneedcame.ButCamillus,andanyotherequallyprudentcaptainwouldbeofthesamemind,judgedotherwise,notpermittingthemultitudetotakeuparmsunlesstheyweretobeboundbytherulesanddisciplineofmilitaryservice.Lethim,therefore,whoiscalledontodefendacity,takingexamplebyCamillus,beforeallthingsavoidplacingarmsinthehandsofanundisciplinedmultitude,butfirstofallselectandenrollthosewhomheproposestoarm,sothattheymaybewhollygovernedbyhimastowheretheyshallassembleandwhithertheyshallmarch;andthenlethimdirectthosewhoarenotenrolled,toabideeverymaninhisownhouseforitsdefence.Whosoeverobservesthismethodinacitywhichisattacked,willbeabletodefenditwithease;butwhosoeverdisregardsit,andfollowsnottheexampleofCamillus,shallneversucceed.

CHAPTERXXXI

ThatStrongRepublicsandValiantMenPreserveThroughEveryChangetheSameSpiritandBearing.

AmongotherhighsayingswhichourhistorianascribestoCamillus,asshowingofwhatstuffatrulygreatmanshouldbemade,heputsinhismouththewords,“Mycouragecamenotwithmydictatorshipnorwentwithmyexile;”forbythesewordswearetaughtthatagreatmanisconstantlythesamethroughallvicissitudesofFortune;sothatalthoughshechange,nowexalting,nowdepressing,heremainsunchanged,andretainsalwaysamindsounmoved,andinsuchcompleteaccordancewithhisnatureasdeclarestoallthatoverhimFortunehasnodominion.

Verydifferentisthebehaviourofthoseweak–mindedmortalswho,puffedupandintoxicatedwiththeirsuccess,ascribealltheirfelicitytovirtueswhichtheyneverknew,andthusgrowhatefulandinsupportabletoallaroundthem.Whencealsothechangesintheirfortunes.Forwhenevertheyhavetolookadversityintheface,theysuddenlypasstotheotherextreme,becomingabjectandbase.Andthusithappensthatfeeble–mindedprinces,whentheyfallintodifficulties,thinkratherofflightthanofdefence,because,havingmadebaduseoftheirprosperity,theyarewhollyunpreparedtodefendthemselves.

ThesamemeritsanddefectswhichIsayarefoundinindividualmen,arelikewisefoundinrepublics,whereofwehaveexampleinthecaseofRomeandofVenice.FornoreverseoffortuneeverbrokethespiritoftheRomanpeople,nordidanysuccesseverundulyelatethem;asweseeplainlyaftertheirdefeatatCannæ,andafterthevictorytheyhadoverAntiochus.ForthedefeatatCannæ,althoughmostmomentous,beingthethirdtheyhadmetwith,nowhitdauntedthem;sothattheycontinuedtosendfortharmies,refusedtoransomprisonersascontrarytotheircustom,anddespatchednoenvoytoHannibalortoCarthagetosueforpeace;butwithouteverlookingbackonpasthumiliations,thoughtalwaysofwar,thoughinsuchstraitsforsoldiersthattheyhadtoarmtheiroldmenandslaves.WhichfactsbeingmadeknowntoHannotheCarthaginian,he,asIhavealreadyrelated,warnedtheCarthaginiansenatenottolaytoomuchstressupontheirvictory.Here,therefore,weseethatintimesofadversitytheRomanswereneithercastdownnordismayed.Ontheotherhand,noprosperityevermadethemarrogant.Beforefightingthebattlewhereinhewasfinallyrouted,AntiochussentmessengerstoScipiototreatforanaccord;whenScipioofferedpeaceonconditionthathewithdrewatonceintoSyria,leavingallhisotherdominionstobedealtwithbytheRomansastheythoughtfit.Antiochusrefusingtheseterms,foughtandwasdefeated,andagainsentenvoystoScipio,enjoiningthemtoacceptwhateverconditionsthevictormightbepleasedtoimpose.ButScipioproposednodifferenttermsfromthosehehadofferedbeforesayingthat“theRomans,astheylostnotheartondefeat,sowaxednotinsolentwithsuccess.”

ThecontraryofallthisisseeninthebehaviouroftheVenetians,whothinkingtheirgoodfortuneduetovalourofwhichtheyweredevoid,intheirprideaddressedtheFrenchkingas“SonofSt.Mark;”andmakingnoaccountoftheChurch,andnolongerrestrictingtheirambitiontothelimitsofItaly,cametodreamoffoundinganempireliketheRoman.But

afterwards,whentheirgoodfortunedesertedthem,andtheymetatVailàahalf–defeatatthehandsoftheFrenchking,theylosttheirwholedominions,notaltogetherfromrevolt,butmainlybyabaseandabjectsurrendertothePopeandtheKingofSpain.Nay,solowdidtheystoopastosendambassadorstotheEmperorofferingtobecomehistributaries,andtowriteletterstothePope,fullofsubmissionandservility,inordertomovehiscompassion.Tosuchabasementweretheybroughtinfourdays’timebywhatwasinrealityonlyahalf–defeat.ForontheirflightafterthebattleofVailàonlyaboutahalfoftheirforceswereengaged,andoneoftheirtwoprovedditoriescapedtoVeronawithfiveandtwentythousandmen,horseandfoot.SothathadtherebeenasparkofvalourinVenice,oranysoundnessinhermilitarysystem,shemighteasilyhaverenewedherarmies,andagainconfrontingfortunehavestoodpreparedeithertoconquer,or,ifshemustfall,tofallmoregloriously;andatanyratemighthaveobtainedforherselfmorehonourableterms.Butapusillanimousspirit,occasionedbythedefectsofherordinancesinsofarastheyrelatetowar,causedhertoloseatoncehercourageandherdominions.AndsowillitalwayshappenwiththosewhobehaveliketheVenetians.Forwhenmengrowinsolentingoodfortune,andabjectinnevil,thefaultliesinthemselvesandinthecharacteroftheirtraining,which,whenslightandfrivolous,assimilatesthemtoitself;butwhenotherwise,makesthemofanothertemper,andgivingthembetteracquaintancewiththeworld,causesthemtobelessdisheartenedbymisfortunesandlesselatedbysuccess.

Andwhilethisistrueofindividualmen,itholdsgoodalsoofaconcourseofmenlivingtogetherinonerepublic,whowillarriveatthatmeasureofperfectionwhichtheinstitutionsoftheirStatepermit.AndalthoughIhavealreadysaidonanotheroccasionthatagoodmilitiaisthefoundationofallStates,andwherethatiswantingtherecanneitherbegoodlaws,noraughtelsethatisgood,itseemstomenotsuperfluoustosaythesameagain;becauseinreadingthishistoryofTitusLiviusthenecessityofsuchafoundationismadeapparentineverypage.Itislikewiseshownthatnoarmycanbegoodunlessitbethoroughlytrainedandexercised,andthatthiscanonlybethecasewithanarmyraisedfromyourownsubjects.ForasaStateisnotandcannotalwaysbeatwar,youmusthaveopportunitytotrainyourarmyintimesofpeace;butthis,havingregardtothecost,youcanonlyhaveinrespectofyourownsubjects.

WhenCamillus,asalreadyrelated,wentforthtomeettheEtruscans,hissoldiersonseeingthegreatarmyoftheirenemy,werefilledwithfear,thinkingthemselvestootowithstanditsonset.ThisuntowarddispositionbeingreportedtoCamillus,heshowedhimselftohismenandbyvisitingtheirtents,andconversingwiththisandtheotheramongthem,wasabletoremovetheirmisgivings;and,finally,withoutotherwordofcommand,hebadethem“eachdohispartashehadlearnedandbeenaccustomed.”Now,anyonewhowellconsidersthemethodsfollowedbyCamillus,andthewordsspokenbyhimtoencouragehissoldierstofacetheirenemy,willperceivethatthesewordsandmethodscouldneverhavebeenusedwithanarmywhichhadnotbeentrainedanddisciplinedintimeofpeaceaswellasofwar.Fornocaptaincantrusttountrainedsoldiersorlookforgoodserviceattheirhands;nay,thoughhewereanotherHannibal,withsuchtroopshisdefeatwerecertain.For,asacaptaincannotbepresenteverywherewhileabattleisbeingfought,unlesshehavetakenallmeasuresbeforehandtorenderhismenofthesametemperashimself,andhavemadesurethattheyperfectlyunderstandhisordersandarrangements,hewillinevitablybedestroyed.

WhenacitythereforeisarmedandtrainedasRomewas,andwhenitscitizenshavedailyopportunity,bothsinglyandtogether,tomaketrialoftheirvalourandlearnwhatfortunecaneffect,itwillalwayshappen,thatatalltimes,andwhethercircumstancesbeadverseorfavourable,theywillremainofunalteredcourageandpreservethesamenoblebearing.Butwhenitscitizensareunpractisedinarms,andtrustnottotheirownvalourbutwhollytothearbitrationofFortune,theywillchangetheirtemperasshechanges,andofferalwaysthesameexampleofbehaviouraswasgivenbytheVenetians.

CHAPTERXXXII

OftheMethodsWhichSomeHaveUsedtoMakePeaceImpossible

ThetownsofCæreandVelitræ,twoofherowncolonies,revoltedfromRomeinexpectationofbeingprotectedbytheLatins.ButtheLatinsbeingroutedandallhopesofhelpfromthatquarteratanend,manyofthetownsmenrecommendedthatenvoysshouldbesenttoRometomaketheirpeacewiththesenate.Thisproposal,however,wasdefeatedbythosewhohadbeentheprimemoversoftherevolt,who,fearingthatthewholepunishmentmightfallontheirheads,toputastoptoanytalkofanadjustment,incitedthemultitudetotakeuparmsandmakeaforayintotheRomanterritory.

And,intruth,whenitisdesiredthataprinceorpeopleshouldbanishfromtheirmindseverythoughtofreconciliation,thereisnosurerormoreeffectualplanthantoincitethemtoinflictgravewrongonhimwithwhomyouwouldnothavethembereconciled;for,then,thefearofthatpunishmentwhichtheywillseemtothemselvestohavedeserved,willalwayskeepthemapart.AtthecloseofthefirstwarwagedbytheRomansagainstCarthage,thesoldierswhohadservedundertheCarthaginiansinSardiniaandSicily,uponpeacebeingproclaimed,returnedtoAfrica;where,beingdissatisfiedwiththeirpay,theymutiniedagainsttheCarthaginians,andchoosingtwooftheirnumber,MatoandSpendio,tobetheirleaders,seizedandsackedmanytownssubjecttoCarthage.TheCarthaginians,beingloathtouseforceuntiltheyhadtriedallothermethodsforbringingthemtoreason,sentHasdrubal,theirfellow–citizen,tomediatewiththem,thinkingthatfromformerlyhavingcommandedthemhemightbeabletoexercisesomeinfluenceoverthem.Butonhisarrival,SpendioandMato,toextinguishanyhopethesemutineersmighthavehadofmakingpeacewithCarthage,andsoleavethemnoalternativebutwar,persuadedthemthattheirbestcoursewastoputHasdrubal,withalltheotherCarthaginiancitizenswhomtheyhadtakenprisoners,todeath.Whereupon,theynotonlyputthemtodeath,butfirstsubjectedthemtoaninfinityoftortures;crowningtheirwickednessbyaproclamationtotheeffectthateveryCarthaginianwhomightthereafterfallintotheirhandsshouldmeetalikefate.Thisadvice,therefore,anditsconsummationhadtheeffectofrenderingthesemutineersrelentlessandinveterateintheirhostilitytotheCarthaginians.

CHAPTERXXXIII

ThattoInsureVictoryinBattleYouMustInspireYourMenWithConfidenceinOneAnotherandinYou.

Toinsureanarmybeingvictoriousinbattleyoumustinspireitwiththeconvictionthatitiscertaintoprevail.Thecauseswhichgiveitthisconfidenceareitsbeingwellarmedanddisciplined,andthesoldiersknowingoneanother.Theseconditionsareonlytobefoundunitedinsoldiersbornandbredinthesamecountry.

Itislikewiseessentialthatthearmyshouldthinksowellofitscaptainastotrustimplicitlytohisprudence;whichitwillalwaysdoifitseehimcarefulofitswelfare,attentivetodiscipline,braveinbattle,andotherwisesupportingwellandhonourablythedignityofhisposition.Theseconditionshefulfilswhen,whilepunishingfaults,hedoesnotneedlesslyharasshismen,keepshiswordwiththem,showsthemthatthepathtovictoryiseasy,andconcealsfromthem,ormakeslightofthingswhichseenfromadistancemightappeartothreatendanger.Theobservanceoftheseprecautionswillgiveanarmygreatconfidence,andsuchconfidenceleadstovictory.

ThisconfidencetheRomanswerewonttoinspireinthemindsoftheirsoldiersbytheaidofreligion;andaccordinglytheirconsulswereappointed,theirarmieswereenrolled,theirsoldiersmarchedforth,andtheirbattleswerebegun,onlywhentheauguriesandauspiceswerefavourable;andwithoutattendingtoalltheseobservancesnoprudentcaptainwouldeverengageincombat;knowingthatunlesshissoldierswerefirstassuredthatthegodswereontheirside,hemightreadilysufferdefeat.Butifanyconsulorotherleadereverjoinedbattlecontrarytotheauspices,theRomanswouldpunishhim,astheydidClaudiusPulcher.

ThetruthofwhatIaffirmisplainlyseenfromthewholecourseoftheRomanhistory,butismoreparticularlyestablishedbythewordswhichLiviusputsintothemouthofAppiusClaudius,who,whencomplainingtothepeopleoftheinsolenceofthetribunes,andtaxingthemwithhavingcausedthecorruptionoftheauspicesandotherritesofreligion,ismadetosay,“Andnowtheywouldstripevenreligionofitsauthority.Forwhatmattersit,theywilltellyou,thatthefowlsrefusetopeck,orcomeslowlyfromthecoop,orthatacockhascrowed?Thesearesmallmattersdoubtless;butitwasbynotcontemningsuchsmallmattersasthese,thatourforefathersbuiltupthisgreatrepublic.”And,indeed,inthesesmallmattersliesapowerwhichkeepsmenunitedandofgoodcourage,whichisofitselfthechiefconditionofsuccess.

Buttheobservancesofreligionmustbeaccompaniedbyvalour,forotherwisetheycannothingavail.ThemenofPraneste,leadingforththeirarmyagainsttheRomans,tookuptheirpositionneartheriverAllia,ontheveryspotwheretheRomanshadbeenroutedbytheGauls,selectingthisgroundthatitmightinspiretheirownsidewithconfidence,anddisheartentheirenemieswiththeunhappymemorieswhichitrecalledButalthough,forthereasonsalreadynoted,thiswasacoursewhichpromisedsuccess,theresultneverthelessshowedthattruevalourisnottobedauntedbytriflingdisadvantages.Andthisthehistorianwellexpressesbythewordsheputsinthemouthofthedictatoras

spokentohismasteroftheknights“Seehowthesefellows,inencampingonthebanksoftheAllia,havechosentheirgroundinrelianceuponfortune.Doyou,therefore,relyingondisciplineandvalour,falluponthencentre.”Fortruevalour,tightdiscipline,andthefeelingofsecuritygainedbyrepeatedvictories,arenottobecounteractedbythingsofnorealmoment,dismayedbyemptyterrors,orquelledbyasolitarymishap.AswaswellseenwhenthetwoManlii,beingconsulsincommandagainsttheVolscians,rashlyallowedapartoftheirarmytogooutforaging,andboththosewhowentoutandthosewhostayedbehindfoundthemselvesattackedatthesamemomentForfromthisdangertheyweresavedbythecourageofthesoldiers,andnotbytheforesightoftheconsuls.WithregardtowhichoccurrenceTitusLiviusobserves,“Evenwithoutaleaderthesteadfastvalourofthesoldierswasmaintained.”

HereImustnotomittonoticethedevicepractisedbyFabiustogivehisarmyconfidence,whenheleditforthefirsttimeintoEtruria.Forjudgingsuchencouragementtobeespeciallyneededbyhismen,sincetheywereenteringanunknowncountrytoencounteranewfoe,headdressedthembeforetheyjoinedbattle,and,afterrecitingmanyreasonsforexpectingavictory,toldthem,that“hecouldhavementionedotherfavourablecircumstancesmakingvictorycertain,haditnotbeendangeroustodisclosethem.”Andasthisdevicewasdexterouslyuseditmeritsimitation.

CHAPTERXXXIV

ByWhatReports,Rumours,orSurmisestheCitizensofaRepublicAreLedtoFavouraFellow-citizen:And-whethertheMagistraciesAreBestowed

WithBetterJudgmentbyaPeopleorbyaPrince.

IhaveelsewhererelatedhowTitusManlius,afterwardsnamedTorquatus,rescuedhisfatherfromthechargelaidagainsthimbyMarcusPomponius,tribuneofthepeople.Andthoughthemeanshetooktoeffectthisweresomewhatviolentandirregular,sopleasingtoeveryonewerehisfilialpietyandaffection,thatnotonlydidheescaperebuke,butwhenmilitarytribuneshadtobeappointedhisnamewassecondonthelistofthosechosen.Toexplainhisgoodfortune,itwill,Ithink,beusefultoconsiderwhatarethemethodsfollowedbythecitizensofarepublicinestimatingthecharacterofthoseonwhomtheybestowhonours,soastoseewhetherwhatIhavealreadysaidonthisheadbetrue,namely,thatapeopleismorediscriminatinginawardinghonoursthanaprince.

Isay,then,thatinconferringhonoursandoffices,thepeople,whenithasnoknowledgeofamanfromhispubliccareer,followstheestimategivenofhimbythegeneralvoice,andbycommonreport;orelseisguidedbysomeprepossessionorpreconceivedopinionwhichithasadoptedconcerninghim.Suchimpressionsareformedeitherfromconsiderationofaman’sdescent(itbeingassumed,untilthecontraryappears,thatwherehisancestorshavebeengreatanddistinguishedcitizenstheirdescendantwillresemblethem),orelsefromregardtohismannersandhabits;andnothingcanbemoreinhisfavourthanthathefrequentsthecompanyofthegraveandvirtuous,andsuchasaregenerallyreputedwise.Foraswecanhavenobettercluetoaman’scharacterthanthecompanyhekeeps,hewhofrequentsworthycompanydeservedlyobtainsagoodname,sincetherecanhardlyfailtobesomesimilaritybetweenhimselfandhisassociates.Sometimes,however,thepopularestimateofamanisfoundedonsomeremarkableandnoteworthyaction,thoughnotofpublicmoment,inwhichhehasacquittedhimselfwell.Andofallthethreecauseswhichcreateaprepossessioninaman’sfavour,noneissoeffectualasthislast.Forthepresumptionthathewillresemblehisancestorsandkinsmenissooftenmisleading,thatmenareslowtotrustandquicktodiscardit,unlessconfirmedbythepersonalworthofhimofwhomtheyarejudging.

Thecriterionofcharacteraffordedbyaman’smannersandconversationisasaferguidethanthepresumptionofinheritedexcellence,butisfarinferiortothataffordedbyhisactions;foruntilhehasgivenactualproofofhisworth,hiscreditisbuiltonmereopinion,whichmayreadilychange.Butthisthirdmodeofjudging,whichoriginatesinandrestsuponhisactions,atoncegiveshimanamewhichcanonlybedestroyedbyhisafterwardsdoingmanyactionsofacontrarynature.Thosethereforewholiveinarepublicshouldconformtothisthirdcriterion,andendeavour,asdidmanyoftheRomanyouth,tomaketheirstartinlifewithsomeextraordinaryachievement,eitherbypromotingalawconducivetothegeneralwell–being,orbyaccusingsomepowerfulcitizenasatransgressorofthelaws,orbyperformingsomesimilarnewandnotableactionwhichcannotfailtobemuchspokenof.

Actionslikethisarenecessarynotonlytolayafoundationforyourfame,butalsotomaintainandextendit.Towhichend,theymustcontinuallyberenewed,aswefinddonebyTitusManliusthroughoutthewholecourseofhislife.Forafterwinninghisearliestrenownbyhisboldandsingulardefenceofhisfather,whensomeyearshadpassedhefoughthisfamousduelwiththeGaul,fromwhom,whenhehadslainhim,hetookthetwistedgoldencollarwhichgavehimthenameofTorquatus.Norwasthisthelastofhisremarkableactions,foratalaterperiod,whenhewasofripeyears,hecausedhisownsontobeputtodeath,becausehehadfoughtwithoutleave,althoughsuccessfully.Whichthreeactionsgainedforhimatthetimeagreatername,andhavemadehimmorerenownedthroughafteragesthanallhistriumphsandvictories,thoughofthesehehadaslargeashareasfelltothelotofanyotherRoman.Theexplanationofwhichis,thatwhileinhisvictoriesManliushadmanywhoresembledhim,intheseparticularactionshestoodalmostorentirelyalone.

So,too,withtheelderScipio,allwhosevictoriestogetherdidnotobtainforhimsomuchreputation,asdidhisrescue,whilehewasyetyoung,ofhisfatherattheTicino,andhisundauntedbearingaftertheroutatCannæ,whenwithhisnakedswordheconstrainedanumberoftheRomanyouthtoswearnevertoabandontheircountry,assomeamongthemhadbeforebeenmindedtodo.Itwasthesetwoactions,therefore,whichlaidthefoundationofhisfuturefameandpavedthewayforhistriumphsinSpainandAfrica.Andthefairesteeminwhichmenheldhim,wasstillfurtherheightenedwheninSpainherestoredadaughtertoherfather,awifetoherhusband.

Norisitonlythecitizenwhoseeksreputationasleadingtocivilhonours,whomustactinthisway;theprincewhowouldmaintainhiscreditinhisprincedommustdolikewise;sincenothinghelpssomuchtomakeaprinceesteemedastogivesignalproofsofhisworth,whetherbywordsorbydeedswhichtendtopromotethepublicgood,andshowhimtobesomagnanimous,generous,andjust,thathemaywellpassintoaproverbamonghissubjects.ButtoreturntothepointwhenceIdigressed,Isaythatifapeople,whentheyfirstconferhonoursonafellow–citizen,resttheirjudgmentonanyoneofthethreecircumstancesabove–mentioned,theybuildonareasonablefoundation;but,whenmanyinstancesofnobleconducthavemadeamanfavourablyknown,thatthefoundationisstillbetter,sincethenthereishardlyroomformistake.Ispeakmerelyofthosehonourswhicharebestowedonamanattheoutsetofhiscareer,beforehehascometobeknownbycontinuedproof,orisfoundtohavepassedfromonekindofconducttoanotheranddissimilarkind,andImaintainthatinsuchcases,sofaraserroneousjudgmentsorcorruptmotivesareconcerned,apeoplewillalwayscommitfewermistakesthanaprince.

Butsinceapeoplemayhappentobedeceivedasregardsthecharacter,reputation,andactionsofaman,thinkingthembetterorgreaterthanintruththeyare,anerroraprinceislesslikelytofallintofromhisbeinginformedandwarnedbyhisadvisers,inorderthatthepeoplemaynotlacksimilaradvice,wisefoundersofrepublicshaveprovided,thatwhenthehighestdignitiesoftheState,towhichitwouldbedangeroustoappointincapablemen,havetobefilledup,anditappearsthatsomeincapablemanistheobjectofthepopularchoice,itshallbelawfulandaccountedhonourableforanycitizentodeclareinthepublicassembliesthedefectsofthefavouredcandidate,thatthepeople,beingmadeacquaintedtherewith,maybebetterabletojudgeofhisfitness.ThatthiswasthepracticeinRomewehaveproofinthespeechmadebyFabiusMaximustothepeople

duringthesecondPunicwar,whenintheappointmentofconsulspublicfavourleanedtowardsTitusOttacilius.ForFabiusjudginghimunequaltothedutiesoftheconsulshipatsuchacrisis,spokeagainsthimandpointedouthisinsufficiency,andsopreventedhisappointment,turningthepopularfavourtowardsanotherwhodeserveditmore.

Inthechoiceofitsmagistrates,therefore,apeoplejudgesofthoseamongwhomithastochoose,inaccordancewiththesurestindicationsitcanget;andwhenitcanbeadvisedasprincesare,makesfewermistakesthanthey.Butthecitizenwhowouldmakeabeginningbygainingthegood–willofthepeople,must,toobtainit,perform,likeTitusManlius,somenoteworthyaction.

CHAPTERXXXV

OftheDangerIncurredinBeingtheFirsttoRecommendNewMeasures;andThattheMoreUnusualtheMeasurestheGreatertheDanger

Howperilousathingitistoputone’sselfattheheadofchangeswherebymanyareaffected,howdifficulttoguideandbringthemtoperfection,andwhenperfectedtomaintainthem,weretoowideandarduousasubjecttobetreatedhere.WhereforeIreserveitforafitteroccasion,andshallnowspeakonlyofthosedangerswhichareincurredbythecitizensofarepublicorbythecounsellorsofaprinceinbeingthefirsttopromotesomegraveandimportantmeasureinsuchmannerthatthewholeresponsibilityattendingitrestswiththem.Forasmenjudgeofthingsbytheirresults,anyevilwhichensuesfromsuchmeasureswillbeimputedtotheirauthor.Andalthoughifgoodensuehewillbeapplauded,neverthelessinmattersofthiskind,whatamanmaygainisasnothingtowhathemaylose.

Selim,thepresentsultan,orGrandTurkasheiscalled,beinginreadiness,assomewhocomefromhiscountryrelate,tosetforthonanexpeditionagainstEgyptandSyria,wasurgedbyoneofhisbashawswhomhehadstationedontheconfinesofPersia,tomakewarupontheSofi.Incompliancewithwhichadvicehewentonthisnewenterprisewithavastarmy.Butcomingtoagreatplain,whereinweremanydesertsandfewstreams,andencounteringthesamedifficultiesasinancienttimeshadprovedtheruinofmanyRomanarmies,hesufferedsomuchfrompestilenceandfamine,that,althoughvictoriousinbattle,helostagreatpartofhismen.Thissoenragedhimagainstthebashawonwhoseadvicehehadacted,thatheforthwithputhimtodeath.

Inlikemanner,wereadofmanycitizenswhohavingstrenuouslypromotedvariousmeasureswerebanishedwhentheseturnedoutbadly.CertaincitizensofRome,forinstance,wereveryactiveinforwardingalawallowingtheappointmentofaplebeiantobeconsul.Thislawpassing,itsohappenedthatthefirstplebeianconsulwhowentforthwiththearmieswasrouted;andhaditnotbeenthatthepartyinwhosebehalfthelawwasmadewasextremelypowerful,itspromoterswouldhavefaredbadly.Itisplainthereforethatthecounsellorswhetherofarepublicorofaprincestandinthisdilemma,thatiftheydonotconscientiouslyadvisewhatsoevertheythinkadvantageousfortheircityorprince,theyfailintheirduty;iftheydoadviseit,theyrisktheirplacesandtheirlives;allmenbeingsubjecttothisinfirmityofjudgingadvicebytheevent.

WhenIconsiderinwhatwaythisreproachorthisdangermaybestbeescaped,Ifindnootherremedytorecommendthanthatingivingadviceyouproceeddiscreetlynotidentifyingyourselfinaspecialmannerwiththemeasureyouwouldseecarriedout,butofferingyouropinionwithoutheat,andsupportingittemperatelyandmodestly,sothatiftheprinceorcityfollowit,theyshalldosooftheirowngood–will,andnotseemtobedraggedintoitbyyourimportunity.Whenyouactthus,neitherprincenorpeoplecanreasonablybearyouagrudgeinrespectoftheadvicegivenbyyou,sincethatadvicewasnotadoptedcontrarytothegeneralopinion.Foryourdangerliesinmanyhavingopposedyou,whoafterwards,shouldyouradviceprovehurtful,combinetoruinyou.Andalthough

intakingthiscourseyoufallshortoftheglorywhichisearnedbyhimwhostandsaloneagainstmanyinurgingsomemeasurewhichsucceeds,youhaveneverthelesstwoadvantagestomakeupforit:first,thatyouescapedanger;andsecond,thatwhenyouhavetemperatelystatedyourviews,andwhen,inconsequenceofopposition,youradvicehasnotbeentaken,shouldothercounselsprevailandmischiefcomeofthem,yourcreditwillbevastlyenhanced.Andalthoughcreditgainedatthecostofmisfortunetoyourprinceorcitycannotbematterofrejoicing,stillitissomethingtobetakenintoaccount.

Onthishead,then,Iknowofnootheradvicetooffer.Forthatyoushouldbesilentandexpressnoopinionatall,wereacoursehurtfulforyourprinceorcity,andwhichwouldnotabsolveyoufromdanger,sinceyouwouldsoongrowtobesuspected,whenitmightfarewithyouaswiththefriendofPerseustheMacedonianking.ForPerseusbeingdefeatedbyPaulusEmilius,andmakinghisescapewithafewcompanions,ithappenedthatoneofthem,inreviewingthepast,begantopointouttothekingmanymistakeswhichhehadmadeandwhichhadbeenhisruin.WhereuponPerseusturninguponhimsaid,“Traitor,hastthouwaitedtillnowwhenthereisnoremedytotellmethesethings?”andsosaying,slewhimwithhisownhand.Suchwasthepenaltyincurredbyonewhowassilentwhenheshouldhavespoken,andwhospokewhenheshouldhavebeensilent;andwhofoundnoescapefromdangerinhavingrefrainedfromgivingadvice.Wherefore,Ibelieve,thatthecoursewhichIhaverecommendedshouldbeobservedandfollowed.

CHAPTERXXXVI

WhyItHasBeenandStillMaybeAffirmedoftheGauls,ThatattheBeginningofaFrayTheyAreMoreThanMen,butAfterwardsLessThan

Women

ThebraveryoftheGaulwhoonthebanksoftheAniochallengedanyamongtheRomanstofightwithhim,andthecombatthatthereuponensuedbetweenhimandTitusManlius,remindmeofwhatTitusLiviusoftenerthanonceobservesinhishistory,that“atthebeginningofafraytheGaulsaremorethanmen,butereitisendedshowthemselveslessthanwomen.”

Touchingthecauseofthis,manyarecontenttobelievethatsuchistheirnature,which,indeed,Itaketobetrue;butwearenot,therefore,toassumethatthenaturaltemperwhichmakesthembraveattheoutset,maynotbesotrainedandregulatedastokeepthembravetotheend.And,toprovethis,Isay,thatarmiesareofthreekinds.Inoneoftheseyouhavedisciplinewithbraveryandvalourasitsconsequence.SuchwastheRomanarmy,whichisshownbyallhistorianstohavemaintainedexcellentdisciplineastheresultofconstantmilitarytraining.Andbecauseinawell–disciplinedarmynonemustdoanythingsavebyrule,wefindthatintheRomanarmy,fromwhichasitconqueredtheworldallothersshouldtakeexample,noneeithereat,orslept,orbought,orsold,ordidanythingelse,whetherinhismilitaryorinhisprivatecapacity,withoutordersfromtheconsul.Thosearmieswhichdootherwisearenottruearmies,andifevertheyhaveanysuccess,itisowingtothefuryandimpetuosityoftheironsetandnottotrainedandsteadyvalour.Butofthisimpetuosityandfury,trainedvalour,whenoccasionrequires,willmakeuse;norwillanydangerdauntitorcauseittoloseheart,itscouragebeingkeptalivebyitsdiscipline,anditsconfidencefedbythehopeofvictorywhichneverfailsitwhilethatdisciplineismaintained.

Butthecontraryhappenswitharmiesofthesecondsort,those,namely,whichhaveimpetuositywithoutdiscipline,aswasthecasewiththeGaulswhosecourageinaprotractedconflictgraduallyworeaway;sothatunlesstheysucceededintheirfirstattack,theimpetuositytowhichtheytrusted,havingnosupportfromdisciplinedvalour,sooncooled;when,astheyhadnothingelsetodependon,theireffortsceased.TheRomans,ontheotherhand,beinglessdisquietedindangerbyreasonoftheirperfectdiscipline,andneverlosinghope,foughtsteadilyandstubbornlytothelast,andwiththesamecourageattheendasattheoutset;nay,growingheatedbytheconflict,onlybecamethefiercerthelongeritwascontinued.

Inarmiesofthethirdsortbothnaturalspiritandtrainedvalourarewanting;andtothisclassbelongtheItalianarmiesofourowntimes,ofwhichitmaybeaffirmedthattheyareabsolutelyworthless,neverobtainingavictory,savewhen,bysomeaccident,theenemytheyencountertakestoflight.Butsincewehavedailyproofsofthisabsenceofvalour,itwereneedlesstosetforthparticularinstancesofit.

Thatall,however,mayknowonthetestimonyofTitusLiviuswhatmethodsagoodarmy

shouldtake,andwhataretakenbyabadarmy,IshallcitethewordsherepresentsPapiriusCursortohaveusedwhenurgingthatFabius,hismasteroftheknights,shouldbepunishedfordisobedience,anddenouncingtheconsequenceswhichwouldensuewereheabsolved,saying:—”LetneitherGodnormanbeheldinreverence;lettheordersofcaptainsandtheDivineauspicesbealikedisregarded;letavagrantsoldieryrangewithoutleavethroughthecountryoffriendorfoe;recklessoftheirmilitaryoath,letthemdisbandattheirpleasure;letthemforsaketheirdesertedstandards,andneitherrallynordisperseatthewordofcommand;letthemfightwhentheychoose,bydayorbynight,withorwithoutadvantageofground,withorwithoutthebiddingoftheirleader,neithermaintainingtheirranksnorobservingtheorderofbattle;andletourarmies,frombeingasolemnandconsecratedcompany,growtoresemblesomedarkandfortuitousgatheringofcut–throats.”Withthispassagebeforeus,itiseasytopronouncewhetherthearmiesofourtimesbe“adarkandfortuitousgathering,”or“asolemnandconsecratedcompany_;”nay,howfartheyfallshortofanythingworthytobecalledanarmy,possessingneithertheimpetuousbutdisciplinedvalouroftheRomans,noreventhemereundisciplinedimpetuosityoftheGauls.

CHAPTERXXXVII

WhetheraGeneralEngagementShouldbePrecededbySkirmishes;andHow,AvoidingThese,WeMayGetKnowledgeofaNewEnemy.

Besidesalltheotherdifficultieswhichhindermenfrombringinganythingtoitsutmostperfection,itappears,asIhavealreadyobserved,thatinclosevicinitytoeverygoodisfoundalsoanevil,soapttogrowupalongwithitthatitishardlypossibletohavetheonewithoutacceptingtheother.Thisweseeinallhumanaffairs,andtheresultis,thatunlessfortuneaidustoovercomethisnaturalandcommondisadvantage,weneverarriveatanyexcellence.IamremindedofthisbythecombatbetweenTitusManliusandtheGaul,concerningwhichLiviuswritesthatit“determinedtheissueoftheentirewar;sincetheGauls,abandoningtheircamp,hastilywithdrewtothecountryaboutTivoli,whencetheypresentlypassedintoCampania.”

Itmaybesaid,therefore,ontheonehand,thataprudentcaptainoughtabsolutelytorefrainfromallthoseoperationswhich,whileoftriflingmomentinthemselves,maypossiblyproduceanilleffectonhisarmy.Now,toengageinacombatwhereinyouriskyourwholefortuneswithoutputtingforthyourentirestrength,is,asIobservedbefore,whencondemningthedefenceofacountrybyguardingitsdefiles,anutterlyfoolhardycourse.Ontheotherhand,itistobesaidthataprudentcaptain,whenhehastomeetanewandredoubtableadversary,ought,beforecomingtoageneralengagement,toaccustomhismenbyskirmishesandpassagesofarms,tothequalityoftheirenemy;thattheymaylearntoknowhim,andhowtodealwithhim,andsofreethemselvesfromthefeelingofdreadwhichhisnameandfameinspire.

Thisforacaptainisamatteroftheverygreatestimportance,andonewhichitmightbealmostfatalforhimtoneglect,sincetoriskapitchedbattlewithoutfirstgivingyoursoldierssuchopportunitiestoknowtheirenemyandshakeofftheirfearofhim,istorushoncertaindestruction.WhenValeriusCorvinuswassentbytheRomanswiththeirarmiesagainsttheSamnites,thesebeingnewadversarieswithwhomuptothattimetheyhadnotmeasuredtheirstrength,TitusLiviustellsusthatbeforegivingbattlehemadehismenmaketrialoftheenemyinseveralunimportantskirmishes,“lesttheyshouldbedismayedbyanewfoeandanewmethodofwarfare.”Nevertheless,thereisverygreatdangerthat,ifyoursoldiersgettheworstintheseencounters,theiralarmandself–distrustmaybeincreased,andaresultfollowcontrarytothatintended,namely,thatyoudispiritwhereyoumeanttoreassure.

This,therefore,isoneofthosecasesinwhichtheevilliessonighthegood,andbotharesomixeduptogetherthatyoumayreadilylayholdoftheonewhenyouthinktograsptheother.AndwithregardtothisIsay,thatagoodcaptainshoulddowhathecanthatnothinghappenwhichmightdiscouragehismen,noristhereanythingsolikelytodiscouragethemastobeginwithadefeat.Forwhichreasonskirmishesare,asarule,tobeavoided,andonlytobeallowedwhereyoufighttogreatadvantageandwithacertaintyofvictory.Inlikemanner,noattemptshouldbemadetodefendthepassesleadingintoyourcountryunlessyourwholearmycanco–operate;norareanytownstobedefendedsavethose

whoselossnecessarilyinvolvesyourruin.Andastothosetownswhichyoudodefend,youmustsoarrange,bothinrespectofthegarrisonwithinandthearmywithout,thatintheeventofasiegeyourwholeforcescanbeemployed.Allothertownsyoumustleaveundefended.For,providedyourarmybekepttogether,youdonot,inlosingwhatyouvoluntarilyabandon,forfeityourmilitaryreputation,orsacrificeyourhopesoffinalsuccess.Butwhenyoulosewhatitwasyourpurpose,andwhatallknowitwasyourpurposetohold,yousufferareallossandinjury,and,liketheGaulsonthedefeatoftheirchampion,youareruinedbyamishapofnomomentinitself.

PhilipofMacedon,thefatherofPerseus,agreatsoldierinhisday,andofagreatname,onbeinginvadedbytheRomans,laidwasteandrelinquishedmuchofhisterritorywhichhethoughthecouldnotdefend;rightlyjudgingitmorehurtfultohisreputationtoloseterritoryafteranattempttodefendit,thantoabandonittotheenemyassomethinghecaredlittletoretain.So,likewise,afterthebattleofCannæ,whentheiraffairswereattheirworst,theRomansrefusedaidtomanysubjectandprotectedStates,chargingthemtodefendthemselvesasbesttheycould.Andthisisabettercoursethantoundertaketodefendandthentofail;forbyrefusingtodefend,youloseonlyyourfriend;whereasinfailing,younotonlyloseyourfriend,butweakenyourself.

Buttoreturntothematterinhand,Iaffirm,thatevenwhenacaptainisconstrainedbyinexperienceofhisenemytomaketrialofhimbymeansofskirmishes,heoughtfirsttoseethathehassomuchtheadvantagethatherunsnoriskofdefeat;orelse,andthisishisbettercourse,hemustdoasMariusdidwhensentagainsttheCimbrians,averycourageouspeoplewhowerelayingItalywaste,andbytheirfiercenessandnumbers,andfromthefactoftheirhavingalreadyroutedaRomanarmy,spreadingterrorwherevertheycame.Forbeforefightingadecisivebattle,Mariusjudgeditnecessarytodosomethingtolessenthedreadinwhichtheseenemieswereheldbyhisarmy;andbeingaprudentcommander,he,onseveraloccasions,postedhismenatpointswheretheCimbriansmustpass,thatseeingandgrowingfamiliarwiththeirappearance,whilethemselvesinsafetyandwithintheshelteroftheirintrenchedcamp,andfindingthemtobeameredisorderlyrabble,encumberedwithbaggage,andeitherwithoutweapons,orwithnonethatwereformidable,theymightatlastassumecourageandgroweagertoengagetheminbattle.ThepartthusprudentlytakenbyMarius,shouldbecarefullyimitatedbyotherswhowouldescapethedangersabovespokenofandnothavetobetakethemselvesliketheGaulstoadisgracefulflight,onsustainingsometriflingdefeat.

ButsinceinthisDiscourseIhavereferredbynametoValeriusCorvinus,inmynextChapterIshallcitehiswordstoshowwhatmannerofmanacaptainoughttobe.

CHAPTERXXXVIII

OftheQualitiesofaCaptaininWhomHisSoldiersCanConfide.

ValeriusCorvinus,asIhavesaidalready,wassentincommandofanarmyagainsttheSamnites,whowerethennewenemiestoRome.Wherefore,toreassurehissoldiersandfamiliarizethemwiththeiradversaries,hemadethemengagewiththeminvariousunimportantpassagesofarms.Butnotthinkingthisenough,heresolvedbeforedeliveringbattletoaddresshismen,andbyremindingthemoftheirvalourandhisown,tomakeitplainhowlittletheyshouldesteemsuchenemies.AndfromthewordswhichTitusLiviusputsinhismouthwemaygatherwhatmannerofmanthecaptainoughttobeinwhomanarmywillputitstrust.Forhemakeshimsay:—”Bearyealsothisinmindunderwhoseconductandauspicesyouareabouttofight,andwhetherhewhomyouaretoobeybegreatonlyinexhorting,boldonlyinwords,andallunpractisedinarms;orwhetherhebeonewhohimselfknowshowtousehisspear,tomarchbeforetheeagles,andplayhispartinthethickestofthefight.Soldiers!Iwouldhaveyoufollowmydeedsandnotmywords,andlooktomeforexampleratherthanforcommands;forwiththisrighthandIhavewonformyselfthreeconsulships,andanunsurpassedrenown.”Whichwordsrightlyunderstoodgiveeveryonetoknowwhathemustdotomeritacaptain’srank.Andifanymanobtainitbyothermeans,hewillsoondiscoverthatadvancementduetochanceorintriguerathertakesawaythanbringsreputation,sinceitismenwhogivelustretotitlesandnottitlestomen.

Fromwhathasbeensaiditwilllikewisebeunderstoodthatifgreatcaptainswhenmatchedagainstanunfamiliarfoehavehadtoresorttounusualmethodsforreassuringthemindsevenofveteransoldiers,muchmorewillitbenecessaryforthemtousealltheiraddresswhenincommandofarawanduntriedarmywhichhasneverbeforelookedanenemyintheface.Forifanunfamiliaradversaryinspireterroreveninaveteranarmy,howmuchgreatermustbetheterrorwhichanyarmywillinspireinthemindsofuntrainedmen.AndyetweoftenfindallthesedifficultiesovercomebythesupremeprudenceofagreatcaptainliketheRomanGracchusortheThebanEpaminondas,ofwhomIhavebeforespoken,whowithuntriedtroopsdefeatedthemostpractisedveterans.Andthemethodtheyaresaidtohavefollowedwastotraintheirmenforsomemonthsinmimicwarfare,soastoaccustomthemtodisciplineandobedience,afterwhichtheyemployedthemwithcompleteconfidenceonactualservice.

Noman,therefore,ofwarlikegenius,needdespairofcreatingagoodarmyifonlyhehavethemen;fortheprincewhohasmanysubjectsandyetlackssoldiers,hasonlytothankhisowninertnessandwantofforesight,andmustnotcomplainofthecowardiceofhispeople.

CHAPTERXXXIX

ThataCaptainShouldHaveGoodKnowledgeofPlaces.

Amongotherqualificationsessentialinagoodcaptainisaknowledge,bothgeneralandparticular,ofplacesandcountries,forwithoutsuchknowledgeitisimpossibleforhimtocarryoutanyenterpriseinthebestway.Andwhilepracticeisneededforperfectionineveryart,inthisitisneededinthehighestdegree.Suchpractice,orparticularknowledgeasitmaybetermed,issooneracquiredinthechasethaninanyotherexercise;and,accordingly,wefinditsaidbyancienthistoriansthatthoseheroeswho,intheirday,ruledtheworld,werebredinthewoodsandtrainedtothechase;forthisexercisenotmerelygivestheknowledgeIspeakof,butteachescountlessotherlessonsneedfulinwar.AndXenophoninhislifeofCyrustellsus,thatCyrus,onhisexpeditionagainsttheKingofArmenia,whenassigningtoeachofhisfollowerstheparthewastoperform,remindedthemthattheenterpriseonwhichtheywereengaged,differedlittlefromoneofthosehuntingexpeditionsonwhichtheyhadgonesoofteninhiscompany;likeningthosewhoweretolieinambushinthemountains,tothemensenttospreadthetoilsonthehill–tops;andthosewhoweretooverruntheplain,tothebeaterswhosebusinessitistostartthegamefromitslairthatitmaybedrivenintothetoils.Now,thisisrelatedtoshowhow,intheopinionofXenophon,thechaseisamimicrepresentationofwar,andthereforetobeesteemedbythegreatasusefulandhonourable.

NorcanthatknowledgeofcountrieswhichIhavespokenofasnecessaryinacommander,beobtainedinanyconvenientwayexceptbythechase.Forhewhojoinsthereingainsaspecialacquaintancewiththecharacterofthecountryinwhichitisfollowed;andhewhohasmadehimselfspeciallyfamiliarwithonedistrict,willafterwardsreadilyunderstandthecharacterofanystrangecountryintowhichhecomes.Forallcountries,andthedistrictsofwhichtheyaremadeup,haveacertainresemblancetooneanother,sothatfromaknowledgeofonewecanpasseasilytotheknowledgeofanother.Hethereforewhoiswithoutsuchpracticalacquaintancewithsomeonecountry,canonlywithdifficulty,andafteralongtime,obtainaknowledgeofanother,whilehewhopossessesitcantakeinataglancehowthisplainspreads,howthatmountainslopes,whitherthatvalleywinds,andallotherlikeparticularsinrespectofwhichhehasalreadyacquiredacertainfamiliarity.

ThetruthofwhatIaffirmisshownbyTitusLiviusinthecaseofPubliusDecius,who,beingmilitarytribuneinthearmywhichtheconsulCorneliusledagainsttheSamnites,whentheconsuladvancedintoadefilewheretheRomanarmywereliketobeshutinbytheenemy,perceivingthegreatdangertheyran,andnoting,asLiviusrelates,ahillwhichrosebyasteepascentandoverhungtheenemy’scamp,andwhich,thoughhardofaccessforheavy–armedtroops,presentedlittledifficultytotroopslightlyarmed,turnedtotheconsulandsaid:—”Seestthou,AulusCornelius,yonderheightoverabovetheenemy,whichtheyhavebeenblindenoughtoneglect?There,werewemanfullytoseizeit,mightwefindthecitadelofourhopesandofoursafety.”Whereupon,hewassentbytheconsulwiththreethousandmentosecuretheheight,andsosavedtheRomanarmy.Andasitwaspartofhisplantomakehisownescapeandcarryoffhismensafelyundershelterofnight,

Liviusrepresentshimassayingtohissoldiers:—”Comewithme,that,whiledaylightstillserves,wemaylearnwheretheenemyhavepostedtheirguards,andbywhatexitwemayissuehence.”Accordingly,puttingonthecloakofacommonsoldier,lesttheenemyshouldobservethatanofficerwasmakinghisroundshesurveyedtheircampinalldirections.

Nowanyonewhocarefullystudiesthewholeofthispassage,mustperceivehowusefulandnecessaryitisforacaptaintoknowthenatureofplaces,whichknowledgehadDeciusnotpossessedhecouldnothavedecidedthatitwouldbefortheadvantageoftheRomanarmytooccupythishill;norcouldhehavejudgedfromadistancewhetherthehillwasaccessibleorno;andwhenhereachedthesummitanddesiredtoreturntotheconsul,sincehewassurroundedonallsidesbytheenemy,henevercouldhavedistinguishedthepathitwassafeforhimtotake,fromthoseguardedbythefoe.ForallwhichreasonsitwasabsolutelyessentialthatDeciusshouldhavethatthoroughknowledgewhichenabledhimbygainingpossessionofthishilltosavetheRomanarmy,andtodiscoverapathwhereby,intheeventofhisbeingattacked,heandhisfollowersmightescape.

CHAPTERXL

ThatFraudisFairinWar.

Althoughinallotheraffairsitbehatefultousefraud,intheoperationsofwaritispraiseworthyandglorious;sothathewhogetsthebetterofhisenemybyfraud,isasmuchextolledashewhoprevailsbyforce.Thisappearsinthejudgmentspassedbysuchashavewrittenofthelivesofgreatwarriors,whopraiseHannibalandthoseothercaptainswhohavebeenmostnotedforactinginthisway.Butsincewemayreadofmanyinstancesofsuchfrauds,Ishallnotcitethemhere.This,however,Idesiretosay,thatIwouldnothaveitunderstoodthatanyfraudisgloriouswhichleadsyoutobreakyourplightedword,ortodepartfromcovenantstowhichyouhaveagreed;forthoughtodosomaysometimesgainyouterritoryandpower,itcannever,asIhavesaidelsewhere,gainyouglory.

Thefraud,then,whichIherespeakofisthatemployedagainstanenemywhoplacesnotrustinyou,andiswhollydirectedtomilitaryoperations,suchasthestratagemofHannibalattheLakeofThrasymene,whenhefeignedflightinordertodrawtheRomanconsulandhisarmyintoanambuscade;orwhentoescapefromthehandsofFabiusMaximushefastenedlightstothehornsofhisoxen.SimilartotheabovewasthedeceitpractisedbyPontiustheSamnitecommandertoinveigletheRomanarmyintotheCaudineForks.Forafterhehaddrawnuphisforcesbehindthehills,hesentoutanumberofhissoldiers,disguisedasherdsmen,todrivegreatherdsofcattleacrosstheplain;whobeingcapturedbytheRomans,andinterrogatedastowheretheSamnitearmywas,allofthem,astheyhadbeentaughtbyPontius,agreedinsayingthatithadgonetobesiegeNocera:whichbeingbelievedbytheconsuls,ledthemtoadvancewithintheCaudineValley,wherenosoonerweretheycomethantheywerebesetbytheSamnites.AndthevictorythuswonbyafraudwouldhavebeenmostgloriousforPontiushadhebuttakentheadviceofhisfatherHerennius,whourgedthattheRomansshouldeitherbesetatlibertyunconditionally,orallbeputtodeath;butthatameancourse“whichneithergainsfriendsnorgetsridoffoes”shouldbeavoided.Andthiswassoundadvice,for,ashasalreadybeenshown,inaffairsofmomentameancourseisalwayshurtful.

CHAPTERXLI

ThatOurCountryistobeDefendedbyHonourorbyDishonour;andinEitherWayisWellDefended.

TheconsulstogetherwiththewholeRomanarmyfell,asIhaverelated,intothehandsoftheSamnites,whoimposedonthemthemostignominiousterms,insistingthattheyshouldbestrippedoftheirarms,andpassundertheyokebeforetheywereallowedtoreturntoRome.Theconsulsbeingastoundedbytheharshnessoftheseconditionsandthewholearmyoverwhelmedwithdismay,LuciusLentulus,theRomanlieutenant,stoodforwardandsaid,thatinhisopiniontheyoughttodeclinenocoursewherebytheircountrymightbesaved;andthatastheveryexistenceofRomedependedonthepreservationofherarmy,thatarmymustbesavedatanysacrifice,forwhetherthemeansbehonourableorignominious,alliswelldonethatisdoneforthedefenceofourcountry.Andhesaidthatwereherarmypreserved,Rome,incourseoftime,mightwipeoutthedisgrace;butifherarmyweredestroyed,howevergloriouslyitmightperish,Romeandherfreedomwouldperishwithit.Intheeventhiscounselwasfollowed.

Nowthisincidentdeservestobenotedandponderedoverbyeverycitizenwhoiscalledontoadvisehiscountry;forwhentheentiresafetyofourcountryisatstake,noconsiderationofwhatisjustorunjust,mercifulorcruel,praiseworthyorshameful,mustintervene.Onthecontrary,everyotherconsiderationbeingsetaside,thatcoursealonemustbetakenwhichpreservestheexistenceofthecountryandmaintainsitsliberty.AndthiscoursewefindfollowedbythepeopleofFrance,bothintheirwordsandintheiractions,withtheviewofsupportingthedignityoftheirkingandtheintegrityoftheirkingdom;forthereisnoremarktheylistentowithmoreimpatiencethanthatthisortheothercourseisdisgracefultotheking.Fortheirking,theysay,canincurnodisgracebyanyresolvehemaytake,whetheritturnoutwellorill;andwhetheritsucceedorfail,allmaintainthathehasactedasakingshould.

CHAPTERXLII

ThatPromisesMadeonCompulsionAreNottobeObserved.

When,afterbeingsubjectedtothisdisgrace,theconsulsreturnedtoRomewiththeirdisarmedlegions,SpuriusPosthumius,himselfoneoftheconsuls,wasthefirsttocontendinthesenatethatthetermsmadeintheCaudineValleywerenottobeobserved.ForhearguedthattheRomanpeoplewerenotboundbythem,thoughhehimselfdoubtlesswas,togetherwithalltheotherswhohadpromisedpeace;wherefore,ifthepeopledesiredtosetthemselvesfreefromeveryengagement,heandalltherestwhohadgiventhispromisemustbemadeoverasprisonersintothehandsoftheSamnites.Andsosteadfastlydidheholdtothisopinion,thatthesenatewerecontenttoadoptit,andsendinghimandtherestasprisonersbacktoSamnium,protestedtotheSamnitesthatthepeacewasnotbinding.AndsokindwasFortunetoPosthumiusonthisoccasion,thattheSamniteswouldnotkeephimasaprisoner,andthatonhisreturntoRome,notwithstandinghisdefeat,hewasheldinhigherhonourbytheRomansthanthevictoriousPontiusbyhiscountrymen.

Heretwopointsaretobenoted;first,thatglorymaybewonbyanyaction;foralthough,commonly,itfollowuponvictory,itmayalsofollowondefeat,ifthisdefeatbeseentohavehappenedthroughnofaultofyours,orif,directlyafter,youperformsomevaliantactionwhichcancelsit.Theotherpointtobenotedisthatthereisnodisgraceinnotobservingpromiseswrungfromyoubyforce;forpromisesthusextortedwhentheyaffectthepublicwelfarewillalwaysbebrokensosoonasthepressureunderwhichtheyweremadeiswithdrawn,andthat,too,withoutshameonthepartofhimwhobreaksthem;ofwhichwereadmanyinstancesinhistory,andfindthemconstantlyoccurringatthepresentday.Nay,asbetweenprinces,notonlyaresuchcompulsorypromisesbrokenwhentheforcewhichextortedthemisremoved,butallotherpromisesaswell,areinlikemannerdisregardedwhenthecauseswhichledtothemnolongeroperate.

Whetherthisisathingtobecommendedorno,andwhethersuchmethodsoughtoroughtnottobefollowedbyprinces,hasalreadybeenconsideredbymeinmy“TreatiseofthePrince”whereforeIsaynomoreonthatsubjecthere.

CHAPTERXLIII

ThatMenBornintheSameProvinceRetainThroughAllTimesNearlytheSameCharacter.

Thewisearewonttosay,andnotwithoutreasonoratrandom,thathewhowouldforecastwhatisabouttohappenshouldlooktowhathasbeen;sinceallhumanevents,whetherpresentortocome,havetheirexactcounterpartinthepast.Andthis,becausetheseeventsarebroughtaboutbymen,whosepassionsanddispositionsremaininginallagesthesamenaturallygiverisetothesameeffects;although,doubtless,theoperationofthesecausestakesahigherform,nowinoneprovince,andnowinanother,accordingtothecharacterofthetrainingwhereintheinhabitantsoftheseprovincesacquiretheirwayoflife.

Anotheraidtowardsjudgingofthefuturebythepast,istoobservehowthesamenationlongretainsthesamecustoms,remainingconstantlycovetousordeceitful,orsimilarlystampedbysomeoneviceorvirtue.AnyonereadingthepasthistoryofourcityofFlorence,andnotingwhathasrecentlybefallenit,willfindtheFrenchandGermannationsoverflowingwithavarice,pride,cruelty,andperfidy,allofwhichfourviceshaveatdiverstimeswroughtmuchharmtoourcity.Asaninstanceoftheirperfidy,everyoneknowshowoftenpaymentsofmoneyweremadetoCharlesVIII.ofFrance,inreturnforwhichheengagedtorestorethefortressesofPisa,yetneverdidrestorethem,manifestingtherebyhisbadfaithandgraspingavarice.Or,topassfromtheseveryrecentevents,allmayhaveheardofwhathappenedinthewarinwhichtheFlorentineswereinvolvedwiththeVisconti,dukesofMilan,whenFlorence,beingleftwithoutotherresource,resolvedtoinvitetheemperorintoItaly,thatshemightbeassistedbyhisnameandpowerinherstrugglewithLombardy.TheemperorpromisedtocomewithastrongarmytotakepartagainsttheViscontiandtoprotectFlorencefromthem,onconditionthattheFlorentinespaidhimahundredthousandducatsonhissettingout,andanotherhundredthousandonhisarrivalinItaly;towhichtermstheFlorentinesagreed.Butalthoughhethenreceivedpaymentofthefirstinstalmentand,afterwards,onreachingVerona,ofthesecond,heturnedbackfromtheexpeditionwithouteffectinganything,allegingashisexcusethathewasstoppedbycertainpersonswhohadfailedtofulfiltheirengagements.ButifFlorencehadnotbeenurgedbypassionorovercomebynecessity,orhadshereadofandunderstoodtheancientusagesofthebarbarians,shewouldneitheronthis,noronmanyotheroccasions,havebeendeceivedbythem,seeingthatthesenationshavealwaysbeenofthesamecharacter,andhavealways,inallcircumstances,andwithallmenalike,usedthesamemethods.ForinancienttimeswefindthembehavingafterthesamefashiontotheEtruscans,who,whenoverpoweredbytheRomans,bywhomtheyhadbeenrepeatedlyroutedandputtoflight,perceivingthattheycouldnotstandwithouthelp,enteredintoacompactwiththeGaulsdwellinginthepartsofItalysouthoftheAlps,topaythemacertainsumiftheywouldunitewiththeminacampaignagainsttheRomans.ButtheGauls,aftertakingtheirmoney,refusedtoarmontheirbehalf,allegingthattheyhadnotbeenpaidtomakewarontheenemiesoftheEtruscans,butonlytorefrainfrompillagingtheirlands.AndthusthepeopleofEtruria,throughtheavariceandperfidyoftheGauls,wereatoncedefraudedoftheirmoneyanddisappointedofthehelpwhichtheyhad

countedonobtaining.

FromwhichtwoinstancesoftheEtruscansinancienttimesandoftheFlorentinesinrecent,wemayseethatbarbaricraceshaveconstantlyfollowedthesamemethods,andmayeasilydrawourconclusionsastohowfarprincesshouldtrustthem.

CHAPTERXLIV

ThatWhereOrdinaryMethodsFail,HardihoodandDaringOftenSucceed.

WhenattackedbytheRomans,theSamnitesastheycouldnotwithouthelpstandagainsttheminthefield,resolvedtoleavegarrisonsinthetownsofSamnium,andtopasswiththeirmainarmyintoEtruria,thatcountrybeingthenattrucewithRome,andthusascertainwhethertheiractualpresenceinarmsmightnotmovetheEtruscanstorenewhostilitiesagainstRome,whichtheyhadrefusedtorenewwheninvitedthroughenvoys.Duringthenegotiationswhich,onthisoccasion,passedbetweenthetwonations,theSamnitesinexplainingthechiefcausesthatledthemtotakeuparms,usedthememorablewords—”theyhadrisenbecausepeaceisaheavierburthenforslavesthanwarforfreemen”Intheend,partlybytheirpersuasions,andpartlybythepresenceoftheirarmy,theyinducedtheEtruscanstojoinforceswiththem.

Herewearetonotethatwhenaprincewouldobtainsomethingfromanother,heought,iftheoccasionallow,toleavehimnotimetodeliberate,butshouldsocontrivethattheothermayseetheneedofresolvingatonce;ashewill,ifheperceivethatrefusalordelayincomplyingwithwhatisaskedofhim,willdrawuponhimasuddenanddangerousresentment.

ThismethodwehaveseenemployedwithgoodeffectinourowntimesbyPopeJuliusII.indealingwithFrance,andbyM.deFoix,thegeneraloftheFrenchking,indealingwiththeMarquisofMantua.ForPopeJuliusdesiringtoexpeltheBentivoglifromBologna,andthinkingthatforthispurposeheneededthehelpofFrenchtroops,andtohavetheVenetiansneutral,aftersoundingbothandreceivingfrombothhesitatingandambiguousanswers,determinedtomakebothfallinwithhisviews,bygivingthemnotimetoopposehim;andso,settingforthfromRomewithasstrongaforceashecouldgettogether,hemarchedonBologna,sendingwordtotheVenetiansthattheymuststandaloof,andtotheKingofFrancetosendhimtroops.Theresultwasthatinthebrieftimeallowedthem,neitherofthetwopowerscouldmakeuptheirmindtothwarthim;andknowingthatrefusalordelaywouldbeviolentlyresentedbythePope,theyyieldedtohisdemands,thekingsendinghimsoldiersandtheVenetiansmaintainingneutrality.

M.deFoix,again,beingwiththeking’sarmyinBolognawhenwordcamethatBresciahadrisen,couldnotresttillhehadrecoveredthattown.But,togettherehehadtochoosebetweentworoutes,onelongandcircuitousleadingthroughtheterritoriesoftheking,theothershortanddirect.Intakingthelatterroute,however,notonlywouldhehavetopassthroughthedominionsoftheMarquisofMantua,butalsotomakehiswayintothesethroughthelakesandmarsheswherewiththatcountryabounds,byfollowinganembankedroad,closedandguardedbythemarquiswithfortsandotherdefensiveworks.Resolving,nevertheless,totaketheshortestroadatallhazards,hewaitedtillhismenwerealreadyontheirmarchbeforesignifyingtothemarquisthathedesiredleavetopassthroughhiscountry,sothatnotimemightbelefthimtodeliberate.Takenabackbytheunexpecteddemand,themarquisgavetheleavesought,whichheneverwouldhavegivenhadDeFoixactedwithlessimpetuosity.ForhewasinleaguewiththeVenetiansandwith

thePope,andhadasoninthehandsofthelatter;allwhichcircumstanceswouldhaveaffordedhimfairpretextsforrefusal.Butcarriedawaybythesuddennessandurgencyofthedemand,heyielded.AndinlikemannertheEtruscansyieldedtotheinstancesoftheSamnites,thepresenceofwhosearmydecidedthemtorenewhostilitieswhichbeforetheyhaddeclinedtorenew.

CHAPTERXLV

WhetherinBattleItisBettertoAwaitandRepeltheEnemy’sAttack,ortoAnticipateItbyanImpetuousOnset.

DeciusandFabius,theRomanconsuls,wereeachofthemincommandofaseparatearmy,onedirectedagainsttheSamnites,theotheragainsttheEtruscans:andasbothdeliveredbattle,wehavetopronounce,inrespectofthetwoengagements,whichcommanderfollowedthebettermethod.Deciusattackedhisenemyatoncewiththeutmostfuryandwithhiswholestrength.Fabiuswascontent,atfirst,merelytomaintainhisground;forjudgingthatmorewastobegainedbyalaterattack,hereservedhisforcesforafinaleffort,whentheardouroftheenemyhadcooledandhisenergyspentitself.TheeventshowedFabiustobemoresuccessfulinhistacticsthanDecius,whobeingexhaustedbyhisfirstonset,andseeinghisranksbegintowaver,tosecurebydeaththegloryhecouldnolongerhopefromvictory,followedtheexamplesethimbyhisfather,andsacrificedhimselftosavetheRomanlegions.WordwhereofbeingbroughttoFabius,he,togain,whileheyetlived,asmuchhonourastheotherhadearnedbyhisdeath,pushedforwardallthetroopshehadreservedforhisfinaleffort,andsoobtainedanunexampledvictory.Whenceweseethatofthetwomethods,thatofFabiuswasthesaferandthemoredeservingourimitation.

CHAPTERXLVI

HowtheCharacteristicsofFamiliesCometobePerpetuated.

Mannersandinstitutionsdifferingindifferentcities,seemheretoproduceaharderandthereasofterrace;andalikedifferencemayalsobediscernedinthecharacterofdifferentfamiliesinthesamecity.Andwhilethisholdsgoodofallcities,wehavemanyinstancesofitinreadingthehistoryofRome.ForwefindtheManliialwayssternandstubborn;theValeriikindlyandcourteous;theClaudiihaughtyandambitious;andmanyfamiliesbesidessimilarlydistinguishedfromoneanotherbytheirpeculiarqualities.

Thesequalitieswecannotreferwhollytotheblood,forthatmustchangeasaresultofrepeatedintermarriages,butmustascriberathertothedifferenttrainingandeducationgivenindifferentfamilies.Formuchturnsonwhetherachildoftenderyearshearsathingwellorillspokenof,sincethismustneedsmakeanimpressiononhimwherebyhiswholeconductinafterlifewillbeinfluenced.WereitotherwiseweshouldnothavefoundthewholefamilyoftheClaudiimovedbythedesiresandstirredbythepassionswhichTitusLiviusnotesinmanyofthem,andmoreespeciallyinoneholdingtheofficeofcensor,who,whenhiscolleaguelaiddownhismagistracy,asthelawprescribed,attheendofeighteenmonths,wouldnotresign,maintainingthathewasentitledtoholdtheofficeforfiveyearsinaccordancewiththeoriginallawbywhichthecensorshipwasregulated.Andalthoughhisrefusalgaveoccasiontomuchcontroversy,andbredgreattumultanddisturbance,nomeanscouldbefoundtodeposehimfromhisoffice,whichhepersistedinretaininginoppositiontothewilloftheentirecommonsandamajorityofthesenate.AndanywhoshallreadthespeechmadeagainsthimbyPubliusSempronius,tribuneofthepeople,willfindthereinalltheClaudianinsolenceexposed,andwillrecognizethedocilityandgoodtempershownbythebodyofthecitizensinrespectingthelawsandinstitutionsoftheircountry.

CHAPTERXLVII

ThatLoveofHisCountryShouldLeadaGoodCitizentoForgetPrivateWrongs.

WhilecommandingasconsulagainsttheSamnites,Manliuswaswoundedinaskirmish.Hisarmybeingtherebyendangered,thesenatejudgeditexpedienttosendPapiriusCursorasdictatortosupplyhisplace.ButasitwasnecessarythatthedictatorshouldbenominatedbyFabius,theotherconsul,whowaswiththearmyinEtruria,andasadoubtwasfeltthathemightrefusetonominatePapirius,whowashisenemy,thesenatesenttwomessengerstoentreathimtolayasideprivateanimosity,andmakethenominationwhichthepublicinterestrequired.MovedbyloveofhiscountryFabiusdidashewasasked,althoughbyhissilence,andbymanyothersigns,hegaveittobeknownthatcompliancewasdistasteful.Fromhisconductatthisjunctureallwhowouldbethoughtgoodcitizensshouldtakeexample.

CHAPTERXLVIII

ThatonFindinganEnemyMakeWhatSeemsaGraveBlunder,WeShouldSuspectSomeFraudtoLurkBehind.

TheconsulhavinggonetoRometoperformcertainceremonialrites,andFulviusbeingleftinchargeoftheRomanarmyinEtruria,theEtruscans,toseewhethertheycouldnotcircumventthenewcommander,plantinganambushnotfarfromtheRomancamp,sentforwardsoldiersdisguisedasshepherdsdrivinglargeflocksofsheepsoastopassinsightoftheRomanarmy.Thesepretendedshepherdscomingclosetothewallofhiscamp,Fulvius,marvellingatwhatappearedtohimunaccountableaudacity,hituponadevicewherebytheartificeoftheEtruscanswasdetectedandtheirdesigndefeated.

Hereitseemspropertonotethatthecaptainofanarmyoughtnottobuildonwhatseemsamanifestblunderonthepartofanenemy;forasmenareunlikelytoactwithconspicuouswantofcaution,itwillcommonlybefoundthatthisblunderiscovertoafraud.Andyet,soblindedaremen’smindsbytheireagernessforvictory,thattheylookonlytowhatappearsonthesurface.

AfterdefeatingtheRomansontheAllia,theGauls,hasteningontoRome,foundthegatesofthecityleftopenandunguarded.Butfearingsomestratagem,andbeingunabletobelievethattheRomanscouldbesofoolishandcowardlyastoabandontheircity,theywaitedduringthewholeofthatdayandthefollowingnightoutsidethegates,withoutdaringtoenter.Intheyear1508,whentheFlorentinesAvereengagedinbesiegingPisa,AlfonsodelMutolo,acitizenofthattown,happeningtobetakenprisoner,wasreleasedonhispromisetoprocurethesurrendertotheFlorentinesofoneofthegatesofthecity.Afterwards,onpretenceofarrangingfortheexecutionofthissurrender,hecamerepeatedlytoconferwiththosewhomtheFlorentinecommissarieshaddeputedtotreatwithhim,comingnotsecretlybutopenly,andaccompaniedbyothercitizensofPisa,whomhecausedtostandasidewhileheconversedwiththeFlorentines.Fromallwhichcircumstanceshisduplicitymighthavebeensuspected,since,hadhemeanttodoashehadengaged,itwasmostunlikelythatheshouldbenegotiatingsoopenly.ButthedesiretorecoverpossessionofPisasoblindedtheFlorentinesthattheyallowedthemselvestobeconductedunderhisguidancetotheLuccaGate,where,throughhistreachery,buttotheirowndisgrace,theylostalargenumberoftheirmenandofficers.

CHAPTERXLIX

ThataCommonwealthtoPreserveItsFreedomHasConstantNeedofNewOrdinances.oftheServicesinRespectofWhichQuintiusFabiusReceived

theSurnameofMaximus.

Itmusthappen,asIhavealreadysaid,ineverygreatcity,thatdisordersneedingthecareofthephysiciancontinuallyspringup;andthegraverthesedisordersare,thegreaterwillbetheskillneededfortheirtreatment.Andifeverinanycity,mostassuredlyinRome,weseethesedisordersassumestrangeandunexpectedshapes.AswhenitappearedthatalltheRomanwiveshadconspiredtomurdertheirhusbands,manyofthembeingfoundtohaveactuallyadministeredpoison,andmanyotherstohavedrugsinreadinessforthepurpose.

OflikenaturewastheconspiracyoftheBacchanals,discoveredatthetimeoftheMacedonianwar,whereinmanythousands,bothmenandwomen,wereimplicated,andwhich,haditnotbeenfoundout,orhadtheRomansnotbeenaccustomedtodealwithlargebodiesofoffenders,musthaveprovedperilousfortheircity.And,indeed,ifthegreatnessoftheRomanRepublicwerenotdeclaredbycountlessothersigns,aswellasbythemannerinwhichitcauseditslawstobeobserved,itmightbeseeninthecharacterofthepunishmentswhichitinflictedagainstwrong–doers.Forinvindicatingjustice,itwouldnotscrupleorhesitatetoputawholelegiontodeath,todepopulateanentirecity,orsendeightortenthousandmenatatimeintobanishment,subjecttothemoststringentconditions,whichhadtobeobserved,notbyoneoftheseexilesonly,butbyall.AsinthecaseofthosesoldierswhofoughtunsuccessfullyatCannæ,whowerebanishedtoSicily,subjecttotheconditionthattheyshouldnotharbourintowns,andshouldalleatstanding.

Butthemostformidableofalltheirpunishmentswasthatwherebyonemanoutofeveryteninanentirearmywaschosenbylottobeputtodeath.Forcorrectingagreatbodyofmennomoreeffectualmeanscouldbedevised;because,whenamultitudehaveoffendedandtheringleadersarenotknown,allcannotbepunished,theirnumberbeingtoogreat;whiletopunishsomeonly,andleavetherestunpunished,wereunjusttothosepunishedandanencouragementtothosepassedovertooffendagain.Butwhereyouputtodeathatenthchosenbylot,whereallequallydeservedeath,hewhoispunishedwillblamehisunluckyfortune,whilehewhoescapeswillbeafraidthatanothertimethelotmaybehis,andforthatreasonwillbecarefulhowherepeatshisoffence.ThepoisonersandtheBacchanals,therefore,werepunishedastheircrimesdeserved.

Althoughdisordersliketheseoccasionmischievousresultsinacommonwealth,stilltheyarenotfatal,sincealmostalwaysthereistimetocorrectthem.ButnotimeisgiveninthecaseofdisordersintheStateitself,whichunlesstheybetreatedbysomewisecitizen,willalwaysbringacitytodestruction.FromthereadinesswherewiththeRomansconferredtherightofcitizenshiponforeigners,therecametobesomanynewcitizensinRome,andpossessedofsolargeashareofthesuffrage,thatthegovernmentitselfbegantoalter,forsakingthosecourseswhichitwasaccustomedtofollow,andgrowingestrangedfromthementowhomithadbeforelookedforguidance.WhichbeingobservedbyQuintius

Fabiuswhencensor,hecausedallthosenewcitizenstobeclassedinfourTribes,thatbeingreducedwithinthisnarrowlimittheymightnothaveitintheirpowertocorrupttheentireState.Andthiswasawiselycontrivedmeasure,for,withoutintroducinganyviolentchange,itsuppliedaconvenientremedy,andonesoacceptabletotherepublicastogainforFabiusthewell–deservednameofMaximus.

THEEND.